Psychology Test Two Guide

7/31/2019 Psychology Test Two Guide

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Brain and Nervous System!

Good Luck!!!


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Gross Organization of the Nervous System:The organ system responsible for producing, controlling, and guidingour acts, thoughts and responses.


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Peripheral:he most available division of the nervous system to the earlynatomists for examination is the peripheral nervous system

PNS).If nerve tissue is not encased in bone (skull, spinal column), its part of the PNS.


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Afferent Nerves:Afferent: direction of the impulses it transmits go toward the nervoussystem from the body's muscles and skin.

Therefore, afferent nerves conduct sensory information towards thenervous system. ex: touch cup and the nerve

impulse goes into your body


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fferent Nervesiber sends impulses away from the

ervous system in the direction of theody's muscles.he efferent fibers generateovements of the skeleton and hence

re motor nerve fibers since their

ctivation causes the locomotion ofur limbs, torso and facial features.

ex: the nerve going from yourbrain to your hand to move yourhand to touch the cup.


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Autonomic(Involuntary) used to be called the involuntary

nervous system. responsible for sensory and motor

functions outside of our voluntarycontrolo ex.) internal organs and glands,

smooth muscles in ourgastrointestinal tract and bloodvessels and the smoothmuscles attached to our skin.

subdivisions, the sympathetic and

parasympathetic


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a. Sympathetic (Fight or Flight) Prepares us for the expenditure of energy Ex: cause rises in blood flow to the skeletalmuscles, an increases in heart rate, bloodpressure and respiration rate and a

reduction in blood flow to tissues on thebody surface (i.e., skin) and thegastrointestinal tract and a slowing ofintestinal movement


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b. Parasympathetic (Rest & Recuperation) Stores energy and restores restoration of bodyand rest Most active during digestion Ex: causes a rise in blood flow to thegastrointestinal tract and stimulating digestive

activity and decreases in heart rate, bloodpressure and respiration rate


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B. Central those that are encased in bone for protection, namely the brain and spinalcord Inside skull and spinal vertebrae are 3 membrane layers:o Dura matar: Hard mother, outsideo Arachnoid membrane: web-like cushiono Pia mater: inner, soft mother cushionTogether these are called meninges and protect from infection Brain and spinal cord float on a layer of liquid called cerebrospinal fluid

held between meninges Blood vessels of the brain have a tight form of gap junctures called theblood brain barrier and regulate what goes from the circulatory system tothe CNS


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1. Spinal Cord MAIN FUNCTION: conduct nerve impulses from afferent (sensory)nerves to the brain and send efferent (motor) impulses to the PNS Sensory fibers enter spinal cord through its dorsal surface (back) andmotor fibers exit through ventral surface (towards stomach) spinal cord interneurons control reflex responses which are enactedwithout a command from the braino Ex: knee-jerk reflex Structurally, center of spinal cord has tube running thru it withcerebrospinal fluid called the central canal


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. Brainresponsible for guiding and controlling behaviorprocesses sensory information, stores information about past experiences

i.e., learning and memory), executes actions based on those processedensations and/or memories

Ventricles


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. Ventriclessystem of interconnected fluid-filled chambers in the brainstore and produce cerebrospinal fluidchoroid plexus (membranous structure rich in blood cells) floats inside theentricles, makes new CSF and recycles old CSF into bloodstreamcell loss disorders such as schizophrenia or Alzheimers disease can

aused enlarged ventricles (inside out shrinkage)

Hemispheres


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. HemispheresRight and left side of the brain connected by fiber pathwaysbiggest, most important= corpus callosum which allows two

emispheres to communicate

eft Hemisphere: analytical tasks, breaking down problems, and inanguage production and comprehensionight Hemisphere: emotional processing, math, music, and syntheticrocessing, i.e., perceiving "wholes" out of individual component elements

Sides work more exclusively in males


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. Hindbrainresponsible for functions not under voluntary control whichaintain both voluntary and involuntary movements


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a. Medulla Region of the brain that controls autonomic (involuntary)functions (startle, sleep, wake, heart rate, blood pressure,

respiration) through these centers that the actions of the sympatheticand parasympathetic nervous systems manipulate thesephysiological responses


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. Ponsinput and output fiber pathway connecting brain and cerebellumMotor commands from brain go through pons to spine


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. Cerebellumsmall part of brain containing half nerve cellsfine-tune the motor signalsdamage to cerebellum disrupts coordination,alance


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. MidbrainMore complex than hindbrain, still processes not under conscious controlcolliculi process visual and auditory informationsuperior colliculus controls involuntary eye movements and the targeting o

he eyesinferior colliculus processes auditory information, makes sounds innvironment relative to our position


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. ForebrainMost complex part of the brainallows the enormous flexibility in our behaviors androblem solving skills

. Hypothalamus


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yp Below thalamusSeat of emotional behaviorsFeeding, fighting, fleeing

Involved in our response to stressour emotions, memories, thoughts, and expectations cannfluence the function of the bodys endocrine hormonal controlver our psychological process.


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. Thalamussends sensory (taste, touch, hearing, vision, but NOT smell) to

he appropriate brain regions for further processingMetaphor: phone switchboard


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. Limbic Systemmoves motivations based on memory, planning, emotion, reinforcementnd attention to a decision to actAmygdala= helps an emotion attach significance to raw data making itasier to remember later. It also makes emotional response because ofrevious information (rattlesnake)


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d. Cerebrum/Cortex Biggest hunk of forebrain Cortex is the visible part of brain and is most extensive and complex sensory processing highly folded with ridges called gyri and grooves called sulci who created greater surface area ofthe brain b/c of limited space 4 Lobes:o occipital lobe: processes visual info; in the back of the brain o parietal lobe: soma-sensatory info-touch, heat, cold, paino temporal lobe: lateral (outside): auditory processing and spoken language medial (inner): memory functionso Frontal lobes: planning, foresight, understanding the consequences of actions and the selectionand initiation of motor movements- decide what to do based on experiences, smell=bottom of frontallobes


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II. Functional Organization of the Braincategorized into processing sensory information, generating motorovements and integrating information about both the internal state of the

rganism (for example, hunger, thirst or injury) and emotions and memoriesf past learning and experiences to guide the selection of an appropriateotor response to a given set of sensory stimuli.


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. Sensory SystemsExcept for olfaction (smell) sensory information goes to the thalamus (in

he forebrain)

. Motor System


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-The motor system begins in the frontal lobes. The premotor cortex andupplemental motor area are involved in the planning of voluntaryovements. Then the primary motor cortex projects to the basal ganglia

fine tuning, needs transmitter to function), which then projects to the

idbrain motor areas which then project to the cerebellum (movementade smooth) motor neurons or the spinal cord (movement is done)

-->Weighs options-->Commands sent here--sequences ofmotion planned out

----->Sloppy without basal ganglia

-------->Settles out primary (uses DA)-->Movement made smooth-->Goes out muscles


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x: Parkinson's disease- the basal ganglia (while intact) iseprived of a critical chemical messenger, dopamine.**Complicated motor tasks: a lot of muscles have to fire in theight sequence, when you do this successfully there is a

eedback loop (below). The loop gets stronger and stronger withractice

. Limbic SystemA bunch of structures involving temporal lobe hypothalamus and cerebral cortex


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A bunch of structures involving temporal lobe, hypothalamus, and cerebral cortexHypothalamic structures:Hippocampus- transferring information from our short-term memory to our long-term

onnected to the mammillary bodies:allow memories and expectations to be activated by our internal states such as hung

earAmygdala- adds emotional impact to events transferred into long term memoryCingulate cortex-Prefrontal cortex- planning memory and selecting behavior based on given situationimbic/Endocrine System InteractionsLimbic system can influenceypothalamic areas which directlyontrol the activity of the pituitary, whichs the master gland of the endocrineystemOur psychological state can influence

ur physical condition.

Ex: Man whose wife died got annfection on the inside of his heart

Ex2: Stress response stopped theirl's period

IV. Cells of the Nervous System


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IV. Cells of the Nervous System neurons may only comprise 10-50% of the cells found in a given area,most cells are gliaA. Glia Neurons need glia to function effectivelyHousekeeping (clean up/maintenance in the brain). Don't need pureglucose to function (like neurons do)


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. AstrocytesThey store energy (starch) for neurons in CNS and they create

car tissue at the site of injuries.do housekeeping for the neurons.


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. Microgliaimmune system for CNS

. Neurons- The info/signal processors. Highly specialized. Many dif sizes


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The info/signal processors. Highly specialized. Many dif sizesMain parts:DENDRITES: the input side of the neuron. Highly branched- looks like a

reeSOMA: cell body contains cells nucleus, organelles, and the metabolic

nd protein manufacturing machinery-main part, machineryAXON: output side, projects from the soma. The antenna or cable.TERMINAL BUTTON: the business end of the axon. Releases the

ransmitters used in neurons-to-neuron communication


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I. Neuronal PhysiologyNeurons devote most of their energy to generating and

aintaining a slight electrical charge imbalanceAlways running down and being recharged like a battery


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. The (Resting) Membrane Potential-70mV: due to protein anions and potassium*. The Ionspotassium (K+): 1 pos chargesodium (Na+): 1 pos chargeChloride (Cl-): anion = neg. chargeCalcium (Ca++): 2 pos chargesCations: positively charged ionsAnions: negatively charged ionsProtein anions are in inner cell surface and can never leave (-A) and are

he initial bait, K+ moves freelyreversal potential for potassium- point where equal amount pulling in and

ushing out= -70mV due to protein anions and potassium*


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. Pumps & ChannelsNa+ is smaller than Ca++, and therefore the pore of a Na+ is

maller than the pore of a Ca++ specific channelonly K+ has some channels that are always open and the restre normally pinched closed


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. The Action Potentialvery rapid rise away from the resting membrane potential and then the equally rapideversal back to the resting potentialNeurons firing = action potentialappears on the axon and travels down the axon to each and every terminal button of thexonWhen an action potential occurs voltage-dependent Na+ channels open briefly and Na+ushes in and the membrane potential rises until the electrical and diffusion forces on Na+ancel each other out (at about +55 millivolts) and the electrical force pushing Na+ out

atches the magnitude of the diffusion force pushing it in. At this point the Na+ channelslose. Some Ka+ channels are openOnce the Na+ channel close, K+ leaves the neuron (taking its positive charges with)through these additional open voltage-dependent K+ channels, as well as the otheronstantly open K+ channels.K+ leaving with its charge is what brings neuron to resting potential.Axon Hillock= gatekeeper, decides if the signal will get passed

This chain reaction opening of voltage-dependent channels is called active conduction.


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. Threshold: the level of simulation required to trigger a neural impulse

. Refractory periodshow fast can a neuron fire? The answer is 500-100 times per second, maximumrefractory period, the minimum time required for the neuron to prepare for firing anotherction potential.absolute refractory period is caused by the voltage-dependent Na+ channels which have

o physically and mechanically "reset" themselves after they close but before they can

eopen.absolute refractory period is about 1-2 milliseconds.During the absolute refractory period it is physically impossible for the neuron to firenother action potential; cannot be done.

. Refractory periodshe refractory period, the minimum time required for the neuron to prepare for firing another actionotential.


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ote t awo components: the absolute refractory period relative refractory period The absolute refractory period is caused by the voltage-dependent Na+ channels which have to

physically and mechanically "reset" themselves after they close but before they can reopen.When they open voltage-dependent Na+ channels stay open for about 1 millisecond and the"reset" process takes about 1-2 milliseconds. Hence, the absolute refractory period is about 1-2milliseconds. During the absolute refractory period it is physically impossible for theneuron to fire another action potential; cannot be done. The duration of the relativerefractory period varies but typically it lasts several milliseconds. The basis ofthe relativerefractory period lies in the movement of K+ throughthe constantly open and voltage-dependent

K+ channels in response tothe depolarization phase of the action potential. As K+ leaves the cell,repolarizing the neuron back towards the resting potential, moreK+ than is necessary torepolarize leaves the neuron due to all the additional open channels. This excess loss of K+results in hyperpolarization, the membrane potential becoming more negative than restingpotential, but the membrane quickly returns to resting. Unlike the absolute refractory period, theneuron can fire during the relative refractory period. However, since the neuron ishyperpolarized, slightly more negative than usual, the task of the incoming graded potential ismore difficult. The electrotonic potential must still reach the threshold potential despite the morenegative membrane potential. So, only unusually strong signals can trigger a second actionpotential during the relative refractory period.

c. SummationThis totaling of all the excitatory and inhibitory signals is called


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summation. Summation is a practical requirement for an actionpotential to be generated. However, there are two types ofsummation.

i. TemporalOne type of summation is temporal summation, in which oneterminal button at one synapse is firing repeatedly, over andover.The term temporal summation refers to the repeated rapid-fire

signals from a single synapse "summing up" in time.

ii. SpatialThe second type of summation is called spatial summation, whereindividual signals from separate synapses located at differentspatial locations across the neuron, occur close enough in time that

they converge and "add up" as they travel across the neuron


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B. The SynapseThe synapse is a structure where neuronalsignaling and communication occurs that includesparts of both the sending (presynaptic)andreceiving (postsynaptic) neurons. It is also thoughtthat some long-lasting psychological changes suchas learning, memory, habits, recovery from a braininjury and even addiction may reflect long-termchanges in the function of the synapses involved inthose functions. The structural integrity of thesynapse is partially maintained by proteins calledneuronal cell adhesion molecules (NCAMs), whichact like velcro and serve to anchor the terminalbutton to the dendrite.

1. The Terminal Button


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The terminal button is the tip of the axon, but itdoes have some unique properties that make itspecialized for communication.

entry of Ca++ into the terminalbutton is CRITICAL for therelease of chemical messengers(aka nerurotransmitters)


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2. The Synaptic CleftThe gap between the terminal button and thedendrite is incredibly small, only 20 to 50nanometers. That is smaller than the shortestvisible wavelength of light which is about400

nanometers. The neurotransmitter released fromthe terminal button only takes 1-2 milliseconds topassively diffuse across the gap/cleft where thetransmitter molecules make contact with receptorsfor them.


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3. The Postsynaptic DensityThe postsynaptic density is the dendritic part of thesynapse where the receptors for theneurotransmitters, as well as other structural andbiochemical machinery involved in generating aresponse to the transmitter, are located andanchored.

VII.Neurotransmitters


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There have been over one hundred compounds that have been identified or proposed asneurotransmitters. Transmitters must be synthesized, packaged and stored, released, activatea receptor and metabolized. The terminal button is the site of all these functions. The receptors

have specific binding sites on them that allow the transmitters to activate them. The action ofthe transmitters at their receptors depends primarily on the physical shape of the transmittermolecule and its chemical nature. With over a hundred transmitters, we will concern ourselveswith only a few of the most studied and most important ones. It is important to note that every drug that has a psychological effect, whether as a medicine ora drug of abuse, has that effect by somehow influencing the activity of a neurotransmitter

system that is already present in the brain. These drugs may influence the transmitter systemat any one of the following levels: synthesis, storage, vesicle release, receptor activation,enzymatic breakdown or reuptake. If the drug increases or facilitates the activity or effect of thetransmitter it is called an agonist. If the drug decreases, interferes with or blocks the activity ofthe transmitter, it is called an antagonist.

It is also important to note that if the drug successfully impersonates the transmitter at the

receptor and activates it, it is referred to as a direct agonist. In fact the transmitter itself may bereferred to as a direct agonist for its receptor. If the drug unsuccessfully impersonates thetransmitter at the receptor, attaching itself to it, but not activating it, it is then referred to as adirect antagonist.


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A.AcetylcholineAcetylcholine (ACh) is our lone transmitter

that relies on enzymatic degradation in thecleft to terminate its signal. ACh issynthesized from choline, which is typicallyused as a component of the cell membrane,and the enzyme Acetyl-CoA. By an enzymecalled choline acetyltransferase (ChAT). It is

broken down by acetylcholinesterase(AChase). Most of the limbic system's andcerebral cortex's source of ACh comes froma group of structures called the cholinergicbasal forebrain (BF).The two mostprominent structures of the basal forebrain

are the septum and the nucleus basalis.ACh is involved in learning, memory,sleeping and waking and sensoryprocessing.


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B. The MonoaminesThe monoamines are grouped together becausethey share a lone amino group at one end of theirchemical structure. The monoamines are in turnclassified further into two groups, catecholamines

and indolamines based on their chemicalstructures at the other end of the molecules.


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1. Tyrosine-basedTyrosine is an amino acid found in the diet that isthe basic building block for the catecholamines.The term catecholamine denotes that the

compounds share a catechol as part of theirstructure (a benzene ring with two hydroxidegroups attached to it).


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a. Dopamine (DA)For the synthesis of dopamine, tyrosine is firstconverted to L-DOPA by a relatively slow-actingenzyme called tyrosine hydroxylase. Then the L-DOPA is converted to dopamine by an enzymecalled DOPA decarboxylase. There are two majorsources for the brain's supply of dopamine. One isthe substantianigra (SN; literally, the black

substance in Latin) which provides its dopamineexclusively to systems in charge of voluntarymovements. The other is the ventral tegmentalarea (VTA) which provides its dopamine to brainsystems involved in learning, memory, reward andcognition.


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b. Norepinephrine (NE)The brain's supply of norepinephrine, is producedby the locus ceruleus (LC; Latin for the blue spot).Norepinephrine cells first go through all the stepsof manufacturing DA and then dopamine-beta-hydroxylase converts dopamine intonorepinephrine. The LC, which is associated withthe reticular activating system, provides NE for theentire forebrain and this transmitter seems to beespecially important in memory, attention,emotional arousal and response to novelty.


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c. Epinephrine (E)There are very, very few epinephrine producingcells in the brain. The few cells that do are in thelower parts of the brain and produce epinephrine

from norepinephrine by way of the enzymephenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase.


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2. Tryptophan-basedTryptophan is another amino acid found in the dietthat is the basic building block for an indolamineneurotransmitter. The term indolamine denotes that

the compound has an indolering as part of itsstructure (a benzene ring with another five membernitrogen containing ring four attached to it).


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a. Serotonin (5HT)The majority of the brain's serotonin is producedand distributed throughout the entire forebrain bythe cells of the dorsal raphe nucleus, which is alsoassociated with the reticular activating system.Serotonin is among the most widely distributedtransmitters and has roles in learning, memory,attention, mood, aggression, appetite, sleeping and

waking, sensory processing, and arousal.Serotonin is often referred to as 5HT, for 5-hydroxytryptamine, serotonin's official chemicalname.


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C. The Amino AcidsAlong with serotonin, the most widely used and

important transmitters are the amino acidneurotransmitters.


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1. Glutamate (excitatory)Glutamate is the most common neurotransmitterin the brain and is the primary excitatorytransmitter in the brain. Glutamate is found in thediet but it can also be synthesized as a by-productfrom the Krebs citric acid cycle in the mitochondria.It is especially important in sensory processing andlearning and memory.


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2. GABA (inhibitory)GABA, gamma-aminobutyric acid, is far lesscommon than glutamate but it is the primaryinhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain. While thediet is not a primary source of GABA, it can besynthesized from glutamate. By virtue of its role in

quieting the activity of nerve cells, it plays a role inlearning, memory, sensory processing, sleep andwaking and relief from anxiety.

D Peptides


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D. PeptidesAs neurotransmitters, peptides are an exception tothe rule that transmitters are manufactured at theterminal button. All peptides, which are shortproteins,are made in the cell body and shipped invesicles out of the axon and to the terminalbuttons. There are several peptides used asneurotransmitters. Many of them, outside of thebrain, act as hormones. But within the brainbecause the blood-brain barrier prevents them

from exiting, the same peptide molecules serve asecond use as neurotransmitters. One example ischolecystokinin, which in the digestive system is ahormone which stimulates the pancreas and theliver, but in the brain is a neurotransmitter withroles in pain, memory, anxiety and coincidentally,hunger, as well.


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VIII.Neurotransmitter ReceptorsEvery neurotransmitter receptor is a complex

protein that spans the neurons membrane and hasan external and an internal facing side. Allreceptors have TWO separate binding sites for thetransmitter. These binding sites are depressions orpits in the receptor that can be thought of askeyholes in a door lock, and their shape is a matchfor the shape of the transmitter molecules. Whentwo molecules of the transmitter,or any other directagonist, attach to the receptor binding sitessimultaneously, the receptor is activated. There arehowever, two general classes of receptor foralmost each transmitter.

A. Ligand-Gated Ion Channels (Ionotropic)The ligand-gated ion channels are distant relatives


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The ligand gated ion channels are distant relativesof the voltage-dependent ion channels found onthe axon. The most obvious difference is that thevoltage-dependent channels had a mechanism for

sensing changes in electrical charge, while theligand-gated ion channels have receptor bindingsites that act as a mechanism for detecting thepresence of the transmitter. Other than that theyare tubes that are normally pinched closed until thebinding sites have been activated, and then theybriefly open and allow charged ions to enter for ashort time. It is the entrance of these ions thatcause the EPSPs and IPSPs frickin Salinas talkedabout earlier. These receptors are also calledionotropic since they allow ions to pass into theneurons.

. G-Protein Linked (Metabotropic)he second general class of receptor is the G-protein linked, also called metabotropic. The G-

t i li k d d t h t f th t It i b d t th b Withi th


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rotein linked does not have a pore as part of the receptor. It is bound to the membrane. Within thewo layers of the membrane are entities, separate from the receptor, called G-proteins


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Learning & Memory (Behavior)

2nd outline

I. Definitions


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A: Learning: a durable change in behavior orknowledge due to experienceB: Memory: The means by which past experiencesare drawn on to guide behavior or thoughts in the

present

I. Definitions


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present

I. Definitions


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present

II. Some Types of Learning


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yp g

A: Classical (Pavlovian) Conditioning (involuntary responses)-learns a predictive relationship between two external stimuli; the presentation ofthe first specific stimulus predicts the imminent following presentation of thesecond specific stimulusEx: Scientist rings a bell before bringing food to a dog repeatedly

1. Acquistion


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the initial learning of the predictive relationship between stimuli Increase in saliva= acquisition; learning that you can have the food Unconditioned stimulus (already known thru inborn instincts): food UCS presents an Unconditioned response (already generates a response on

its own): salivating Predictive stimulus is called a conditioned stimulusdog acquires predictive

relationship and elicits a conditioned response(expected opportunity to eatfood) before the UCS is presented

2. Extinction


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Decrease in saliva=extinction Ex: if the bell rings and no food comes saliva

stops Does not totally forget

If the same extinguished CS once again ispaired with the UCS, the association is re-learned even faster than it was initially

4. StimulusGeneralization/Discrimination


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Generalization/Discrimination

Stimulus generalization=false alarm; dog hearskeys & salivates

Stimulus Discrimination=animal can tell thedifference between the bell and similar sounds

5. Higher Order Conditioninga series of conditioned responses to a sucession of stimuli

are chained togetherEG. image of ball (HCS) predicts bell (new UCS & HCR fornew HCS) which predicts food (UCS) which cause

salivation(UCR)

3. Spontaneous Recovery


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Further evidence that extinction is not erasure orsimply forgetting

Ex: after the first day of extinction training, eachsuccessive day when the bell was presented

alone there'd be some small amount salivation tothe bell at the beginning of the session

Operant (Skinnerian) Conditioning(voluntary responses)


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(voluntary responses)

The individual is performing operation on theworld around it; that sets in motion some events;consequences influence behavior; the animal

triggers the things it will be conditioned to

Some consequences appetitive:pleasant;likelihood of behavior increases vs. aversive:behavior decreases

B. Operant (Skinnerian) Conditioning(voluntary responses) Examples


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(voluntary responses) Examples

1. Reinforcement vs.Omission/Punishment


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Omission/Punishment reinforcementincreases the likelihood of a response. Ex: positive reinforcement:Parent increases child cleaning their room by

giving them $ when a child cleans his room Ex: negative reinforcement:Parent spanks child until he starts cleaning room To decrease behavior like cursing, use punishment, aversive stimulus Not all punishment uses aversive stimulus; some use reward omission:

appetitive stimulus is taken away

2. Schedules of Reinforcement


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DEF: rules or patterns governing reinforcement determine the manipulation of either the number of responses(the ratio of responses) or the elapsed time since the lastrewarded response (the interval of responses)

fixed ratio(FR) : reinforcement after a fixed number of responseshave been made.

fixed interval(FI) : first response after one second Raising the price, press lever more times in order to get

reinforced; once he figures it out he has a response level; onceyou go to extinction there is a very quick termination of response

Because time delay is involved they do not get as angry or

frustrated

. u Graph


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III. Memory Processes (Big Picture)


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y ( g )

A. Encoding involves forming a memory code depth of processing :How well information is

stored and retrieved shallow processing :only physical structure of

stimulus Ex: Were words bold or italic? intermediate processing :What words sound like

Ex: do words rhyme? deep processing:complex Ex: can give definition Deeper the encoding, better the storage and

more cues for retrieval

Attention


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focuses mental resources on one element out ofsensory memory and brings it into workingmemory(also called short-term memory).

Helps you focus your resources on something in

particular.

3. Elaboration


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transfer into long-term memory (which can lastfor minutes to potentially for a lifetime) fromshort-term memory can be made easier byelaborative rehearsal

Ex: I might organize it by the first three digits being themathematically related (3 x 3 = 9) and because I've been a DallasCowboys fan since I was a small kid, I might organize the last fourdigits by the jersey numbers of two historic Dallas players, in thiscase Roger Staubach (# 12) and Tony Dorsett (#33). That would bea type of elaborative rehearsal. Therefore in retrieval, I would havethose bits of well-known information (my elementary schoolmultiplication tables and my childhood sports heroes) as retrievalcues to help me call up that phone number.

4. Imagery


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?

B. Storage


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Retaining of information Memory is moldable and can be strengthened orweakened during a process that occurs shortlyafter learning called consolidation

1. Sensory Memory


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Sensory memory is very high capacity and highlyaccurate, but it is very, very short lived, along thelines of one second.

Short term memory/working memory


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Working memory starts to decay noticeably after 30 seconds andlasts maximally about 3-5 minutes.

Maintenance rehearsal is the only way around this-recitesomething

5-9 chucks of info you can keep in your memory at any givenmoment (7+/-2)

Limited time, capacity To get from working memory to long term memory, you need

elaborative rehearsal, connect what someone is saying tosomething you already need, this also provides retrieval queue,

something to remind you of the new confusing memory

Long term Memory


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which can last for minutes to potentially for alifetime from short-term memory can be madeeasier by elaborative rehearsal

durability of the information in long-term memory

is determined by the consolidation process consolidation can be improved by two things,repetition and perceived importance or interest


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1. Flash Bulb Memories


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who cares

2.(Serial Position Effect) Primacy vs.Recency


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List of words is simply read or heard by asubject, and later experimenters ask for thesubject to recall as many of the words aspossible, what researchers report is that the first

word and the last word are the most commonlyand easily recalled, with words in the middle ofthe list most poorly recalled.

enhanced recall of the first word is called the

primacy effect enhanced recall of the last word in the list iscalled the recency effect

Greater recollective info with distributed practice

C. Retrieval


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memory must be accessed and brought back upto mind can be compromised by emotional distress

1. Reinstating Context(cues/reminders)


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In forgetting the retrieval of a given memory isimpaired by other, especially similar, memories.The information may be there waiting for astrong reminder or retrieval cue. But when

retrieved it may also be contaminated or blurredby those similar memories which might havebeen interferring with its recall.

2. Reconstruction (misinformationeffect)


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IV. Forgetting


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complex and not entirely well understoodprocess One theory is that the memory simply decays,

fades, is erased, or overwritten was not deemed critical and was weaklyconsolidated and allowed to fade A. Ineffective Encoding B. Decay C. Interference D. Retrieval Failure E. Motivated Forgetting

V. Learning & Memory (The Biology)


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Procedural memory system: actions, motorskills. You have to do them to learn them.Peripheral cortex and basal ganglia areimportant here

Declarative memory: FACTS things you can getverballyo Semantic memory: general knowledge of the

world that is undatedo Episodic memory: dated recollections of

personal experiences


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A. The Limbic System


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Temporal lobe: Hippocampus, Amygdala &Friends is going to serve declarative memory especially

episodic

episodic system learns fairly fast

B. The Frontal Cortex/Basal GangliaCircuit


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Learning to do motor skills, creates habitswithout involving limbic system, habit system isvery slow the two are independent

Loop the loop.

C. Long-Term Potentiation glutamate is key- primary excitatory thing in your

brain binds NMDA receptor MDMA can only be


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brain binds NMDA receptor MDMA can only be

activated with massive stimulation of synapse,depending on how strong or important synapseis, when this happens calcium comes in and ischanged on a permanent basis

Need NMDA for induction of LTP AMPA receptor is involved in expression of LTP Each time you induct LTP it gets easier and

easier

Can slow down addiction by blocking NMDAreceptors

Any stable long lasting change (addiction,memory, etc) is responsible by LTP

E. Memory Modulation amygdala adds emotional content to the

information that the hippocampus transfers tolong term memory and facilitates the transfer


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long-term memory and facilitates the transfer perceived importance, interest or emotional

arousal makes memory formation andconsolidation easier

Memory modulation occurs largely as theconsequence of a physiological and hormonalstress response to an event

hormonal responses and their consequences

serve to mobilize the body to deal with a crisis

Inverted U-curve: too little emotional arousal aswell as too much emotional arousal results inpoorer memory retention or consolidation

d t d t l l


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he key components of the stress response are, in humans, the steroid stress hormone cortisol, theatecholamine stress hormone epinephrine (also known as adrenaline) and the rise in bloodlucose triggered by epinephrine.


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1. A little Stress isn'talways a bad thing.Too much stressscrambles signals and

confuses them. Justrelax, read, and


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Good luck

thanks to whomever made this doc

Documents

Psychology Test Two Guide