1.3. Historical Background of psychology

•Psychology has a long past but a short history

Why a long past ?• Psychology has come a long way since the days of studying bumps

on skulls.• In the fifth and sixth centuries B.C., the Greeks began to study

human behavior and decided that people’s lives were dominated not so much by the gods as by their own minds: people were rational.

• These early philosophers attempted to interpret the world they observed around them in terms of human perceptions—objects were hot or cold, wet or dry, hard or soft—and these qualities influenced people’s experience of them.

• Although the Greek philosophers did not rely on systematic study, they did set the stage for the development of the sciences, including psychology, through their reliance on observation as a means of knowing their world.

Why a short history?

• As an independent discipline, psychology emerged in 1879 when Wundt established the first formal psychological laboratory in Leipzig University, Germany.

Fields contributed for the development of psychology

• Philosophy

• Physiology

• Medicine

• Physics

• Chemistry

Schools of Thought/ Perspectives in Psychology

1. Structuralism2. Functionalism3. Gestalt 4. Behaviorism5. Psychoanalysis6. Biological psychology7. Humanistic psychology8. Cognitive psychology9. Socio-cultural psychology

1. Structuralism

• Titchner and Wundt are important figures.

• structuralist: a psychologist who studied the basic elements that make up conscious mental experiences.

• introspection: a method of self-observation in which participants report their thoughts and feelings

2. Functionalism

• William James is a major figure in Functional psychology

• functionalist: a psychologist who studied the function (rather than the structure) of consciousness

• Functionalists study how animals and people adapt to their environments.

• They use multiple methods.

3.Gestalt Psychology

• A group of German psychologists, including Max Wertheimer (1880–1943), Wolfgang Köhler (1887–1967), and Kurt Koffka (1886–1941), disagreed with the principles of structuralism and behaviorism.

• They argued that perception is more than the sum of its parts—it involves a “whole pattern” or, in German, a Gestalt.

• For example, when people look at a chair, they recognize the chair as a whole rather than noticing its legs, its seat, and its other components.

Max Wertheimer

Kurt Koffka

Wolfgang Köhler

4. Psychoanalytic Psychology

• Sigmund Freud is the founder of this perspective.

• psychoanalyst: a psychologist who studies how unconscious motives and conflicts determine human behavior.

• The method used in this perspective is case study method.

5. Behavioral Psychology

• behaviorist: a psychologist who analyzes how organisms learn or modify their behavior based on their response to events in the environment.

• Known behaviorists: Watson, Pavlov and Skinner.

• Focus on the study of observable behavior

• They are interested in studying animals

• Methods: Experimentation

6. Biological psychology

• This viewpoint emphasizes the impact of biology on our behavior.

• Psychobiologists study how the brain, the nervous system, hormones, and genetics influence our behavior.

Karl S. Lashley

Donald O. Hebb

7. Humanistic Psychology

• humanist: a psychologist who believes that each person has freedom in directing his or her future and achieving personal growth

Abraham Maslow

8. Cognitive psychology

• cognitivist: a psychologist who studies how we process, store, retrieve, and use information and how cognitive processes influence our behavior

George A. Miller

9. Sociocultural Psychology

• The newest approach to psychology involves studying the influence of cultural and ethnic similarities and differences on behavior and social functioning.

1.4. Branches of Psychology

• Clinical Psychology

• Counseling Psychology

• Cognitive Psychology

• Community Psychology

• Cross-Cultural Psychology

• Developmental Psychology

• Educational Psychology

• Environmental Psychology

• Forensic Psychology

• Health Psychology

• Industrial/ Organizational Psychology

• Physiological Psychology

• Psychopharmacology

• Personality Psychology

• Social Psychology

• Sport Psychology

1. Clinical Psychology

• Clinical psychologists are interested in psychopathology —the scientific study of psychological disorders and the development of diagnostic categories and treatments for those disorders.

• Clinical Psychology studies diagnosis, causes, and treatment of mental disorders.

• Clinical Psychology focuses on the causes and treatment of psychological disorders and adjustment problems such as depression and phobias.

Clinical Interview

2. Counseling psychology • Counseling psychologists sometimes work with

people to help solve practical problems in life.• Assists individuals in dealing with many personal

problems that do not involve psychological disorders

• Counseling psychology focuses primarily on educational, social, and career adjustment problems.

• For example, counseling psychologists may work with students, advising them about personal problems and career planning.

• Counseling psychologists help people to cope with challenges and crises (including academic, vocational, and marital issues) and to improve their personal and social functioning.

3. Cognitive Psychology• Cognitive psychology is the broad name given

to the field of psychology that examines attention, consciousness, information processing, and memory.

• Cognitive psychologists are also interested in skills and abilities such as problem solving, decision making, expertise, and intelligence.

4. Community Psychology • Community psychology concentrates on

improving the quality of relationships among individuals, their community, and society at large.

• Community psychologists are practitioner scientists who provide accessible care for people with psychological problems.

• Community-based mental health centers are one means of delivering services such as outreach programs to people in need, especially those who traditionally have been underserved by mental health professionals.

5. Cross-Cultural Psychology • Cross-cultural psychology is the study of

culture’s role in understanding behavior, thought, and emotion.

• Cross-cultural psychologists compare the nature of psychological processes in different cultures with a special interest in whether psychological phenomena are universal or culture-specific.

6. Developmental Psychology• Developmental psychology is concerned with how

people become who they are, from conception to death.

• Developmental psychologists concentrate on the biological and environmental factors that contribute to human development.

• Studies how people change physically, cognitively, and socially over the entire life span.

• Developmental psychology studies age-related changes across the life span.

7. Educational and School Psychology

• School and educational psychology centrally concerns children’s learning and adjustment in school.

• School psychologists in elementary and secondary school systems test children, make recommendations about educational placement, and collaborate on educational planning teams.

• Educational psychologists work at colleges and universities, teach classes, and do research on teaching and learning.

• Educational psychology is concerned with teaching and learning process such as the relationship between motivation and school performance.

8. Environmental Psychology• Environmental psychology is the study of the

interactions between people and their physical environment.

• Topics that an environmental psychologist might study range from how different building and room arrangements influence behavior to what strategies might be used to reduce human behavior that harms the environment.

9. Forensic Psychology • Forensic psychology is the field of psychology

that applies psychological concepts to the legal system .

• Forensic psychologists with clinical training may testify as experts in trials, such as when they are asked to evaluate whether a person is likely to be a danger to society.

10. Health Psychology• Health psychology emphasizes psychological factors,

lifestyle, and the nature of the healthcare delivery system.

• Many health psychologists study the roles of stress and coping in people’s lives.

• Health psychology focuses on the study of lifestyle and physical health, the identification of psychological causes and correlates of health and illness, psychological aspects of health promotion and the prevention and treatment of illness

• It explores the relationship b/n psychological factors and physical ailments or disease,

11.Industrial and Organizational (I/O) Psychology

• Industrial and organizational psychology (I/O psychology) centers on the workplace—both the workers and the organizations that employ them.

• Studies all aspects of behavior in work settings

12. Medical Psychology

• Medical psychology is the application of psychological principles to the practice of medicine for both physical and mental disorders. The American Psychological Association (APA) defines medical psychology as "that branch of psychology that integrates somatic and psychotherapeutic modalities into the management of mental illness and emotional, cognitive, behavioral and substance use disorders".

• Medical psychologists apply psychological theories, scientific psychological findings, and techniques of psychotherapy, behavior modification, cognitive, interpersonal, family, and life-style therapy to improve the psychological and physical health of the patient.

• Clinical psychologists with post doctoral specialty training as medical psychologists are the practitioners with refined skills in clinical observation in of the field of psychology, learning, central nervous system adaptation and change, and adaptation and lifestyle change applying a number of different methods in several different mediums of treatment.

13. Personality Psychology

• Personality psychology studies personality, consisting of the relatively enduring characteristics of individuals.

• Personality psychologists study such topics as traits, goals, motives, genetics, personality development, and well-being .

• Researchers in personality psychology are interested in those aspects of your psychological makeup that make you uniquely you.

14. Physiological Psychology

• physiological psychology investigates the association between the brain and behaviour

15. Psychopharmacology

• Psychopharmacology is the scientific study of the actions of drugs and their effects on mood, sensation, thinking, and behavior.

• The field of psychopharmacology studies a wide range of substances with various types of psychoactive properties, focusing primarily on the chemical interactions with the brain.

16. Social Psychology

• Social psychology deals with people’s interactions with one another, relationships, social perceptions, social cognition, and attitudes .

• Social psychologists are interested in the influence of groups on individuals’ thinking and behavior and in the ways that the groups to which we belong influence our attitudes.

• Studies all aspects of social behavior and social thought—how we think about and interact with others

17.Sport Psychology

• Sport psychology applies psychology’s principles to improving sport performance and enjoying sport participation.

• It is now common to hear about elite athletes working with a sport psychologist to improve their game.

1.5. Research Methods in Psychology

• Psychological research enables us to find out more about human behaviour and the mental processes that underpin it.

Methods of psychological Research

1. Naturalistic Observation

2. Case Studies

3. Surveys

4. Correlations

5. Experiments

1. Naturalistic Observation

• naturalistic observation: research method in which the psychologist observes the subject in a natural setting without interfering

2. Case Studies

• case study: research method that involves an intensive investigation of one or more participants

3. Surveys

• survey: research method in which information is obtained by asking many individuals a fixed set of questions

4. Correlations

• correlation: the measure of a relationship between two variables or sets of data

5. Experiments

• Experimentation enables the investigator to control the situation and to decrease the possibility that unnoticed, outside variables will influence the results.

• Every experiment has a hypothesis, or an educated guess, about the expected outcome; the researcher has some evidence for suspecting a specific answer.

• In designing and reporting experiments, psychologists think in terms of variables, conditions and behaviors that are subject to change.

• There are two types of variables: independent and dependent.

• The independent variable is the one experimenters change or alter so they can observe its effects.

• If an effect is found, the dependent variable is the one that changes in relation to the independent variable.

• For example, the number of hours you study (the independent variable) affects your performance on an exam (the dependent variable).

• Participants who are exposed to the independent variable are in the experimental group.

• Participants who are treated the same way as the experimental group, except that they are not exposed to the independent variable, make up the control group .

• A control group is necessary in all experiments.

Chapter Two: Biological Foundations of Behaviors

2.1. The nervous system

2.2. Neurons

2.3. Structures of the brain and their functions

2.4. Genetics and Behaviour

2.5. Psychology’s biological foundations and health and wellness

2.1. The nervous system

• The nervous system is never at rest. There is always a job for it to do.

• Even when you are sleeping the nervous system is busy regulating your body functions.

• The nervous system controls your emotions, movements, thinking, and behavior.

Structurally, the nervous system is divided into two parts:

1. the central nervous system [CNS] (the brain and the spinal cord) and

2. the peripheral nervous system [PNS] (the smaller branches of nerves that reach the other parts of the body).

• The nerves of the peripheral system conduct information from the bodily organs to the central nervous system and take information back to the organs.

• spinal cord: nerves that run up and down the length of the back and transmit most messages between the body and brain

• peripheral nervous system (PNS): nerves branching out from the spinal cord

2.2. Neurons

• Neurons are the nerve cells that handle information processing.

• The human brain contains about 100 billion neurons.

• The average neuron is a complex structure with as many as 10,000 physical connectionswith other cells.

Basic Parts of a Neuron

Neurons have three basic parts:

• the cell body

• the dendrites, and

• the axon

• The cell body contains the nucleus and produces the energy needed to fuel neuron activity.

• The dendrites are short, thin fibers that stick out from the cell body.

• Dendrites receive impulses, or messages, from other neurons and send them to the cell body.

• The axon is a long fiber that carries the impulses away from the cell body toward the dendrites of the next neuron.

• A white, fatty substance called the myelin sheath insulates and protects the axon for some neurons.

• In cases of multiple sclerosis, the myelin sheath is destroyed, and as a result, the behavior of the person is erratic and uncoordinated.

• The myelin sheath also speeds the transmission of impulses.

Neuron

The Neuron Connection• There is a space between the axon terminals

of one neuron and the dendrites of another neuron.

• This space between neurons is called the synapse. The synapse is a junction or connection between the neurons.

• A neuron transmits its impulses or message to another neuron across the synapse by releasing chemicals called neurotransmitters.

• These neurotransmitters open chemical locks or excite the receptors.

• The neurotransmitters can excite the next neuron or stop it from transmitting (inhibition).

• The neurotransmitters are like the valves in a water system that allow flow in only one direction.

Types of neurotransimtters

1. Acetylcholine

2. GABA (gamma aminobutyric acid)

3. Glutamate

4. Norepinephrine

5. Dopamine

6. Serotonin

7. Endorphins

8. Oxytocin

1. Acetylcholine• Acetylcholine (ACh) usually stimulates the firing

of neurons and is involved in muscle action, learning, and memory.

• Individuals with Alzheimer disease, a degenerative brain disorder that involves a decline in memory, have an acetylcholine deficiency.

• Some of the drugs that alleviate Alzheimer symptoms do so by compensating for the loss of the brain’s supply of acetylcholine.

2. GABA• GABA is the major inhibitory neurotransmitter

in the brain.

• Abnormal levels of GABA have been implicated in sleep and eating disorders

• Low levels of GABA are linked with anxiety.

• Valium and other anti anxiety drugs increase GABA’s inhibiting effects.

3. Glutamate• Glutamate has a key role in exciting many neurons to

fire and is especially involved in learning and memory.

• Too much glutamate can over stimulate the brain and trigger migraine headaches or even seizures.

• Glutamate receptors have increasingly become the targets of drug treatment for a number of neurological and psychological disorders.

4. Norepinephrine• Norepinephrine (also called noradrenaline ) inhibits

the firing of neurons in the central nervous system.

• This neurotransmitter also helps to control alertness.

• Too little norepinephrine is associated with depression.

• Too much, triggers agitated states. For example, amphetamines and cocaine cause hyperactive, manic states of behavior by rapidly increasing brain levels of norepinephrine

5. Dopamine• Dopamine helps to control voluntary movement and

affects sleep, mood, attention, learning, and the ability to recognize opportunities for rewarding experiences in the environment.

• Stimulant drugs such as cocaine and amphetamines produce excitement, alertness, elevated mood, decreased fatigue, and sometimes increased motor activity mainly by activating dopamine receptors .

• Low levels of dopamine are associated with Parkinson disease, a degenerative neurological disorder in which a person develops jerky physical movements and has difficulty with speech and walking.

• High levels of dopamine and elevated numbers of dopamine receptors are associated with schizophrenia, a severe psychological disorder .

6. Serotonin• Serotonin is involved in the regulation of sleep,

mood, attention, and Learning .

• Lowered levels of serotonin are associated with depression.

• The antidepressant drug Prozac works by increasing brain levels of serotonin.

7. Endorphins• Endorphins are natural opiates—substances

that depress nervous system activity and eliminate pain—that mainly stimulate the firing of neurons.

• Endorphins shield the body from pain and elevate feelings of pleasure.

• A long-distance runner, a woman giving birth, and a person in shock after a car wreck all have elevated levels of endorphins.

8. Oxytocin• Oxytocin is a hormone and neurotransmitter that

plays an important role in the experience of love and social bonding.

• A powerful surge of oxytocin is released in mothers who have just given birth, and oxytocin is related to the onset of lactation (milk production) and breast feeding.

• It is also a factor in the experience of parents who find themselves “in love at first sight” with their newborn.

• Oxytocin is released as part of sexual orgasm andemotional attachment to romantic partners.

2.3. Structures of the brain and their functions

The brain is composed of three parts:

• the hindbrain

• the midbrain

• the forebrain

1. Hindbrain

• The hindbrain, located at the rear base of the skull, is involved in the most basic processes of life.

• The hindbrain includes the cerebellum, medulla, and the pons.

• The cerebellum, located behind the spinal cord, helps control posture, balance, and voluntary movements.

• The medulla controls breathing, heart rate, and a variety of reflexes.

• The pons functions as a bridge between the spinal cord and the brain.

• The pons is also involved in producing chemicals the body needs for sleep.

2. Midbrain

• The midbrain is a small part of the brain above the pons that integrates sensory information and relays it upward.

• The midbrain is the smallest region of the brain that acts as a sort of relay station for auditory and visual information.

• The midbrain controls many important functions such as the visual and auditory systems as well as eye movement.

• Portions of the midbrain called the red nucleus and the substantia nigra are involved in the control of body movement.

• The darkly pigmented substantia nigracontains a large number of dopamine-producing neurons are located.

• The degeneration of neurons in the substantianigra is associated with Parkinson’s disease.

3. Forebrain

The forebrain, covering the brain’s central core, includes the

• Thalamus

• Hypothalamus

• cerebral cortex

• Amygdala

• hippocampus

Thalamus

• The thalamus is a relay station for all the information that travels to and from the cortex.

• All sensory information with the exception of smell enters the thalamus.

• All information from the eyes, ears, and skin enters the thalamus and then is sent to the appropriate areas in the cortex.

Hypothalamus

• Just below the thalamus is the hypothalamus.

• It controls functions such as hunger, thirst, and sexual behavior.

• It also controls the body’s reactions to changes in temperature, so when we are warm, we begin to sweat, and when we are cold, we shiver.

Cerebral cortex and Cerebrum• The higher thinking processes—those that

make us unique—are housed in the forebrain.

• The outer layer of the forebrain consists of the cerebral cortex.

• The inner layer is the cerebrum.

• The cerebral cortex and cerebrum surround the hindbrain and brain stem like the way a mushroom surrounds its stem.

• The cerebral cortex gives you the ability to learn and store complex and abstract information, and to project your thinking into the future.

• Your cerebral cortex allows you to see, read, and understand this sentence.

• The cortex is the site of your conscious thinking processes.

Amygdala• The amygdala controls violent emotions such

as rage and fear.

hippocampus

• The hippocampus is important in the formation of memories.

• If the hippocampus is damaged, it would be difficult to form new memories.

The Lobes of the Brain• The cerebrum is really two hemispheres, or

two sides.

• The cerebral hemisphere is connected by a band of fibers called the corpus callosum.

• Each cerebral hemisphere has deep grooves, some of which mark regions, or lobes.

• The occipital lobe is where the visual signals are processed. Damage to this area can cause visual problems.

• The parietal lobe -Complex sensory information from the body is processed in the parietal lobe,

• The temporal lobe is concerned with hearing, memory, emotion, and speaking.

• The frontal lobe is concerned with organization, planning, and creative thinking.

Left and Right Hemispheres• There is much concern that information about

properties of the left and right hemispheres is misinterpreted.

• In reality, the left and right sides complement and help each other.

• The two hemispheres in the cortex are roughly mirror images of each other. (Each of the four lobes is present in both hemispheres.)

• The corpus callosum carries messages back and forth

• Each hemisphere is connected to one-half of the body in a crisscrossed fashion.

• The left hemisphere controls the movements of the right side of the body.

• For most people, the left side of the brain is where speech is located.

• The left side also is specialized for mathematical ability, calculation, and logic.

• The right hemisphere controls the left side of the body. (Thus a stroke that causes damage to the right hemisphere will result in numbness or paralysis on the left side of the body.)

• The right hemisphere is more adept at visual and spatial relations.

• The right side is better at recognizing patterns. Thus, music and art are better understood by the right hemisphere.

• Creativity and intuition are also found in the right hemisphere .

HOW PSYCHOLOGISTS STUDYTHE BRAIN

Among the methods psychologists use to explore the brain are:

• Recording

• Stimulating

• lesioning, and

• Imaging

1. Recording

• Electrodes are wires that can be inserted into the brain to record electrical activity in the brain.

• By inserting electrodes in the brain, it is possible to detect the minute electrical changes that occur when neurons fire.

• The wires are connected to electronic equipment that amplifies the tiny voltages produced by the firing neurons.

• The electrical activity of whole areas of the brain can be recorded with an electroencephalograph (EEG).

• Electroencephalograph (EEG): a machine used to record the electrical activity of large portions of the brain

• Wires from the EEG machine are attached to the scalp so that millions upon millions of neurons can be monitored at the same time .

• Psychologists have observed that the overall electrical activity of the brain rises and falls rhythmically and that the pattern of the rhythm depends on whether a person is awake, drowsy, or asleep .

• These rhythms, or brain waves, occur because the neurons in the brain tend to increase or decrease their amount of activity .

2. Stimulation

• Electrodes may be used to set off the firing of neurons as well as to record it.

• Brain surgeon Wilder Penfield stimulated the brains of his patients during surgery to determine what functions the various parts of the brain perform.

• In this way he could localize the malfunctioning part for which surgery was required, for example, for epilepsy.

• When Penfield applied a tiny electric current to points on the temporal lobe of the brain, he could trigger whole memory sequences.

• During surgery, one woman heard a familiar song so clearly that she thought a record was being played in the operating room.

• They have been used with terminal cancer patients to relieve them of intolerable pain without using drugs.

• A current delivered through electrodes implanted in certain areas of the brain may provide a sudden temporary relief.

3. Lesions• Scientists sometimes create lesions by cutting or

destroying part of an animal’s brain.• If the animal behaves differently after the

operation, they assume that the destroyed brain area is involved with that type of behavior.

• For example, in one classic lesion study, two researchers removed a certain area of the temporal lobe from rhesus monkeys.

• Normally, these animals are fearful, aggressive, and vicious, but after the operation, they became less fearful and at the same time less violent.

Accidents

• Psychologists can learn from the tragedies when some people suffer accidents.

• Psychologists try to draw a connection between the damaged parts of the brain and a person’s behavior.

• For example, damage to the frontal lobesprevents censoring of thoughts and ideas.

• Individuals fail to speak if the left side of the cortex, which is involved with the production of speech, is damaged.

Images

Today psychologists and medical researchers are using this and other sophisticated techniques, including CAT scans and MRI scans.

Computerized axial tomography (CAT)

Positron emission tomography (PET)

Magnetic resonance imaging, or MRI

1. Computerized axial tomography (CAT)

• CAT is an imaging technique used to study the brain to pinpoint injuries and brain deterioration.

• During a CAT scan, a moving ring passes X-ray beams around and through a subject’s head.

• Radiation is absorbed in different amounts depending on the density of the brain tissue.

• Computers measure the amount of radiation absorbed and transform this information into a three- dimensional view of the brain.

2. Positron emission tomography (PET)

• PET: an imaging technique used to see which brain areas are being activated while performing tasks.

• The PET scan can capture a picture of the brain as different parts are being used.

• It involves injecting a slightly radioactive solution into the blood and then measuring the amount of radiation absorbed by blood cells.

• Active neurons absorb more radioactive solution than nonactive ones.

• Researchers use the PET scan to see which areas are being activated while performing a task .

• PET scans show activity in different areas of the brain when a person is thinking, speaking, and looking at objects.

• The scan changes when one is talking and when one is looking at a piece of art.

• These pictures change as the activity changes.

magnetic resonance imaging, or MRI

• MRI: an imaging technique used to study brain structure and activity.

• MRI enables researchers to study both activity and brain structures.

• It combines the features of both CAT and PET scans.

• It involves passing nonharmful radio frequencies through the brain.

• A computer measures how these signals interact with brain cells and translates these signals into a detailed image of the brain.

• Researchers use MRIs to study the structure of the brain as well as to identify tumors or types of brain damage.

• Researchers use a new technique of imaging, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), to directly observe both the functions of different structures of the brain and which structures participate in specific functions.

• With this new method of imaging, researchers have confirmed their hypotheses concerning the functions of areas such as the visual cortex, the motor cortex, and Broca’s area of speech and language-related activities.

Genetics and Behavior

• Genes are the basic units of heredity.

• They are reproduced and passed along from parent to child.

• All the effects that genes have on behavior occur through their role in building and modifying the physical structures of the body.

• Those structures must interact with their environment to produce behavior.

• Psychologists at the University of Minnesota have been studying identical twins who were separated at birth and reared in different environments

• It has been found out that despite very different social, cultural, and economic backgrounds, the twins shared many common behaviors.

• For example, in one set of twins (both named Jim), both had done well in math and poorly in spelling while in school, both worked as deputy sheriffs, vacationed in Florida, gave identical names to their children and pets, bit their fingernails, had identical smoking and drinking patterns, and liked mechanical drawing and carpentry.

• These similarities and others suggest that heredity may contribute to behaviors that we normally associate with experience.

• Many researchers now believe that many of the differences among people can be explained by considering heredity as well as experience.

• Contrary to popular belief, the influence of genes on behavior does not mean that nothing can be done to change the behavior.

• Although it is true that it is difficult and may be undesirable to change the genetic code that may direct behavior, it is possible to alter the environment in which the genes operate.

Class Activity

Implications for health