Unit 3 Psychology

Child PsychologyContent

Bowlby and attachmentAll the unit

What we will need to know

• Describe and evaluate Bowlby’s theory of attachment, including the evolutionary basis of attachment.

• Bowlby was a psychoanalysis who initially followed the ideas of Freud, believing that an infant was strongly affected by the first few years of his or her life.

• He was looked after by a nanny, sent to boarding school and believed these experiences influenced his views on attachment theory.

Psychodynamic roots

• Bowlby studied medicine then psychoanalysis and then worked with maladjusted and delinquent children.

• Psychodynamic theory suggests that relationship problems stem from fantasies about relationships with parents.

• From this work Bowlby formulated that real relationships with parents could be the cause of later problems, meaning he moved away from his psychodynamic roots.

Quote from Bowlby

• “Mother love in infancy and childhood is as important for mental health as are vitamins and proteins for physical health.”

Bowlby, 1953

John Bowlby (1907-1990)

• Bowlby was commissioned by the WHO to study the children of post-war Europe as the aftermath of the war had separated many children from their parents.

• Some were evacuated for lengthy periods of time, some lost parents during the war, others were separated from their

mothers because of the need for

women to work in factories.

John Bowlby

• He interviewed and observed

children in hospitals and institutions to understand the impact of parent-child separation on children.

• His main finding was that a child’s mental health was dependent upon a warm and continuous loving bond between caregiver and child.

• Children separated from their parents suffered a broken attachment that caused depression and difficulty forming close relationships with others.

Evolutionary basis to attachment

• Bowlby’s considered many other theories in addition to psychodynamic ideas, including Konrad Lorenz’s (1952) ethological studies.

• Ethology is the study of animals in their natural setting.

Lorenz’s findings about imprinting

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2UIU9XH-mUI

Lorenz had noticed that animals such as ducks and geese, when hatched, followed the first moving object they saw, which was usually their mother. By following their mother, (called imprinting) they were more likely to survive.

Ethological studies like Lorenz (1952) showed how animals use imprinting as a survival mechanism. This suggested to Bowlby that at attachment process in humans had the same purpose and is important for an infant’s development.

Imprinting

• Bowlby thought that human infants must have a similar ‘attachment’ instinct that would ensure survival, he proposed an evolutionary basis of attachment.

• Any behaviour or characteristic that aids survival will mean an organism survives to reproduce its genes, so a behaviour or characteristic will be passed on through genes.

Evaluation of Lorenz’s findings

Strengths

• He used ethology and studied animals in their natural surroundings = ecological validity (not lab experiments)

• Later experiments replicated Lorenz’s findings e.g. a yellow rubber glove was the first moving object ducklings saw,

they imprinted onto the glove.

Evaluation of Lorenz’s findings

Weaknesses

• Animals are not the same as humans – there are differences such as the use of language and problem-solving abilities

• Only certain animals show imprinting – pre-social animals that can move as soon as they are born – so the findings might be specific to these sorts of animal, not humans or even other animals.

Evolution• Any behaviour that goes against survival means that an

organism will not survive to reproduce its genes and that behaviour will die out.

• This is SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST• Bowlby maintained that infants are biologically

programmed to form attachments.• Separation, insecurity or fear would trigger the instinct to

keep a baby close to its

mother and the mother too has an

instinct to form an attachment with

the baby.

The theory - Monotropy

• Bowlby emphasised the importance of the relationship between a child and a single primary caregiver.

• He believed that this attachment occurred instinctively and this led to changes in policy and practice in institutions.

• However, Bowlby later stated there was not much evidence at the time (and very little theory) from which to draw conclusions so he continued to work on his ideas.

The theory

• Bowlby thought that social, emotional and intellectual development would be adversely affected if the mother-child bond was broken in early life – this is the Maternal deprivation hypothesis.

• Bowlby believed such problems in adulthood are permanent and irreversible, meaning that once there are problems, nothing can be done about them.

Maternal deprivation

• Having an attachment broken through separation in the first two years of life.

• By ‘deprivation’ Bowlby means not having formed an attachment in the first place and having an attachment broken through separation.

• Bowlby has been criticised for not separating deprivation (having an attachment broken) from privation (not having formed an attachment at all)

Attachment features

• Safe havens – for when the child is afraid• Secure base – so the infant can explore• Separation anxiety – a useful survival

mechanism as it draws the attachment figure back to comfort the infant

Main features of Bowlby’s theory of attachment

A child has an innate need to form an attachment with one person. This special attachment to one person is called monotropy.

This strong relationship with one person should continue unbroken for the first two years of life is adverse effects are to be avoided.

The maternal deprivation hypothesis holds that a broken attachment (or lack of an attachment) leads to problems for the child with relationships on reaching adulthood.

Broken attachment leads to delinquency and affectionless psychopathy.

Attachment provides a safe haven for when the child is afraid and a secure base fro which to explore the world.

Separation distress/anxiety serves to draw the attachment figure back to the infant and is s survival mechanism.

Bowlby’s focus on loss

• Deprivation and separation from a main attachment figure us all about loss.

• The idea of loss in early childhood connecting to later emotional ill-health links back to the psychodynamic approach.

• Object relations theory – focuses on the way infants learn from their own relationships about how such relationships work, and from which they develop internal working models.

• Their later relationships are based on these.

Bowlby’s focus on loss

• Object relations theory – Melanie Klein – focuses on fantasy relationships as much

as real relationships but Bowlby focused on real relationships.

• He believed that infants build internal working models for relationships from their experience of attachments.

• Their internal working model would be about loss if they experienced a separation or lack of a warm, loving relationship that characterises a strong attachment.

• People use their internal working models when interacting with others in life.

Defining deprivation and separation

• Deprivation – refers to an infant having the attachment with its main caregiver broken, either for a short or a long time.

• Separation – refers to when an infant is no longer with its main caregiver for some reason, again either short-term or long-term.

• Therefore separation leads to deprivation.• There is also short-term separation, for

example when a parent goes into hospital.

Evidence for importance of attachments

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hsA5Sec6dAI

Harlow’s study of monkeys and attachments

• Harlow and his colleagues studies rhesus monkeys.• Harlow and Zimmerman (1959) infant monkeys who had been

removed from their mothers were the focus of the study.• One set of infants was allowed access to a towel-covered wire

‘monkey’ as well as a food-giving wire ‘monkey’.• Other monkeys could only access the food-giving wire ‘monkey’.• Those monkeys who could get comfort from the towel-covered

‘monkey’ did so, and at the end of the study were better adjusted physically and mentally.

• Harlow concluded that comfort was important for the developing monkey and not food alone that connects mother and infant.

• His research linked to the idea that attachment was part of the mother-infant relationship for monkeys.

• Bowlby used this as evidence that this was true for human children as well.

Harlow’s study of monkeys and attachments

Strengths• Harlow filmed the studies showing the monkeys rushed to the towel-covered ‘monkey’ when they were frightened or startled. There is validity to the findings – ‘real life’ situations were set up.

• Harlow used monkeys, which are close to humans in their genes (98%) so there is generalisation from infant monkeys to human babies,

to an extent.

Schaffer and Emerson (1964) found that young children formed multiple attachments rather than one single attachment. Baby = mother, father, sisters, grandparents and others This is evidence that attachment is not just about who feeds the child. Harlow also found that monkeys attached to a ‘mother’ who did not feed them, so Schaffer and Emerson’s findings support Harlow’s findings.

Harlow’s study of monkeys and attachments

Weaknesses• Animals are not the same as humans –

generalising monkey behaviour to humans might not be legitimate.

• Ethically, Harlow’s work has been questioned, as the monkeys were often frightened. Other studies have looked at whether monkeys without an early attachment figure make good mothers themselves, and they do not. Animals should be distressed as little as possible.

Robertson’s naturalistic observation

• 1948 – James Robertson was employed by Bowlby to make careful observations in hospitals or institutions.

• Robertson had worked with Anna Freud in her residential children’s home taking detailed notes about the children’s behaviour.

• http://www.robertsonfilms.info/2_year_old.htm

A two year old goes to hospital

• If going to hospital means losing the care of the mother, the young child will fret for her -- no matter how kind the doctors, nurses, and play ladies. This film classic, made in 1952, drew attention to the plight of young patients at a time when visiting by parents was severely restricted. 

• Laura, aged 2, is in hospital for 8 days to have a minor operation. She is too young to understand her mother's absence. Because her mother is not there and the nurses change frequently, she has to face the fears, frights and hurts with no familiar person to cling to. She is extremely upset by a rectal anesthetic. Then she becomes quiet and 'settles'. But at the end of her stay she is withdrawn from her mother, shaken in her trust.

A two year old goes to hospital

• In recent years there have been great changes in children's wards, partly brought about by this film. But many young children still go to hospital without the mother, and despite the play ladies and volunteers the depth of their distress and the risks to later mental health remain an insufficiently recognised problem.

• This film study of typical emotional deterioration in an unaccompanied young patient, and of the subtle ways in which she shows or conceals deep feelings of distress, remains as vivid and relevant as when it was made

Observations

Robertson observed that children deprived of their attachment figure went through 3 stages:

1. Protest and crying (anger and fear also)

2. Despair – more urgent crying3. Detachment – stops protesting and

gives up crying(Bowlby thought the initial protesting might be a survival instinct)

Visiting times in the 1950s

Guy’s Hospital Sundays 2-4pm

Westminster Hospital Wednesdays and Sundays 2-3pm

Charing Cross Hospital Sundays 3-4pm

St Bartholomew’s Sundays 2-3:30pm

St Thomas’s No visits for the first month, but parents could see children asleep between 7-8pm

Evaluating Robertson’s research

Strengths

• Naturalistic observations produce valid data – real life situations

• Robertson made other films of children and found similar responses (protest, despair, detachment) – replication and similar data were found.

Evaluating Robertson's research

Weaknesses

• Naturalistic observation has a problem of reliability since the actual situation will not be repeated – the observation cannot be replicated.

• Hard to generalise from naturalistic observations because the observation is unique to one individual. Laura’s experiences may be different to other children’s.

Spitz’s study of children in institutions

• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VvdOe10vrs4

• Rene Spitz had studied institutionalised children in 1946

• A hospital, prison, orphanage or residential home are all examples of institutions, when children live in such a place they can called institutionalised

Spitz

• He found that children deprived of their attachment figure became depressed.

• If an infant had formed an attachment with his or her mother for the first 6 months of life, development was good

• However, if the attachment was broken (e.g. child goes into hospital), then over a 3 month period of being deprived of the attachment figure the child became increasingly depressed.

• At first the depression was partial but after a short time it became severe – hospitalisation.

• Partial depression meant the child would cry and cling to observers, but after 3 months, the child’s condition would worsen and he or she would move into severe depression.

Spitz

• Children still in the partially depressed stage when reunited with their mothers would readjust after about 2-3 months.

• Children experienced weight-loss, insomnia, illness and a lack of facial emotion.

• Refused to move and interact with their carers (who were caring for their physical but not emotional needs)

• As the years past, some children who remained in the institution died.

Spitz

• Spitz found that separation and being deprived of the main caregiver had extreme consequences for the child.

• He suggested that the lack of stimulation in institutions (children laying in cots with no stimulation around them) was also to blame for their decline.

• Bowlby drew on this evidence of depression for his maternal deprivation hypothesis.

Evaluation of Spitz’s studies

Strengths• Spitz studied real children in real

institutions so the data were ecologically valid – the situation and setting were real

• His work continued over a long period – he found that deprived children had a lower IQ and problems with development. When he introduced more care – the children had fewer problems – his findings are valid.

Evaluation of Spitz’ studies

Weaknesses• Spitz did not carry out experiments with

controls and careful sampling. He used observations, testing (IQ and DQ) and interviewing, so his sampling and observations were possibly biased – there were no controls. He may have noted situations where separation led to problems and low IQ, rather than all situations.

• Measurement of both DQ and IQ is difficult, as it means applying standardised measures that are criticised, e.g. cultural differences based on Western ideas – someone from another culture might do badly.

Goldfarb’s study of children in institutions

• Goldfarb (1955) studied 15 children who had stayed in an institution up to 3 yo before being fostered. He compared them with a group of children fostered from 6 months.

• The aim was to see if later fostering would be successful.

• He found that those adopted later showed problems in adolescence more than those who were fostered earlier.

Goldfarb (1955)

• Those fostered later were less emotionally secure, intellectually behind the other group and less mature.

• Godlfarb concluded that babies should not be put into institutions and he thought early deprivation would lead to later problems.

• Bowlby also used this as evidence for his maternal deprivation hypothesis.

Evaluation of Goldfarb’s study

Strengths• His work is valid because he studied real

children who were in the institution and fostered at certain periods.

• He managed to find a control group of children who were fostered at an early age to use as a baseline measure for developmental achievements, against which he could measure his ‘late fostered’ children.

Evaluation of Goldfarb’s study

Weaknesses• It is possible that the early fostered group had

something in common – personality, looks etc which made them more likely to be chosen for fostering, so the sample may have been biased.

• There are so many different aspects of fostering, with many different experiences for a fostered child, that it is hard to draw the conclusion that it was the early or late fostering that ‘caused’ any differences in development, particularly for only 15 children.

How negative effects of deprivation and separation can be reduced

• Avoid separation! Not always possible so…

• Reduce the length of separation. This might also be a problem e.g. death of primary caregiver

Easing short-term separation with a replacement attachment figure

• James and Joyce Robertson filmed 4 different children whose mothers were going into hospital.

• John (18 months) stayed in a residential nursery and tried to get comfort from those working at the nursery – they didn’t have time for him so he became increasingly distressed and his father couldn’t comfort him. He also rejected his mother when she returned.

Easing short-term separation with a replacement attachment figure

• Jane (18 months) was fostered by Joyce while the child’s mother was in hospital. The Robertson's met the mother and father with the child before the separation took place.

• The child was given items to remind her of home, to provide familiarity during the separation. Routines were kept and Jane’s father visited.

• When reunited with her mother, Jane happily accepted her.

Easing short-term separation with a replacement attachment figure

• Two other children, Thomas and Lucy, also had foster care during the separation from their mother. They settled better, were less distressed, and accepted the mother when reunited with her.

• The Robertson's concluded that replacing the attachment bond could work – they observed that the children found it hard to part from the new attachment figure in their lives.

Providing more individual care and stimulation

• Some studies in orphanages have showed that improvements could be made if there was someone provided to support the children (Skodak and Skeels, 1945).

• Improvements in IQ were found if there was more stimulation or a lower child to carer ratio.

• The effects of institutionalisation are reversible but only if additional care and more stimulation are introduced.

Coping with divorce and separation

• A young child is likely to go through stages of protest, distress and despair, unless steps are taken to ensure an attachment figure is there for them. Routines should be kept as familiar as possible.

• The ‘fight’ or ‘flight’ response is a survival trait.• Bowlby thought the attachment process had an

evolutionary basis and, in times of fear and threat, a young child would turn to his/her attachment figure. If fear and threat are reduced by offering explanations an comfort, problems from separation can be reduced.

Evaluation of Bowlby’s ideas

Strengths

• Bowlby drew on a great deal of evidence (Spitz, Goldfarb)

• He drew on many different theoretical areas such as ethology and evolution theory in his explanation of the maternal deprivation hypothesis. He also used his psychodynamic background, ideas from child development about the effects of separation on the DQ and IQ

Evaluation of Bowlby’s ideas

Strengths• Bowlby also commissioned and supervised the

work of others (James Robertson)– he gained a lot of evidence from many different sources including naturalistic observation, ethology and interviews.

• His work led to changes in hospital visiting policies as well as in institutional practices. Hospitals opened up to parents and institutions recognised the need for a replacements attachment figure, such as a named worker for the child. The need for stimulation was recognised, as was the need to plan for a period of separation.

Evaluation of Bowlby’s ideasWeaknesses

• The observational studies in institutions lacked careful procedures. Neither Spitz nor Goldfarb gave great detail about their research methods – could have been biased. (no controlled samples etc)

• Animal studies may not be generalisable to humans. Saying the conclusions for monkeys are the same for humans may be quite a stretch. (different brain structures, problem solving abilities etc)

• Bowlby’s 44 juvenile thieves study lacked a ‘normal’ control group.

Ainsworth

• Worked with Bowlby looking at different types of attachment, as well as considering issues such as sensitive parenting.

Ainsworth’s work on attachmentsUgandan studies

• Ainsworth left London in 1954 to live in Uganda where she studied mother-child interactions.

• She noticed that there was a relationship between the responsiveness of the mother and the reactions of the child.

• Some were secure and comfortable, others were tense and full of conflict.

• She found the type of interaction was related to how responsive the parent was to the child’s needs.

• She also noted that infants used their mothers as a safe/secure base from which to explore.

AinsworthThe strange situation test

• Ainsworth used a structured observation and set up a test using standard procedures, so that each mother and child had the same experience and the child’s responses could be carefully recorded for comparison.

• The strange situation – the significant period is after the children are put into a situation that is strange for them, and when they are experiencing separation from their mother (or main caregiver).

• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QTsewNrHUHU

Ainsworth

Attachment types

• Securely attached

• Anxious avoidant

• Anxious resistant

• After Ainsworth: disorganised and disorientated

Ainsworth – securely attached

• Children were distressed when their mother left and wanted comfort from her when she returned.

• The child uses the mother as a safe base but returns to the mother.

• 70% of American children in 1978 according to Ainsworth’s study were securely attached

Ainsworth – anxious avoidant

• Children who were not distressed when the mother left and tended to avoid her when she came back. (avoidant insecure)

• It could be that the mother is neglectful or abusive and that the child has learned not to depend on her.

• Ainsworth’s Baltimore (1978) study found around 15% of the 26 families had anxious avoidant babies.

Ainsworth – anxious resistant

• Children who stayed close to their mother rather than exploring, and became extremely distressed when she left.

• They went for comfort when she came back but they rejected her comforting.

• Can also be called ambivalent insecure.

• 15% found in Ainsworth’s sample.

After Ainsworth – disorganised and disorientated

• In 1986 Main and Solomon suggested that there is a fourth attachment type – disorganised and disoriented.

• This type of attachment is characterised by the child both approaching the mother on her return and avoiding her.

Links between attachment types and mothering styles

• Ainsworth (also Ainsworth and Bell, 1969) looked at the type of mothering that might produce a certain type of attachment in a child.

• They observed the children they used in the strange situation before that procedure was carried out.

• The observation was

for 3 months

Links between attachment types and mothering styles

• They were able to draw conclusions about the responsiveness of the mothering.

• A mother who was insensitive to her infant’s responses during feeding and to the infant’s physical needs, who showed little face-to-face interaction and was less attentive when the child was distressed did not have an infant who was securely attached in the strange situation procedure the child was likely to be insecurely attached.

• Mothers who had responded to their infant’s needs in the first 3 months of their life had securely attached children.

Using the strange situation in cross-cultural studies

Ainsworth’s work in Uganda

• Uganda, 1963, Ainsworth studied 26 families and observed the interactions, watching mother-child relationships. She also interviewed mothers about the mother’s sensitivity.

• She found that mothers who knew a lot about their babies when interviewed were sensitive to their infant’s needs.

• They tended to have securely attached children who used their mother as a secure base from which to explore.

Ainsworth – the Baltimore Project

• Ainsworth followed the 26 families from birth of the child – end of first year

• Naturalistic observations in the family home took place looking at face-to-face interactions, responsiveness to crying and physical needs, feeding and close bodily contact.

• The final observation was the strange situation procedure.

• Main focus was the pattern of interactions in the home and conclusions about the sensitivity of the mother related to the attachment type of the child.

Comparing Uganda and Baltimore

• There were many similarities in the attachment types and types of mothering in the two cultures.

• General conclusion = securely attached infants used their mothers as a secure base from which to explore and had sensitive mothers, whereas insecurely attached infants cried more, explored less and had less sensitive mothers.

Comparing Uganda and Baltimore

• If this was found in two cultures perhaps there was a biological basis for attachment types when linked to parenting style and maybe this was true of all cultures.

• If there were differences in attachment types linked to parenting styles

in different cultures, then the

links may have come from

nurture and the differences

in the environment.

Other cross-cultural studies of attachment types

• In Germany Grossman et al. (1985) found more avoidant attachment types

• In Japan (Miyake et al., 1985) and Israel (Sagi et al., 1985) (in the Kibbutzim) there were more ambivalent types.

• Jin Mi Kyoung’s (2005) Korean study looked at 87 Korean families and 113 USA families and used the strange situation to look for cultural differences in attachment types.

Other cross-cultural studies of attachment types

• There were a greater number of securely attached infants, which reinforces that idea that attachment types are found in similar proportions across cultures and countries.

• There were some differences between Western and Eastern cultures e.g. Korean infants stayed less close to their mothers and explored more but when their mothers returned, the mothers were more likely to get down on the floor and play with them.

Evaluating the cross-cultural studies

• In Germany it is possible that parents value independence more (avoidant) - culture rather than parenting style causes type of attachment.

• In Japan and Israel – less emphasis on getting on with strangers thus more ambivalent.

• However, similar responses by the mothers led to similar attachment types – this supports cross-cultural studies.

Evaluating the cross-cultural studies

Using the strange situation task - Strengths • Same procedure was used in different cultures so

conclusions can be fairly compared – reliability.• Consistency in patterns observed – three types

were identified in each of the studies.• In general the main attachment type is securely

attached – if other types exist it is due to cultural preferences rather than ‘bad’ mothering.

Evaluating cross-cultural studies

Using the strange situation task – Weaknesses

• The procedure was developed in the USA – the task itself might be what gives differences in findings. e.g. Japanese children are less used to strangers.

• Cultures have many differences, including family structure, parenting styles, what is expected, and how children are seen in society. It is therefore difficult, if not impossible to draw conclusions about which feature causes which effect.

Evaluation of Ainsworth’s ideas about attachments

Strengths

• There is a great deal of evidence, including the work of Bowlby and Harlow.

• The strange situation is laboratory-based and replicable, so it is reliable.

• Ainsworth also used naturalistic observations that were valid.

Evaluating of Ainsworth’s ideas about attachment

Weaknesses

• The strange situation is laboratory-based and artificial, so it lacks validity.

• A fourth attachment type was later added, suggesting her theory was insufficient.

• Attachment and responsiveness are hard to measure, is it is hard to study reliability.

Research into privation

• Privation – a child who has not formed any attachment and will lack almost all types of socialisation.

• The case study of Genie led to the conclusion that early privation leads to irreversible problems.

• However no one knows if Genie had problems anyway.

Koluchova (1972) the Czech twins

• Jarmila Koluchova studied identical twin boys who were born in Czechoslovakia in 1960. (see information sheet)

• At first their development was relatively normal but their mother died and they were institutionalised for a year, then brought up by an aunt for another 6 months.

• The twins father remarried and they went to live with their father, stepmother and her 4 children.

Koluchova (1972) the Czech twins

• Their stepmother often locked them away in a room and beat them.

• This carried on for over 5 years until they were found and rescued at the age of 7.

• They suffered from rickets (lack of vitamin D in the bones), were small for their age, could not talk or recognise pictures so an IQ test was not possible.

• They were frightened of the dark and had only developed to a normal 3 year old level.

• It was predicted that they would not develop normally and would remain well behind in intellectual development.

Koluchova (1972) the Czech twins

• They were placed in a school for children with severe learning difficulties where they began to catch up with children of their age and went on to a normal school.

• By 11 their speech was normal, by 15 their IQ was normal for their age.

• They went on to train in electronics and later married (women, not each other), had families and a normal life.

Evaluation of Koluchova (1972)

Strengths

• The twins were normal in their development at 18 months, therefore it could be said that privation caused their lack of development. (normal baseline)

• Case study – great deal of information was gathered (IQ testing, interviewing, observing) suggesting the data are valid about the twins’ real experiences.

Evaluation of Koluchova (1972)

Strengths

• Longitudinal study – the development of the twins could be tracked over many years, helping to draw conclusions about whether or not privation is reversible.

Evaluation of Koluchova (1972)

Weaknesses

• The boys had each other so could attach to each other, which may explain why they were able to catch up and develop normally, shaking off the effects of privation.

• They would have formed an attachment with their aunt and perhaps others in the social agency, so maybe they were deprived rather than privated.

Evaluation of Koluchova (1972)

Weaknesses

• It can never be completely known what life is like for the boys now they are adults, and they may not be happy and well adjusted. (there is no reason to say they are not). Information about other issues may have arisen even now that they are adults.

Freud and Dann: children in Terezin

• Anna Freud and Sophie Dann (1951) studied 6 children who were kept in the ghetto of Terezin, Czechoslovakia.

• The children were looked after by the adults who were ‘passing through’ on their way to the extermination camps such as Auschwitz.

• The children did not have a chance to form an attachment

so therefore suffered privation.

Freud and Dann: children in Terezin

• When the camps were liberated the children were brought to Britain, fostered and followed up to see how well they recovered from their early privation.

• When found they couldn’t speak much but were strongly attached to one another, showing separation anxiety/distress when separated.

• They developed normal intelligence, although one sought psychiatric help and another described feeling isolated and alone.

• It seems the effects of privation can be reversed, although problems may occur in adulthood.

Freud and Dann: children in TerezinStrengths

• Longitudinal study – information about the long-term effects of privation could be found.

• This was a real study of real children who experienced privation – for ethical reasons this could not be set up. It is a unique case study. It is in-depth, detailed, valid and more ethical than a set up.

Evaluation of the Freud and Dann study

Weaknesses• As the children formed attachments with

each other they may have not been privated at all. They were, however, privated of adult care that would provide a safe, secure base.

• The study is not replicable so it is hard to draw conclusions about the effects of early privation.

Are the effects of privation reversible?

• Koluchova and Freud and Dann conclude that it is.

• Curtiss’s study of Genie, however, shows that she did not recover from her early privation.

Differences between the studies

• Genie was aged 13 – much older than the twins or the Terezin children– Genie may have passed the critical age for learning language and normal development.

• The twins and the Terezin children had other each for support and formed attachments with each other. Perhaps any individual is better than nobody when it comes to socialisation.

Similarities between the studies

• All three are case studies so they use the same research methods – all are longitudinal in that they follow the participant(s) through to adulthood.

• They have similar validity and a similar lack of reliability.

• All three studies involved at least one person who, after the privation was revealed, took care to help the child or children:

Genie – researchers Twins - fostered by a caring women Terezin children – fostered and cared for

Daycare: an introduction

• Daycare could be considered a form of short-term deprivation.

• Generally findings from studies suggest that for some children good quality daycare can be beneficial because it offers them stimulation and experiences they wouldn’t get at home.

• However, poor quality daycare is not a good thing – for children under 1, too long in daycare (20 hours per week) is detrimental.

Defining daycare

• Daycare – a term used for any situation where a child is cared for by someone other than its parents for some part of the day.

• Daycare can take place for a short time (crèche), every day of the week (full-time nursery).

• Some is privately run, some is government run.

• All are subject to government inspection as well as curriculum rules.

Some rules for daycare provision

• What washing facilities are required• How many staff• What other facilities• Window space and floor space per child• How many children per room• Health and safety rules also exist• How long children must play outside• Children must achieve certain milestones

etc

Research into daycare

• NICHD – National Institute of Child Health and Human Development study of early childcare and youth development (USA)

• EPPE – Effective Provision of Pre-School Education (UK)

The NICHD study in the USA

• A longitudinal study following children from birth. Privately commissioned

• Aim – to look at the effect of childcare on children.

• Procedure – longitudinal – involved gathering data by different means – observations, interview and survey. 1,200 children followed from birth to when they started school.

The NICHD study in the USA• Results and conclusions -

Length of time in daycare – children who spent early continuous and intensive time in daycare were likely to have more behavioural problems (aggressiveness, obedience) than children who did not.

Type of daycare – nursery-type care (as opposed to care in someone’s home) led to improvements in cognitive and language development but also increased behavioural problems such as aggression and disobedience.

Quality of daycare – Low quality daycare was particularly bad for children with mothers who lacked sensitivity. Good quality daycare needed responsive staff, attentive staff and a stimulating environment. High quality care tended to mean higher cognitive and language and functioning in the children.

Evaluation of the NICHD study

Strengths• Longitudinal study - - followed a large number

of children from birth – school – coverage was thorough and researchers were able to bring in many aspects of the child’s experiences from which to draw conclusions.

• More than one research method was used – data can be compared to check for validity and reliability. If different methods find the same results = valid data.

Evaluation of the NICHD study

Weaknesses• So many variables – child development is

so complex it is hard to draw meaningful conclusions. E.g. social background, quality of daycare, temperament of child, quality of attachments etc.

• Cross-cultural studies are needed as this study could only be generalised to the USA.

The EPPE project in the UK• http://www.ttrb.ac.uk/viewArticle2.aspx?contentId=12415• Funded by the government from 1997-2003, followed

children from the ages of 3 until 11 in 144 centres.• Aims – to look at the impact of preschool provision on a

child’s intellectual and social/behavioural development, as well as to find out if social inequalities could be reduced by attendance in preschool settings.

• Procedure – 3,000 children - observations, interviews with parents and practitioners. Subjects were from many different backgrounds – two main groups – children in daycare centres and those at home (control group).

The EPPE project in the UK

• Results and conclusions –high quality care improved social, intellectual and behavioural development. The earlier a child started in daycare, the better the intellectual development. Children also had better sociability, independence and concentration the longer they had been in daycare.

• It was found that full-time attendance led to no better gains than part-time attendance.

• Disadvantaged children were better off in good-quality daycare, particularly if they experienced a mixture of social backgrounds in the daycare centre.

Evaluation of the EPPE studyStrengths

• Carefully planned procedure to include children from different social backgrounds, including a control group of ‘home’ children – conclusions could be drawn more securely.

• Longitudinal study - - followed a large number of children from birth – school – coverage was thorough and researchers were able to bring in many aspects of the child’s experiences from which to draw conclusions.

• More than one research method was used – data can be compared to check for validity and reliability. If different methods find the same results = valid data

Evaluation of the EPPE study

Weaknesses• Government funding – how far do the

findings reflect government policy?• The complexity of the issues and the

related problem of drawing conclusions.• The research was based on English

daycare provision and so generalising the findings to other countries might not be appropriate.

Comparing the NICHD and EPPE findings

• EPPE – more positive with regard to the use of daycare than the NICHD study.

• The EPPE finding that there is no benefit from full-time day care as opposed to part-time daycare supports the NICHD study.

• NICHD researchers did suggest that too long in daycare was a bad thing, the EPPE team did not conclude this.

Comparing the NICHD and EPPE findings

• EPPE – idea that children benefit the earlier they start attending daycare goes against the conclusions of many other studies, including the NICHD.

• Belsky concluded that too much time in day care before the age of 1 was bad for the child.

Belsky’s conclusions

• Belsky considered the findings of the EPPE and NICHD projects and suggested the UK government should change tax policies and encourage parental leave in order that children do not spend too long in daycare.

• In 2006 Belsky concluded that good quality daycare, including childcare in daycare centres can lead to better cognitive and language abilities. However, the more time spent in daycare, especially more time in centre-based care, tended to lead to more problem behaviour.

• Quality, quantity and type of daycare are all important.

Evaluation of research into daycare

Strengths• Studies have taken into account as many factors

that can affect a child’s experience of daycare as possible, such as social background, how long in daycare, how stimulating the environment is, quality of staff-child interactions etc. Studies have been carefully planned to try to draw strong conclusions.

• Studies have used large and carefully chosen samples, to avoid bias.

Evaluation of research into daycare

Weaknesses• The effect of daycare on a child is complex. It

is impossible to take into account all relevant factors, such as child’s temperament, position in family etc.

• Studies are often carried out within one culture, or within one country. Cross-cultural studies in other areas suggest that differences in culture affect findings about child development, so it might not be legitimate to generalise findings from one culture to another.

Autism

• You need to know about one developmental issues that affects a child’s development (severe learning difficulties, ADHD and autism)

• We already covered autism in the biological approach at AS

• You will need to consider the characteristics of autism, two explanations for it (biological and cognitive) and two ways in which autism might affect a child’s development (not having a theory of mind and not tuning into people’s emotions)

Characteristics of autism

• Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) – the child can show behaviour and characteristics that fall at any point between mild autism and sever autism.

• Mildly autistic is diagnosed as Asperger’s Syndrome.

• Autism is a developmental issue that affects more boys than girls. (for Asperger’s there is usual 10:1 boys girl) Autism ration is 4:1)

• There are about 6 in 1000 with ASD, 1 in 1000 with autism.

Characteristics of autism

• No set of common symptoms but a variety of characteristics - hard to read other people’s emotions, poor at empathising, communication problems in talking reading or both.

• Some autistic children talk early although there may be no understanding of the words, some read well but with little comprehension.

• The main characteristic of people with autism is they find it hard to form relationships.

Characteristics of autism

• They are good at systems – 10% have high ability in one special area (e.g. maths, piano, drawing etc – called autistic savants)

• Affected children often repeat patterns over and over again.

• Usually identified between the ages of 2 and 3 when the parent notices the child is not using normal eye contact, not anticipating the needs of others. There might also be problems in social interactions.

Two explanations

Theory of mind: a cognitive explanation– A problem with the brain’s development– There appears to be a genetic link but it could

come from problems with birth– Baren-Cohen (with Leslie Firth in 1985) studied

autistic children watch a researcher manipulate two dolls (Anne and Sally) in a pretend situation – Sally has a basket and Anne has a box. Sally puts a marble in the basket and then ‘leaves’. Anne moves the marble from the basket to the box. Sally then returns.

Theory of mind

– The child is asked the question is ‘where will Sally look for the marble?’

– Children ‘pass’ the theory of mind test if they say Sally will look in the basket. They ‘fail’ if they say she will look in the box. The child knows the marble is in the box, but Sally would not know that and a child has a theory of mind if he or she understands that Sally does not know.

– They studied 21 autistic children, 11 Down’s Syndrome children and 27 ‘normal’ children – only the autistic children did not have a theory of mind. They were unable to understand that Sally did not know what the child knew.

Theory of mind

- Children from the age of 3 have a theory of mind, but much older autistic children did not.

- ‘Low empathising’ means not being good at understanding the emotions of others.

- ‘High systematising’ means having the ability to use internal rules to organise internal events.

- Autistic people are high systematisers and low empathisers. A child who finds it hard to work out external events would not have a theory of mind because they can’t see things from others’ point of view. In the Sally/Anne scenario the child would not be able to work out what Sally knew or did not know.

Two explanations

Autism and the extreme male brain: a biological explanation

- Males are meant to be better at visuo-spatial tasks (map reading, jigsaws) whereas females tend to be better as language tasks as they use both halves of the brain (males tend to use mainly the right-hand side of the brain)

- This reinforces the idea that girls are better at empathising and boys are better at systems.

Autism and the extreme male brain: a biological explanation

- As there are more boys with autism than girls this suggests that autism is linked to male sex characteristics.

- Autistic people also seem to be low at empathising and high systematisers, so that too goes with having a ‘male’ brain.

- As children, girls tend to be more verbal whereas boys are more spatial, again fitting with the characteristics of autism.

- Girls tend to show verbal aggression and boys more physical aggression – maybe girls show what their victim is feeling. So this too fits with the idea of low empathising being a male brain feature of autism.

How autism might affect a child’s development

Difficulties making friends

- Autistic children tend to live in their own world.

- Even though it might be difficult, parents should encourage their autistic children to form friendships, invite children home to play etc shared interests such as computers can be helpful.

How autism might affect a child’s development

Difficulties making friends- Bauminger and Shulman (2003) compared

the friendships of high-functioning autistic children with children without autism. Both groups tended to have friendships with the same gender and age but patterns different with respect to the number of friends, how often they met, how long they were friends and the activities they did together.

How autism might affect a child’s development

Difficulties making friends- Bauminger and Kasari (2000) studied autistic

children aged 8-14 and reported that autistic children were lonelier than other children but also understood loneliness less. They all had at least one friend but the quality of their friendships was not as good, providing less companionship and security.

- Theses studies suggest that autism affects a child’s development in terms of not making friendships in the same way as children without autism. However, autistic children are still able to make friends and share interests.

Problems with communication

- Autistic children have problems learning language, reading and writing.

- They tend to have difficulty with the meaning of words and sentences.

- Some autistic children cannot speak, whereas others ca talk fluently, so it is hard to generalise. In general autistic children have communication and learning difficulties.

Problems with communication- They might continuously count without reference to

objects, or repeat sentences they have heard when it is inappropriate to do so.

- Autistic children may be able to speak in depth and knowledgably about a topic that interests them but they are unlikely to be able to engage in a conversation about the topic.

- They have problems with non-verbal communication as they don’t use appropriate eye contact – also linked to friendships.

- Language and other communication problems restrict their learning as well as restricting their social interactions and friendships.

Exam questions

1) Outline what is meant by the maternal deprivation hypothesis. (2 marks)

2) Explain two ways in which negative effects of deprivation can be reduced. (4 marks)

3) Describe Ainsworth’s strange situation task as a research method. (4 marks)

4) Describe one study that looks at privation. (6 marks)5) Outline two explanations for one developmental disorder

that affects children. (6 marks)6) Evaluate research into privation. (6 marks)7) Outline one study that looks at disadvantages of daycare.

(4 marks)

Extension questions

1) Discuss, using evidence, whether or not daycare is good for young children.

(12 marks)

2) Discuss, using evidence, whether the effects of privation are reversible.

(12 marks)

Studies in detail

Curtiss’s study of Genie- Genie (not her real name) was discovered

in California, USA at the age of 13 (approx)

- She had been locked away by her parents and had very little socialisation.

- Curtiss was one of the researchers who studied and looked after Genie and who wrote up the case study.

Genie (Curtiss, 1977)

- Genie’s mother had a stormy relationship with her husband who threatened her, beat her, she lived in fear. Her husband was violent and did not want any children.

- When their first daughter was born (not Genie) she seemed health and normal but cried a lot so her father put her in the garage.

- A boy was born three years later – the mother tried to keep him quiet and good. He had developmental problems. The husband’s mother took the boy and he thrived.

Genie (Curtiss, 1977)

- Genie was born 3 years after that – normal birth, good head control at 4 months, hip dislocation that required splinting but at 5 months she was alert – she was a ‘normal’ baby.

- Genie’s mother said she wasn’t cuddly and disliked solid food – Genie's father didn’t like her and didn’t allow his wife to pay much attention to Genie.

- At 14 months Genie had a fever, saw a paediatrician who said she shoed signs of possible retardation, but hard to access due to fever.

- Genie’s father used this diagnosis as an excuse for the later abuse Genie suffered.

Genie (Curtiss, 1977)

- Genie’s father’s mother was killed by a truck, Genie’s father moved the family into his mother’s home, cutting them off from the outside world.

- Genie was tied to a ‘potty chair’ during the day and a crib at night in an isolated room where there was little for her to hear.

- She occasionally made a noise to attract attention but was beaten, so stopped.

- Genie’s mother started to go blind and found it hard to go and speak to her, and her brother imitated his father and did not speak to her either.

Genie (Curtiss, 1977)

- Genie’s father though she would not live beyond 12, he said if she did her mother could go to her. However he went back on his promise. When Genie was 13 her mother had a violent argument with her husband and threatened to leave if he did not contact her own mother to get help.

- Genie’s mother took Genie and left the home and they went to get help from the welfare officer.

- The officer realised there was something wrong, and the police were called.

- Genie’s parents were charged with child abuse, but on the day of the trail Genie’s father killed himself.

- Genie was admitted to hospital with sever malnutrition.

Genie at the start of the study

• At first Genie could not chew food, stand up or straighter her arms and legs.

• She made few sounds and was incontinent.• She was, however, alert and curious.• Primary interest was in her language skills – she did not

speak but the researchers wanted to find out how much she understood.

• They questioned the hospital staff who said that she seemed to understand a few words, focusing on single words rather than sentences. She could understand if pointing was used in addition to words.

• She had very little language use at all, but she did imitate some words spoken to her.

Genie

Aim• To help Genie, but also to see if a child of just over 13

could learn language. Procedure

• Data was gathered from observing Genie but also interviews with Genie’s mother (who said whatever she thought the social workers wanted to hear so wasn’t reliable)

• Information about Genie’s early life had to be gathered from genie’s own behaviour and her few comments.

• Daily doctors reports, video tapes and tape recordings were made and catalogued.

• Psychological testing was used, with observations and language tests.

Genie

Case study evidence - Early progress• From Jan 1971 Genie was in the hospital - became more

sociable, cognitive and intellectual development observed.• She could do some activities that 8-9 year olds could do

(bathing) but couldn’t chew food which 2 year olds can do.• She displayed some awareness – she had an

understanding of numbers.• In time, language began to emerge – she started asking the

names of things. She moved to a rehab centre but her development was not normal. e.g. delayed responses (responded 10 minutes later), she seemed lazy.

• In 1974 she asked for a cracker, again demonstrating understanding of numbers – also used sign language – showed incomplete understanding of English.

GenieCase study analysis

• Progress in language was analysed in terms of the critical period for language learning (2 years – puberty)

• Animal studies showed critical periods for attachment .• Sensitive periods may now be a better term to use – best

time to learn an attribute.• Ethics of depriving human children of various necessities

makes these sorts of experiments impossible.• Genie had been deprived of socialisation from birth to

puberty so if she could learn language this would provide evidence against the critical period.

Genie

Case Study analysis• Although Genie did learn a lot of language and

other skills, her development did not catch up and her behaviour was not ‘normal’ so it could not be concluded that there was no critical period for language development.

• The language that Genie did develop was associated with the right hemisphere of the brain, and tests done supported the idea that she was a ‘right hemisphere thinker’.

Genie

What is known about Genie• Loss of funding meant Genie went to stay in a

residential home. • She was not studied any further, partly because

it was recognised that the psychologists involved had tried to help her develop, but had also used her as the ‘subject’ of a study – there was thought to have been excessive testing, given her situation.

Genie Evaluation

Strengths • Much information gathered – rich, detailed

an thorough. Qualitative and quantitative, using many different research methods so the data is valid.

• The study gave Genie a pseudonym so she could not be recognised and her family could not be traced or tracked by journalists. This is an ethical strength.

Genie Evaluation

Weaknesses• It could not be shown that Genie would have

developed normally with good socialisation, because there is a suggestion she may have had developmental problems in infancy.

• There are ethical difficulties about the study - during the study she was living at the homes of psychologists, was the ‘subject’ of a study and was subjected to a great deal of testing and questioning. This could have taken advantage of her. Did she give informed consent? Did she have the right to withdraw? Was she debriefed?

Bowlby’s study of 44 juvenile thieves

Background• 1944 John Bowlby carried out a study of young

people who were thieves to find out about their background and to see if he could understand the reason for them becoming thieves.

• 1938 – 9/10 crimes were thefts and half of these were committed by someone under 21. 1/6 by under 14s.

• Recurrence of crimes – at age 16 1/3 were recidivists. Bowlby wanted to study how delinquency starts.

44 juvenile thievesProcedure

• Carried out at the London Child Guidance Clinic from 1936-39 using interviews, case histories and psychological testing to try to look for patterns in the backgrounds of young people at his clinic in an attempt to establish why some people become delinquents.

• Mental tests to assess intelligence, assessment of emotional attitudes towards the test, psychiatric history noted by social worker.

• Social worker and psychologist gave reports to Bowlby who then interviewed the child and the mother.

• Case conference followed and diagnosis formed.• More interviews, psychotherapy and the mother talking to the social

worker - more in-depth data gathered.• Only a few cases studied because of the depth required – emotional

influences within the home, development of the child’s object relationships.

• Bowlby admitted that more such studies were needed to substantiate his findings.

44 juvenile thievesResults

• 44 cases of children stealing were studied – 22 referred by school, 2 by school at parents’ request, 8 by parents directly, 3 courts’ request, 9 by probation officers.

• Control group – 44 children who were not thieves but attended the London Child Guidance Clinic (similar age and intelligence to the thieves)

• 15 of the thieves were under 9 and half were under 11. Only one child under 11 had been charged.

• 31 boys and 13 girls in the main group.• 34 boys and 10 girls in control group.• The clinic usually had 60% boys and 40% girls so unrepresentative of

usual intake.• Average intelligence of both groups was quite high (1/3 over normal)• In 22 cases there was chronic and serious stealing, mainly over a

long period. In 7 cases the stealing had lasted more than 3 years.• 8 of the thieves had been involved inn only a few thefts and 4 had

only been involved in one.

44 juvenile thieves

Characters of the thieves• Bowlby wanted to define juvenile delinquency –

thought there were three types but sorted data into 6 groups:

A – normal B - depressed

C – circular D – hyperthermic E – affectionless F - schizoid

44 juvenile thieves

• Two of the 44 thieves were normal in character but 42 had abnormal characteristics.

• During psychiatric examination however the children were on their best behaviour and hid things.

• Bowlby therefore drew his conclusions about character based on his discussions with the mother and the school.

44 juvenile thieves

Group A – normal

• One child had been stealing since age 14, but only from his mother but his mother had been taking a lot of his earnings.

• Another child was reasonably normal too – he was 8 and only stealing a few pennies.

44 juvenile thieves

Group B – depressed

• Five children suffered with mild depression, 2 of them having very low IQ.

• Some children were severely depressed and often this arose from a specific event.

44 juvenile thieves

Group E – affectionless• 14 of the children had an affectionless character –

a lack of affection or warmth of feeling for anyone.• They had been undemonstrative and unresponsive

from infancy.• Two children sometimes showed affection but they

lied, stole and had no sense of loyalty, emotional ties or friendships.

• Bowlby thought they may have been depressive earlier on and had suffered complete emotional loss of mother or foster mother during infancy or early childhood. Misery could lay below the mask.

Comparison with controls

• No affectionless characters

• More depressed characters

• 8 were not of a type found in the thieves (over-conscientious or ‘priggish’)

Character Thieves Controls

A 2 3

B i 9 13

B ii 0 8

C 2 1

D 13 10

E 14 0

F 4 9

Total 44 44

Conclusion

• 93% of the affectionless thieves (13/14) are level IV with regard to stealing – stealing in a persistent and serious way.

• 13/23 persistent thieves are affectionless too (56%)

• Bowlby linked the affectionless character with a lack of attachment and having some strong emotional loss in infancy.

Conclusion

Character Degree of stealing

Normal I II III IV Total

Depressed 0 2 0 0 2

Circular 1 4 3 1 9

Hyperthermic 2 2 2 7 13

Affectionless 0 0 1 13 14Schizoid/schizophrenic 0 0 2 2 4

Total 3 8 10 23 44

Evaluation

Strengths• Lots of in-depth and detailed data

gathered from a number of sources – includes qualitative and quantitative - case study method.

• Matched control group of similar children to compare findings to. Allowed Bowlby to draw the conclusion that affectionless characters were more likely to steal.

Evaluation

Weaknesses• Bowlby himself said he would have liked to have

had another control group of ‘normal’ children not at the clinic.

• Bowlby covered many areas such as emotional state, IQ, age and experiences with the mother. However, in a child’s development there are many other areas of interest such as the relationship with the father, other relatives, experiences at school. There could have been other variables he did not focus on. The lack of affection in infancy may have been genetic.

Exam questions

1) Describe Curtiss’s study of Genie. (1977) (5 marks)

2) You have studied one study from Bowlby (1944), Belsky and Rovine (1988) and Rutter et al. (1998). With regard to one of these, evaluate the study in terms of methodology. (4 marks)

Extension question

You have studied Curtiss’s study of Genie (1977) and one study from Bowlby (1944), Belsky and Rovine (1988) and Rutter et al. (1998). Compare Curtiss’s study with one of the others in terms of methodology.

(12 marks)

Key Issue - Daycare and its effects on child development

• Content analysis focusing on two magazine articles or similar sources

• You should summarise the articles and draw conclusions from them. (secondary data)

Practical: carrying out a content analysis

• Content analysis involves examining information in the media to produce a summary of certain issues, comments or views.

• It involves drawing up categories and then tallying to count how many references there are to such categories

• Actual terms can be counted as well, such as positive or negative terms, as they too can provide a picture.

• The content analysis must be about a key issue from child psychology.

Practical: carrying out a content analysis

• Find material on the subject of daycare. Use the internet, newspapers, magazines or any other media, including TV.

• Read the material or watch the programmes carefully. Make notes.

• Consider various themes from the concepts you have learned about in child psychology.

• Count the number of times each theme is mentioned, using tallying.

• Draw up a table of the results.• Write up the findings and draw conclusions,

linking to the concepts you have learned about in child psychology.

Exam questions

1) Describe a key issue in child psychology.(4

marks)2) For the following questions, refer to what you

did for your practical in child psychology, focusing on a key issue: a) Explain two difficulties you encountered when collecting data, either for your content analysis or your article analysis. (4 marks)

b) Explain how your analysis shed light on your key issue. (4 marks)

Extension question

Discuss one key issue in child psychology, including using your own findings from your practical in this application.

(12 marks)