Name………………………………………………………

AS Cognitive Psychology Unit 1 PSYA1

Bristol Grammar School

Cognitive Psychology Unit 11

KEA July 2012

Memory

Specification Details

Cognitive Psychology

Models of Memory The multi-store model, including the concepts of encoding, capacity and duration. Strengths and weaknesses of the model

The working memory model, including its strengths and weaknesses

Memory in Everyday Life

Eyewitness testimony (EWT) and factors affecting the accuracy of EWT, including anxiety, age of witness

Misleading information and the use of the cognitive interview

Strategies for memory improvement

The examination for memory will consist of short answer questions, stimulus material and possibly an extended 12 mark question. You will also be assessed on research methods in the memory section.

Research methods will be examined within the context of the Cognitive (and Developmental) studies. You will be asked specific methodological questions about memory studies and may be given scenarios and possible areas of research to comment on and even outline a potential design. Hence, our study of research methods will go hand in hand with our coverage of the Cognitive (and Developmental) topics.

Using the Booklet

This booklet aims to complement your textbook. Carrying out practical activities will help with your understanding of this area and you will find it also acts as a revision aid. Bring it to all memory classes as it will be used regularly. You may also be given other practical activities to carry out in class and you should slot these in the relevant area. The page references relate to the Lawton, Gross & Rolls publication ‘Psychology AS for AQA A’ unless otherwise directed.

2KEA July 2012

1 Sensory memory

Fill in the following box to summarise the three sensory stores within SM (p3);

IconicEchoicHaptic Sensory input Sperling (1960) carried out research into the duration of Sensory Memory and brought new insight about the sensory memory;

What did he do in the partial report experiment?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..How did this method improve on what had been done before?

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What did he find?

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3KEA July 2012

Give a positive and negative criticism of his experiment

Positive……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………Negative……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Some textbooks say that the capacity of SM is small, some that it is v large, possibly unlimited. The view of AQA examiners is that it has a large capacity which is very fragile.

Crowder (2003) expanded on what was known about iconic and echoic memory duration;

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It is helpful to define the following in relation to memory function (p3);

Capacity………………………………………………………………………………..………………………………………………………………………………..

Duration………………………………………………………………………………..………………………………………………………………………………..

EncodingVisual encoding is…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

Acoustic encoding is…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..Semantic coding is……………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………………………………………………

2 Short Term MemoryEncoding in STM

Are the following words acoustically similar or semantically similar?

1. Tall Long Big ……………………………………………2. Can Tram Plan ………………………………………….

4KEA July 2012

Are these letters acoustically similar or dissimilar?

1. E V C T G …………………………………………..2. N R T S L ……………………………………………

There have been a number of studies looking at how we encode in the STM (and LTM).

Outline what Baddeley’s 1966 research tells us about encoding in the STM (p4).

What he did;……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

What he found;……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

Conclusion for encoding in STM…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Write 3 evaluative points for this experiment…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Conrad’s research supports this finding What he did; ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

5KEA July 2012

The Digit Span Experiment. Jacobs (1887)9 2 7 4 (digit span of 4)

3 6 7 1 4 (digit span of 5)

9 7 3 4 5 8 (digit span of 6)

7 2 4 0 8 6 1 (digit span of 7)

9 0 6 7 4 3 2 5 (digit span of 8)

7 3 6 1 8 9 3 2 5 (digit span of 9)

3 6 7 4 8 5 9 7 6 1 (digit span of 10)

7 3 5 9 8 7 2 3 8 1 5 (digit span of 11)

What he found; ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………What were his conclusions; ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

What evidence is there to support that there is visual encoding in the STM (p5)……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Capacity in STMThe digit span technique is a simple and effective method. MethodSit opposite your partner and decide who will be the experimenter and who will be the participant. (Only the experimenter should have this sheet in front of them).

The experimenter should read out the top line and get the participant to recall in the correct order. If they get this right, move on to the next line and so on until they cannot recall in the correct order.You can swap roles and test the experimenter’s digit span

Your digit span =…………………………………………..

Your partner’s digit span =…………………………..

What did Jacobs (1887) find? (p6)…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..What can you conclude from this?……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

6KEA July 2012

What did Miller (1956) suggest? (p6)…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

What did Baddeley notice when words are read aloud rather than sub-vocally?………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..How can this be explained?………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

Using your knowledge to create A* answersOne of the skills an examiner is looking for is the ability to extend your answers to include evaluation and elaboration. A useful way to do this is using an elaboration ladder;

7KEA July 2012

Figure 1 Elaboration Ladder

Furthermore,

Moreover,

However,

A He found….

Start

Q What did Jacobs discover about the capacity of STM?

Duration in STM

Research by Peterson & Peterson (1959)

Aim: To test the duration of memory in STM when rehearsal is prevented Procedures:Participants were briefly shown a consonant trigram (i.e. three letters such as CPW or NGV).Participants were asked to count backwards in threes from a specified number to stop them rehearsing the lettersAfter intervals of 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 or 18 seconds, participants were asked to recall the original trigramThe procedure was repeated several times using different trigrams Findings:Participants were able to recall 80% of trigrams after a 3 second intervalProgressively fewer trigrams were recalled as the time intervals lengthenedAfter 18 seconds, fewer than 10% of the trigrams were recalled correctly Conclusions:If rehearsal is prevented, information vanishes rapidly from STMWe could say that the duration of memory in STM is approximately 18 secs Criticisms:Trigrams are rather artificial things to remember and may not reflect everyday memory hence the research is low in ecological validityHowever, displacement of information from the counting task could have caused the poor recall since we know STM has a limited capacity.

1. In the Peterson and Peterson study why were the participants asked to count backwards in three?

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2. What % of trigrams were correctly recalled after 3 and 18 seconds?

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3. What can we conclude from these findings?

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4. This study has been criticised for using artificial stimuli. What is meant by this?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………5. Give one further criticism for this experiment

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8KEA July 2012

Marsh et al (1974) criticises Peterson & Peterson’s findings because

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3 Long Term Memory

Encoding – Baddeley carried out his acoustically and semantically similar and dissimilar experiment (used for checking encoding in STM) but this time created a delay of 20 mins before asking pps to arrange stimulus words into the correct order.

What he found (p7)?

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There is further research by Nelson & Rothbart (1972) that supports the notion that LTM also contains acoustically encoded information. They discovered recall error in processing ……………………………… such as knight and night which have similar sounds but are semantically different. (p8)

What other anecdotal evidence supports Nelson and Rothbart’s findings?……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Capacity – It is thought that the LTM has an unlimited capacity

9KEA July 2012

Furthermore,

Moreover,

However,

A They found….

Start

Q What did Peterson & Peterson discover about the duration of STM?

How does the work of Linton (1975) and Wagenaar (1986) support the premise that LTM has unlimited capacity? (p8)……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Duration – There has been some research to try and find out how long the LTM is. However, it is difficult to test. Often we cannot remember a person’s name but later it comes back to us and the elderly can often remember childhood events. This is an issue of accessibility rather than availability. Therefore, it is thought that memories can last up to a lifetime.

Bahrick et al (1975) tried to investigate the duration of LTM. He used a natural setting to improve ecological validity.

Aim: To investigate the duration of Very-Long-Term-Memory (VLTM).Procedure: An opportunity sample of 392 American ex-High-School students aged between 17 and 74 was used. The time since leaving High School was up to 48 years. The participants were tested in four ways:- Free recall of the names of as many of their ex-classmates as possible.- A photo recognition test. The participants were asked to identify their former classmates from a set of 50 photos.- A name recognition test.- A name and photo matching test.VLTM was assessed by comparing the participants’ responses with yearbooks of all the students in that year.Findings: There was 90% accuracy in face and name recognition even with the participants who had left High School 34 years previously.This dropped to 80% after 48 years for name recognition and 40% after 48 years for face recognition.Free recall was less accurate: 60% after 15 years and only 30% after 48 years.Conclusions: Recognition is better than recall.Classmates are rarely forgotten once recognition cues have been given.

Why did Bahrick measure recall in different ways? ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………In a nutshell, what did he find? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..Why did the study have high ecological validity?…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

10KEA July 2012

Choose one further study that supports long duration in LTM (p9)………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Summarising

STM LTMCapacity

Duration

Encoding

(In an exam there could be 3 marks for filling in this table correctly)

The Multistore Model of Memory

The Multistore model of memory is described as a ‘structural model’ as it focuses on three separate and distinct the stores. It also focusses on the linear movement of memory from SM to LTM. However, the processes of attention, maintenance rehearsal, rehearsal and recall are important aspects of the model that must be incorporated into any description of the MSM. Without referral to these processes, you cannot gain full marks.

1. Outline the Multi store model of memory (6 marks)(Include in your answer the distinct nature of each store and the processes which link them).

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

11KEA July 2012

Evaluating the MSMFor the exam you need to learn at least 2 strengths and 2 limitations of the model (Remember strengths can include research support). You have already covered research which supports the characteristics of each store, but there are other very different studies which can also be used to evaluate the MSM The Primacy and Recency Effect. Murdock (1962).

This research is seen as good evidence for the existence of STM and LTM as two separate and distinct stores and therefore supports the MSM.

Class expt; (similar to the Murdock study)

In the following tables note down how many people remembered each word.

Word List Recall1234567891011121314151617181920

The printed number in the above table represents the serial order of the word and the second number (the one you filled in) represents the number of participants who remembered that word.

Serial Position Curve

12KEA July 2012

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

24

Word Order

Num

ber

of

Stu

dents

who r

eca

ll

Describe your findings and whether they support those of Murdock

Your Findings………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

13KEA July 2012

KEY

Figure 2 Murdock's results

Your findings compared to Murdock’s findings………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Glanzer and Cuntiz (1966) delayed the recall of words and used an interpolated task to prevent rehearsal during the delay. They found the recency effect disappeared (see second line on graph below.) This further supported the explanation that the recency effect was due to the STM, and a delay of 30secs caused the data to fade, since STM has a limited duration of approximately 18 secs.

Explain how these findings support the structural components of the MSM

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14KEA July 2012

Clinical studies can also be used to support the evidence for the separate memory stores described by the MSM. The case of Clive Wearing is an example of this;

Evaluation of the MSM Describe two strengths and weaknesses. Justify / provide

evidence to support your evaluations.

Strength 1

Strength 2

Weakness 1

Weakness 2

15KEA July 2012

Review of Research for MSM

Area Researchers Key words

SMSperling

Crowder

STMBaddeley

Conrad

Jacobs

Miller

Peterson & PetersonMarsh

LTMBaddeley

Nelson & RothbartLinton & WagenaarBahrick

MSMMurdock

Glanzer & Cunitz

Clive Wearing

16KEA July 2012

17KEA July 2012

Baddeley & Hitch; The Working Memory ModelAn Extension of our understanding of STM

Try the following tasks:Write down how many windows there are in your home How did you do this?…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

What part of the WMM do you think you were using?…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Here is a telephone number 01572 401639 look at it briefly then cover it up. After 30 seconds write it down but don’t look at it again.

What did you do to try and remember the number?…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

What part of your WM do you think you were using?…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

18KEA July 2012

Multistore Model Mind Map

Since the Working Memory Model extends our understanding of STM, it means that the components of the WMM all have limited capacity and duration as we have seen in the characteristics of the STM in the MSM. It also works with acoustic and visual encoding.

The Components of the WMM

Central Executive The central executive is considered the most important part of working memory, because it controls attention and coordinates the actions of the other components. It has a limited capacity. The central executive is modality free, which means that it can store information in any sense modality.

Phonological LoopThe phonological loop consists of two parts, the articulatory control system and the phonological store:•Articulatory Control System (The Inner Voice) The articulatory control system rehearses information verbally and has a time based capacity of about 2 seconds. It is helpful to think of it as the system that you use to mentally rehearse information by repeating it over and over again.•Phonological Store (The Inner Ear) The phonological store uses a sound based code to store information, but this information decays after about 2 seconds, unless it is rehearsed by the articulatory control system. The phonological store receives its input either directly from the ears or from long term memory.

Visuospatial SketchpadThe visuospatial sketchpad stores and manipulates visual information, input is from the eyes or long term memory. If you imagine an object and then picture it rotating you are using your visuospatial sketchpad. Logie suggested it was subdivided into… Inner scribe which is responsible for spatial 3D tasks Visual cache which is responsible for shape and colour identification

Episodic BufferThe episodic buffer is a fairly recent addition to the working memory model (Baddeley, 2000). Its purpose is to provide temporary storage for the components in all modalities.

Component Supporting Research

CE

D’Esposito 1995

19KEA July 2012

PL

Trojani and Grossi 1995

VSS

Smith & Jonides 1999

EB

Alkhalifa 2009

Dual Task studiesAlthough the research above validates the WMM, there are other studies which support the functionality of the WMM in describing behaviour that cannot be easily explained by the MSM. An example is dual task research.ie; why we can do two tasks in different modalities (eg listening to a conversation and drawing a picture of something else) but struggle when asked to do two tasks using the same modality (eg listening to our mobile phone conversations and the teacher at the same time).

Gathercole & Baddeley 1993 (p15)

Task Modality Level of difficulty when tasks completed simultaneously

Experiment 1

Follow a moving light

Describe the angles on a hollow letter ‘F’Experiment 2

Follow a moving light

Verbal task

20KEA July 2012

Evaluation of Working Memory

Strengths

1. D’Esposito et al, and Smith & Jonides, used medical imaging techniques (fMRI and PET respectively) to identify separate areas of brain activation associated with different subcomponents of the WMM. This is strong empirical evidence.

Researchers Area of brain activated ComponentD’Esposito Prefrontal cortex CESmith & Jonides Left Hemisphere VSS Visual cache

Right Hemisphere VSS Inner Scribe

2. Research where verbal rehearsal is prevented by using articulatory suppression tasks have shown the Articulatory Loop may also hold information about word order and this indicates that the WMM is a complex dynamic system, rather than a static STM store

Extra A* study eg Baddeley and Lewis (1981) visually presented sentences to participants while they performed an articulatory suppression task (e.g., repeating 'hi-ya' over and over again) and asked them to spot mistakes in the sentences. This overloads the limited capacity of the Articulatory Loop. They found that sentences with words in the wrong order were detected less often than sentences where the meaning did not make sense. This seems to indicate that the articulatory loop is important in holding information regarding the order of words.

Weaknesses

1 The most important weakness of the working memory model is that the functions of the central executive are vague and difficult to test. For example, Baddeley claims that the central executive has a limited capacity; however it is not clear how this capacity can be measured independently of the other components.

2 Berz 1995 criticises the model for failing to take into account musical memory. We are able to listen to musical instruments without impairing performance on other acoustic tasks. Hence the Phonological Loop does not account for all acoustic based information as suggested by Baddeley.

21KEA July 2012

Match the description with the component:

Component ActionCentral executive Deals with visual and spatial information

and is involved in pattern recognition and perception of movement (inner eye)

Phonological loop Acts like attention it is modality free and co-ordinates the slave systems

Visuo-spatial scratchpad Holds speech based information (inner ear) and processes inner speech (inner voice)

The WMM extends our understanding of the complexity of the workings of the STM and the dynamic relationship between its central executive and slave components and sub-components.

22KEA July 2012

Outline/Describe the Working Memory model of memory (6 marks)(Without referral to processes, you cannot gain full marks.)

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23KEA July 2012

Furthermore,

Although,

However,

A The WMM….

Start

Q How does the WMM differ from the STM as described by the MSM?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….Exam Paper QA brain scan shows that one area of the brain is more active when a person is doing a verbal task. However, when this person is doing a visual task, a different area of the brain is more active.1 (a) Explain how this could relate to the working memory model. Refer to different parts of the working memory model in your answer.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................(4marks)1 (b) Give an example of an appropriate verbal task and an appropriate visual task which could be used during the brain scan.Verbal task ...............................................................................................................Visual task ...............................................................................................................

Review of Research for WMM

Area Researchers Key words

WMM Baddeley & Hitch

CE D’Esposito

PL Trojani & Grossi

Baddeley & Lewis

24KEA July 2012

Berz

VSS Smith & Jonides

Logie

EB Alkhalifa

25KEA July 2012

Mind Map Working Memory Model

Applying our understanding of Memory;Eyewitness Testimony

Elizabeth Loftus has conducted a huge amount of research in this area and looked at the role of misleading information on the accuracy of eyewitness testimony. Misleading information can come from post-event information or leading questions.

Loftus and Palmer (1974) (A simple outline is given on p19 but you will need more information for an examination question, so use p16 Cardwell & Flanagan Psychology AS; A complete Companion).

How was the investigation carried out?……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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What were the findings of this study?

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What can we conclude from this research?

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What Criticisms can we give?

1 Low validity

3 Other research; Yuille and Cutshall (1986) challenge Loftus because

27KEA July 2012

However,

Moreover,

In addition,

A It lack ecological validity because

Start

Q Why does this study lack validity?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Did you see any broken glass?Loftus & Palmer extended their study following on from the experiment above.(p17 Cardwell & Flanagan)

Briefly, what did they do and what did they find?

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Most pps (34%) were not fooled by the verb smashed, so why was the result important?…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Other research evaluating Loftus’ findings (p20 Lawton, Gross & Rolls)

Researcher Findings Supports/criticises?

Bekerian & Bowers 1983

Loftus 1975

28KEA July 2012

Past Exam QuestionA psychologist carried out a field experiment to investigate the accuracy of eyewitness testimony. The participants were pupils and parents attending a school concert. Just before the concert began, two professional actors had an argument on the stage. During the argument, one actor pushed the other actor. Both actors then left the stage. Some of the audience were approached as they left the concert and were asked to take part in an experiment. Those who agreed were taken to a quiet room and were asked some questions about the argument. For some participants, the questions included, “Did you see the man in glasses push the other man?” In fact, neither man was wearing glasses. The participants were then asked to describe the argument in their own words.3 (a) What is a field experiment?.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................(2marks)3 (b) Other than ethical issues, outline one weakness of using a field experiment in this investigation......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................(2marks)3 (c) Suggest why the psychologist included the question about the man in glasses......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................(2marks)3 (d) The psychologist applied content analysis to each participant’s description of the argument. One behavioural category the psychologist selected was “pushing”.Suggest one other relevant behavioural category the psychologist could select.Explain how the content analysis could be carried out.

Behavioural category .........................................................................................................................................Explanation of how the content analysis could be carried out ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................(1mark + 3marks)

29KEA July 2012

Eye witness testimony; Class Experiment You will be given a picture of a car that has been involved in a crash and also you will construct questionnaires with one critical leading question.

PSYCHOLOGY INVESTIGATION - RESEARCH PLANNING

Area of investigationAim

Operationalised IV

Operationalised DV

HypothesisDirectional /Non-directional.

Experimental designFrom where will you draw your participants?Sampling technique

Ethical issues

Controlling for these ethical issues

Now you should draw a bar chart to summarise the findings from this study. As the data is nominal it is not possible to calculate means but you could use percentages. You should just show what percentage of people answered yes to the critical question in each condition.

Title;……………………………………………………………………………………………….

30KEA July 2012

Summary of findings

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Factors Affecting EWT

1 Anxiety The circumstances that contribute to the impact of an observed incident on a witness can also affect the accuracy of recall and in this section we will look at how the emotional/physiological impact of an event can alter the accuracy of memory recall for that event.The Yerkes–Dodson law suggests that there is a relationship between arousal and performance. The law dictates that performance

increases with physiological or mental arousal, but only up to a point. When levels of arousal become too high, performance decreases. The process is often illustrated graphically as a

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curvilinear, inverted U-shaped curve which increases and then decreases with higher levels of arousal.

The Yerkes Dodson Law is not specific to EWT research but can be applied to it.

Ginet & Verkampt 2007 showed that there is support for applying the Yerkes Dodson Law to EWT cases;.………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Loftus et al (1987) investigated the effect of the presence of a weapon during an incident which lead her to suggest a ‘Weapon Focus Effect’.

What did she do? (p18 Cardwell & Flanagan Psychology AS – The Complete Companion)

.……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

What did she find? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

What support is there for these findings?

1 Steblay 1992 (p18 Cardwell & Flanagan)

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2 Christianson & Hubinette 1993 (p18 Cardwell & Flanagan) What did they do & what did they find?…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………Does this study support or contradict Loftus’ research on weapon focus?……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………Can the findings be explained by the Yerkes-Dodson Law?…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..How does this study compare with Loftus’ weapon focus study, in terms of ecological validity?…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

Loftus was and is renowned for her work in this area and has attended many criminal trials as an expert witness. Overleaf is an article describing a case she worked on and the link that can be made between her research (weapon focus) and anxiety.

In 1981, Clarence Von Williams was accused of raping Sally Blackwell and her teenage daughter (Loftus & Ketcham, 1991). The rapist himself also possessed a weapon, which he used to threaten both of the victims. After the crime, Sally was interviewed by the police and gave a description of the rapist. Later, Sally’s boyfriend, Bob, continually pressed her for details, insisting that she had to have known or seen the perpetrator somewhere before. Finally, he asked if Sally had possibly seen the criminal at a party. Once he made the reference to a party, something suddenly clicked in her head. She remembered attending a party with her friend Lois, and her husband Clarence. In her mind, the description of the man she saw perfectly matched that of Clarence Von Williams, which is part of the reason why he was brought up on charges (Loftus & Ketcham, 1991). Later when the real criminal confessed, Sally was in disbelief. In her mind, Clarence Von Williams was, in fact, the man who committed horrific acts against her. Sally had spent time with Clarence before, but his face was from an entirely different source. Unconsciously and unintentionally, Sally had replaced the memory of her actual rapist with the face of Clarence Von Williams (Loftus & Ketcham, 1991).

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When put on the stand, Loftus cited research about the weapon focus effect. Given the fact that Sally and her daughter’s rapist possessed a gun, Loftus says that their ability to process and store the memory of the event and the perpetrator was significantly reduced (Loftus & Ketcham, 1991). The principle Loftus refers to is the Yerkes-Dodson law, which states that extreme stress has profound, debilitating consequences on memory acquisition and retrieval (Loftus & Ketcham, 1991). Not only had Sally Blackwell unconsciously made a source monitoring error, known as unconscious transference; but she was also negatively affected by the presence of a weapon in the crime.

2 Age

Psychologists use research studies to draw conclusions and make generalisations about what factors influence the accuracy of memory recall but there are always individual differences and external elements that contribute to the accuracy of recall. The age of the witness is a type of individual difference that can have an influence on the accuracy of recall.

Complete the table to indicate what some research has found when looking at witness recall for different age groups. (Top p23 Lawton, Gross & Rolls)

Age Group Research Findings (general)

Children1

2

3

Older people 1

2

Anastasi & Rhodes (2006) carried out a correlation to investigate the association between the age of the observer and the age of observed. This has led to the concept of ‘own age bias’ ( P19, Cardwell & Flanagan ‘Psychology AS- A Complete Companion’)

What they did; ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….What they found; ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….What support is there for these findings? ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………When carrying out EWT research, why is it important to consider own age bias?……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Building Evaluation for the effect of AGE on EWT (use research p23 Lawton, Gross & Rolls)

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Experimental Methods in EWT research

Although most of the research in EWT has utilised the laboratory experiment there have been other types of experiments used. All experiments have an IV and a DV but some experiments are carried outside the lab in a natural environment – these are known as F………….. E……………………….. In these experiments the IV is still manipulated by the experimenter but in a N……………………….. S……………………………….. The IV is naturally occurring and not manipulated by the experimenter. The study by Christianson and Hubinette was a N………………… E…………………………. Because the IV was N………………………… O………………………………….and therefore was not controlled by the experimenter.

Below are some examples of EWT studies.Sat whether they are LAB, FIELD or NATURAL experiments:

1. Participants were shown a film clip and then asked either leading or non-leading questions about the clip. Their responses were recorded.

………………………….2. Researchers set up a situation where there was a fake robbery in a

supermarket car park. The people in the car park who witnessed the robbery 36

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Furthermore…….

However….

In addition..…

A

Start

Q What evidence is there to support the findings that the EWT of older people is more vulnerable to post event information and misleading questions?

were then interviewed about what they saw. Some were given leading questions and others were not.

……………………………..3. Researchers looked at the effects of age on EWT and interviewed primary

aged children and older adults about the events leading up to a robbery on a video. The results for the two age groups were recorded.

………………………………….

The Cognitive interviewOne of the strengths of the work of Loftus is that it highlighted problems with interviewing witnesses and showed us that inaccurate information is common especially if leading questions are used. Because of her research there were changes to the standard interviewing techniques and this has led to the cognitive interview. This was developed by Geiselman 1987.

What 3 features of standard police interviews did Fisher et al (1987) discover in Florida? (bottom of p32 Nelson Thornes)1 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………2…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………3…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Briefly outline the four principles developed by Geiselman in the Cognitive Interview. (p27 Lawton, Gross & Rolls).

ContextReinstatement (CR)

ReportEverything (RE)

Recall fromChanged Perspective (CP)

Change ofNarrative order (CNO)

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Fisher 1987 also proposed some changes to the Cognitive interview which became known as the Enhanced Cognitive Interview; (bottom p27 Lawton, Gross & Rolls)

1………………………………………………………………………………………………………………2………………………………………………………………………………………………………………3………………………………………………………………………………………………………………4………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Evaluating the Cognitive Interview

Geiselman et al 1985 (below table p33 Nelson Thornes)

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….Milne & Bull (2002) (top p34 Nelson Thornes) ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………Geiselman et al 1985 (top p34 Nelson Thornes)

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Applying your knowledge Q You have been asked to advise a police officer who is just about to interview an eye witness to a robbery. The eye witness is only 5 years old. Using your knowledge about research findings on AGE and accuracy of EWT plus the research by Geiselman (above) what advice would you give the police officer.

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Past Exam QuestionTraditionally, police have questioned eye witnesses using the standard interview procedure. This involves a period of free recall about an event, followed by specific questions. However, an increasing number of police forces are now using the cognitive interview technique.

Explain how a cognitive interview differs from a standard interview. (Look at the detail in the question. For full marks both standard and cognitive interview techniques must be mentioned)

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.......................................................................................................... (4marks)Building Evaluation for Cognitive Interview Technique

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A* Extra (p27

Lawton, Gross &

Rolls)

Geiselman was influenced by the work of Tulving in developing the CI. What features of Tulving’s work underpin the CI?

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Review of Research on Accuracy of EWT

Area Researchers Key words

Leading Questions

Loftus & Palmer

Loftus & Palmer

Smashed/contacted

Broken glass?

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However….

Furthermore….

In addition..…

A

StartQ What support is there for the effectiveness of CI in improving the accuracy of EWT?

Yuille & Cutshall

LoftusBarn

Bekerian & Bowers

Anxiety Yerkes Dodson

Ginet & Verkampt

LoftusWeapon Focus

Steblay

Christianson & Hubinette

Loftus & KetchamSally Blackwell

Age

Age (contd)

Anastasi & Rhodes

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……………………..

……………………….

………………………..

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Cognitive Interview

FisherStandard interviews

GeiselmanCI

FisherECI

GeiselmanVideos of simulated crime

Milne & bull

GeiselmanCI & children

Past Paper QAn American space shuttle exploded soon after it was launched. All of the astronauts were killed. Crowds of people were watching, including friends and relatives of the astronauts. Six months after the explosion, a student decided to investigate the accuracy of some of the eyewitnesses’ memory of this event.

1(a) Outline how the student could have used a cognitive interview to investigate this event. Include at least one example of what the participants would be asked to do. (4 marks)

1(b) Explain how anxiety might have affected eyewitness testimony of this event. Refer to psychological research in your answer. (6 marks)

1(c) Explain why it might be better to carry out research into eyewitness testimony in the real world, rather than in a laboratory. (3 marks)

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Strategies for Memory Improvement (LTM)

Context, Organisation and Understanding play key roles in accurate recall. There are many strategies for learning based on these two key factors.

Complete the table below (p29-33 Lawton, Gross & Rolls)

Strategies Sub types Research SupportRetrieval Cues Context Dependent Abernethy

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Mind Map; Accuracy of EWT

(LTM)Description Godden & Baddeley

State Dependent Overton

Darley

Mnemonics (LTM)Description

Visual; Method of Loci Marston & Young 1974

Bower & Clarke 1969Verbal; Acronym

Active Processing (LTM)Description

Craik & Lockhart

Morris et al

Rehearsal (LTM)

Chunking (STM)Description

Simon

Baddeley

Why do some people find Mind Maps useful when revising?…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………(3marks)

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In the following passages there are some techniques that are often used for studying and memorising information. Look through the passage and name the general technique that is being described

Index Study System

The index study system can be used to help a person to review material as well as be honest with himself or herself about how well they know the information. This system forces the person to think about the material, instead of simply looking over it. There are seven short steps to the index study system. Other materials needed to complete the steps are index cards, and a pen.

The first step asks the student to read and review their notes and the text a few times. This keeps the information fresh in the mind of the student.

The second step is for the student to generate questions about the material. One way to think of questions is to imagine what may be asked on a quiz or test about the material.

The third step asks the student to keep a list of unfamiliar terms in the readings, handouts, and notes.

In Step four the student writes down the questions they have about the material, as well as the unfamiliar terms, on index cards. There should only be one question or term per index card. On the other side of the index card the student will write the answer or the definition. The student should try to write the answer or definition in his or her own words, instead of copying directly from the main source.

The fifth step is to shuffle the cards. This may not seem important, but one may be able to recite an answer just by being aware of the order of the cards.

Step six directs the student to answer the question or define the term on the first card. If the student answers correctly, place the card on the bottom of the pile. If the student answers incorrectly, look at the answer, study it, and then place the card in the top third of the deck. By doing this, the student will come across the question again soon and have another opportunity to answer it correctly.

The final step of the index study system is to continue reviewing the cards as indicated in step six until the student has answered all the questions in the deck of index cards correctly.

The index cards can be carried in a pocket or a purse just about anywhere. Use any available time, even if it is only a few minutes, to study the cards. Try answering the questions aloud, as this is the best indication that the student knows the correct answer. Finally, the index cards can be used to study with another person.

Memorization Techniques

Students who have a natural ability to easily memorize facts, figures, and procedures may have an easier time taking tests and may earn higher scores on exams. After all, being able to memorize more easily allows you to quickly answer fact-based questions and provide more detailed answers on essay questions. Fortunately, for those students who may have some trouble memorizing, there are different techniques that can help you improve your memory.

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Name…………………………………

Name……………………………………

One technique is to create an acronym, which is when you combine letters to form a word. The word may be real or made up. Each of the letters in the word is meant to trigger your memory to help you remember an item. For example, the letters EWT are an acronym used to help remember Eye Witness Testimony.

Another technique is to create an acrostic, which is a sentence where the first letter of each word represents an idea that you need to remember.

When you need to remember a list, either in a specific or a random order, using rhyme-keys may help. The idea is to associate key words in the list of things you need to remember with numbers.

Finally, a memorization method that is useful when you need to remember names is an image-name technique. With this technique, you take a physical characteristic of a person and associate it with his or her name.

Applying your knowledge

Katie is revising for her driving theory test. She needs to remember a variety of information such as rules relating to speed limits and stopping distances.Outline two strategies that Kate might use to improve her recall and explain why EACH of the strategies that you suggest would improve recall. (The strategy must be appropriate for the task)

Strategy 1………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…(2)Strategy 2……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………(2)

Past paper QQ Psychology students sometimes revise for an exam by reading their notes over and over again. However, psychologists suggest that other memory improvement strategies may be more effective.Explain how a student could use their knowledge of strategies for memory improvement (other than repetition) to help revise for a psychology exam...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

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Name…………………………………

Name…………………………………………

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Building Evaluation for Memory Improvement Strategies Technique

A* Extra (p27 Lawton, Gross & Rolls)

Can you link what you learned about Tulving’s Encoding Specificity Theory to memory improvement strategies?………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

PSYA1 Cognitive Psychology Checklist

Models of Memory CoveredEncodingCapacityDurationDigit Span TechniqueCapacity in STM (Jacob’s/Miller)Duration in STM (Peterson & Peterson’s Trigram expt)Conrad’s acoustic confusion exptEncoding in STM (Baddeley)

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However….

Furthermore….

In addition..…

A

StartQ Evaluate the use of visual imagery strategies to enhance memory?

Encoding in LTM (Baddeley)Capacity in LTMDuration in LTM (Bahrick)MSM (Atkinson & Shiffrin)Sensory Memory (Sperling/ Crowder)Sensory Memory characteristicsProcesses of transfer in MSMEvaluation of MSM; Primacy-Recency Effect (Murdock/Glanzer)Evaluation of MSM; Clinical studies/Clive Wearing2 Strengths of MSM2 Weaknesses of MSMWMM (Baddeley & Hitch)Characteristics of ‘Slaves’; CE, PL, VS & Sub Slaves; AL, PS,IS & VCProcess of transfer in WMMEvaluating WMM; D’Esposito etcEB (Alkhalifa)2 Strengths of WMM2 Weaknesses of WMM

Memory in Everyday Life CoveredEWT Leading Questions (Loftus & Palmer)Evaluation; Berkerian & BowersEvaluation; Yuille & CutshallFactors Affecting EWT; Age Anastasi & Rhodes)Factors Affecting EWT; Age (other researchers)Factors Affecting EWT; Anxiety (Yerkes-Dodson Law)Factors Affecting EWT; Anxiety (Weapon Focus - Loftus)Evaluation of Weapon Focus (Christianson&Hubinette & others)Characteristics of a standard interview (Fisher)The 4 characteristics of the Cognitive Interview (Geiselman)Evaluation of Cognitive Interview; Strengths & WeaknessesStrategies for Memory improvement; Retrieval cuesStrategies for Memory improvement; Method of Loci/AcronymnsStrategies for Memory improvement; Active ProcessingStrategies for Memory improvement; RehearsalStrategies for Memory improvement; Chunking (STM only)

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