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College of Education
School of Continuing and Distance Education 2014/2015 – 2016/2017
PSYC 335
Developmental Psychology I
Session 9 – Development in early childhood (2-6 years)
Lecturer: Dr. Joana Salifu Yendork Department of Psychology
Contact Information: [email protected]
godsonug.wordpress.com/blog
Session Overview
Slide 2
• Childhood stage is divided into early and middle childhood
and each stage has its unique changes. In this session, the
focus will be on the changes in physical and cognitive and
socio-emotional domains during the early childhood period of development. It will also discuss parenting styles and their role oŶ ĐhildreŶ’s soĐio-emotional development as well as the
effeĐt of Đhild ŵaltreatŵeŶt oŶ ĐhildreŶ’s ǁ ell-being.
Session Outline
Slide 3
The key topics to be covered in the session are as follows:
• Physical development
• Cognitive development
• Socio-emotional development
Reading List
Slide 4
• Read Chapters 7 & 8 of Development through the lifespan, Berk (2006)
Topic One
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
Slide 5
Body changes
• Body growth slows – Average growth: 2–3 inches and 5 pounds/2.27 Kg a year
• Physical growth is asynchronous: Body systems differ in patterns of growth – General growth curve: rapid growth in infancy, slower in early
and middle childhood, and rapid growth in adolescence- height, weight, some internal organs
– Lymph glands (fighting infections and nutrients absorption) grow at very fast rate, while genitals develop slowly
• Body shape becomes more streamlined as baby fat drops off
• BegiŶ to lose priŵary or ͞ďaďy ͟ teeth Slide 6
Brain development • Rapid growth in frontal lobe areas devoted to
planning and organization. • For most children, left hemisphere more active;
increase in right hemisphere activity is gradual • Linking areas of the brain develop rapidly to
increase coordinated functioning of CNS – Cerebellum (balance control of body temperature-
thinking, motor coordination) – Reticular formation (maintains alertness and
consciousness-controlled attention) – Corpus callosum: connect the two cortical hemispheres-
coordination of movement and integration of cognitive activities (thinking, memory, language ect).
Slide 7
Handedness
• Reflects dominant cerebral hemisphere
– Right-handed (90%) - left hemisphere
– Left-handed (10%) - both hemispheres
• less strongly lateralized
• May be genetic basis, but affected by experience
– Position in uterus, practice, culture
• Few left-handers show
developmental problems
– Left hemisphere damage may link left-handedness & some mental problems
Slide 8
Motor Development • Gross Motor Skills
– Balance improves
– Gait/steps becomes smooth and rhythmic by age 2 • enabling running, jumping, hopping, skipping
– Upper- and lower-body skills combine into more refined actions by age 5
– Greater speed and endurance
• Fine Motor Skills – Apparent in two areas
– Self-help: dressing, eating
– Drawing and painting
Slide 9
Influences on physical growth
Slide 10
• Heredity and hormones: – GeŶes iŶflueŶĐe groǁ t h ďy ĐoŶtrolliŶg the ďody’s produĐtioŶ of horŵoŶes – The pituitary gland releases two hormones
• Growth hormone for development of body tissues (except the CNS and genitals)
• Thyroid-stimulating hormone for activating release of thyroxine necessary for brain development and for GH to have its full impact on body size
• Emotional well-being – Extreme emotional deprivation can interfere with production of growth
hormones • Psychosocial dwarfism (appears between age 2 and 15):
– very short stature, decreased GH secretion, immature skeletal age, and serious adjustment problems
• Nutrition • Infectious diseases • Childhood injuries
Topic Two
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Slide 11
Piaget’s theory: The PreoperatioŶal Stage
• Ages 2 to 7
• Children represent the world with words, images, and drawings
• Sub-stages
– Preconceptual substage (2 – 4 yrs.): Children gain ability to
mentally represent an object that is not present
– Intuitive thought substage (5-7 yrs): Children use primitive
reasoning and want to know the answers to questions
• Gains in mental representation
– Make-believe Play
– Symbol-Real World Relations Slide 12
Piaget’s theory: The PreoperatioŶal Stage
Slide 13
Make-believe play • Through pretending, children practice and
strengthen newly acquired representational schemes. – Social skills, attention, memory, imagination,
creativity
• With age, make-believe play gradually becomes: – More detached from real life condition, eg., use toy
phone for calls, then use other objects for calls – Less self-centred e.g., children may pretend to
feed a toy
– More complex • Sociodramatic play
Slide 14
Symbol-real world relations
• Dual Representation – Viewing a symbolic object as both an
object and a symbol
– Mastered around age 3
• Adult teaching can help Provide maps, photos, drawings, and
opportunities for make-believe play to support child’s experience with symbols
Point out similarities to real world
Slide 15
Limitations of preoperational thought
• Egocentrism and animistic thinking
– Egocentrism: Failure to distinguish other people’s ǀ ie ǁ froŵ oŶe’s oǁ Ŷ
– Animism: Belief that inanimate objects
have lifelike qualities and are capable of action
– Egocentrism.mp4
Slide 16
Limitations of preoperational thought
Slide 17
• Inability to conserve – Conservation refers to the idea that certain physical
characteristics of objects remain the same even when their outward appearance changes
– ..\..\..\First Sem_2015-2016\First Sem\PSYC 335\videos on infant socio dev\Piaget - Stage 2 - Preoperational - Lack of Conservation.mp4
• Inability to conserve reflect: – Centration: Focusing on one aspect of a situation and neglecting
other important features • child centres on height of glass neglecting width
• child treat initial and final states of water as unrelated
– Irreversibility: Inability to mentally reverse a set of steps
Conservation task
Slide 18
Limitations of preoperational thought
Slide 19
• Lack of hierarchical classification
– Using criteria to sort objects on the basis of characteristics such as shape, colour, function, etc.
– Lack class inclusion, the ability to relate the whole class
(furry animals) to its subclasses (dogs, cats)
– They do not understand that the subclasses are included within the whole class
Limitations of preoperational thought
Slide 20
Topic Three
SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Slide 21
Emotional Development • Expressing emotions – more self-conscious emotions
– Eg., Pride, shame, embarrassment, and guilt are examples of self-conscious emotions
– During the early childhood years, emotions such as pride and guilt become more common
• Understanding emotions: linked to an increase in prosocial behavior (actions intended to help others) – Children begin to understand that the same event can elicit different feelings in
different people – By age 5 most children show a growing awareness of the need to manage
emotions according to social standards • Regulating emotions: Plays a key role in children’s ability to manage
the demands and conflicts they face in interacting with others – Parents can be described as taking an emotion-coaching or an emotion-
dismissing approach – Ability to modulate emotions benefits children in their relationships with peers
Slide 22
Personality: Initiative versus guilt (Erikson)
Slide 23
• Age 3 – 6
• Children use their perceptual, motor, cognitive, and language skills to make things happen
• Conflict at this stage is the struggle between wanting to do things independently and the guilt that comes with failure
• To support positive resolution, parents should: • Provide opportunities for decision-making and self-reliance • Offer direction and guidance • Encourage children’s initiative
– Parents who discourage children’s efforts toward initiative may contribute toward child’s feelings of guilt and may negatively impact their self-concept
Gender Identity
Slide 24
• Gender identity iŶǀ olǀ es a seŶse of oŶe’s oǁ Ŷ gender, including knowledge, understanding, and
acceptance of being male or female (Santrock, 2011).
• Differences in the way we treat boys and girls begin
at birth
• Gender differences manifest in children’s play
– Boys – more rough-housing, wrestling
– Girls – more time in structured activities and role-playing
– Girls prefer same sex playmates at approximately 2; boys
typically do not begin the show preference until age 3
Parenting and socioemotional deǀ ’t
Slide 25
• Parents should be neither punitive nor aloof; they should
develop rules for their children and be affectionate with
them (Baumrind, 1971)
• Baumrind’s parenting styles
– Four parenting styles based on levels acceptance and involvement, control, and autonomy granting:
• Authoritarian
• Authoritative
• Permissive
• Uninvolved
Authoritarian
• Controlling, bossy, rigid rules, all decisions are made for the
child
• Restrictive, punitive style in which parents exhort the child to follow their directions and respect their work and effort
• Associated with • low self-esteem
• child tends to withdraw
• uneasiness with peers
• Distrustful
• Often rebel
• High risk of drug use and sexual promiscuity
Slide 26
Indulgent (permissive)
• Parents are highly involved with their children but place few demands or controls on them; – make few rules which are inconsistently enforced
– Little respect for order and routine
– Chaotic environment
• It is associated with – lack of self-control
– Low persistence to challenging tasks
– Difficulty with authority
– Low self-esteem
– Inflated sense of self
– AĐt ͞spoil ͟
Slide 27
Uninvolved (neglectful)
•The pareŶt is ǀ ery uŶiŶǀ olǀ ed iŶ the Đhild’s life, shoǁ indifference towards children; emotionally detached from children – ͞pareŶtiŶg ͟ iŶǀ olǀ es just supplyiŶg food, ĐlothiŶg aŶd shelter
• Children display • low self-esteem
• immature
• may be alienated from the family
• may be delinquent as adolescents
• Lack social skills
• Easily conform to peers
• At risk for sexual promiscuity
Slide 28
Authoritative parenting
•Encourages children to be independent but still places
limits and controls on their actions
– ŵoŶitor ĐhildreŶ’s ďehaǀ ior to eŶsure that they folloǁ through rules and expectation (in a loving manner)
– Children tend to be
• independent,
• assertive
• have strong motive to achieve
• regulate behavior effectively
• task persistent
• self control
Slide 29
Child Maltreatment
Slide 31
• Types of child maltreatment
– Physical abuse
– Child neglect
– Sexual abuse
– Emotional abuse
Forms of maltreatment
• Physical abuse: any injury purposely
inflicted upon a child.
– This can include kicking, biting, violent shaking, hair pulling, choking, burning
or beating.
• Sexual abuse: any sexual act between a child and an adult.
– May or may not involve actual intercourse
– Forcing children to observe various
sexual acts
Slide 32
Forms of maltreatment • Emotional abuse: verbal abuse or an
attitude that is degrading a child – Can include name calling, screaming,
shaming or negatively comparing a child to another "good" child.
• Neglect: failing to provide for a child's basic needs – Can include inappropriate clothing for the
weather, unhealthy food (or no food at all), lack of supervision, denial of medical care to a sick or injured child or denial of love and affection.
– Emotional absence of a parent or a caregiver
Slide 33
Factors related to child maltreatment
• History of child abuse
• Stress and lack of support
• Substance use
• Characteristics of the child
• The community context: lack of counselling to distressed parents
• The larger culture: laws regarding child
abuse and steps taking when parents
abuse children
Slide 34
Developmental consequences of child
maltreatment
Slide 35
• Emotional problems – Poor emotional self-regulation
– Depression
• Adjustment difficulties – Aggression
– Peer problems
– Substance abuse
– Delinquency
• School and learning problems
• Brain damage
Sample Question
Slide 36
• Discuss the psychological implications of child maltreatment oŶ ĐhildreŶ’s socio-emotional well- being.
References
• Baumrind, D. (1971). Current patterns of parental authority. Developmental Psychology Monographs, 4 (1, Pt.2), 1-103.
• Santrock, J. W. (2011). Life-span development (13th Edition). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Slide 37