PSY118 Reviewer - LT 1

8/11/2019 PSY118 Reviewer - LT 1

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Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION AND HISTORY OF I/O PSYCHOLOGY

4 Ms of Work Environment:

1. Machine

2. Money

3. Method

4. Man

Psychology - Scientific study of behavior and mental processes

-

Step by step approach to understand how human behaviors evolve or why people act in a certain

manner and then how to channelize those behaviorsIndustrial/Organizational Psychology - Study of human behavior in work settings

- Applied psychology science of people at work.

- Applies principles of psychology to bring about changes in work behavior

Areas of Study in I/O Psych:

1.

Basic personnel functions within organizations – recruitment and selection, training and development,

performance measurement

2. Psychological processes underlying work behavior – work motivation, job satisfaction, stress

3. Group processes in the work place – relationships between supervisors and subordinates

Applications of I/O Psych:

1. Individual Work Behaviors - underlying psychological processes that affect work behavior

2.

Group Processes: Relationships- boss and staff, intra/inter group dynamics3.

Human Resource Functions – recruitment and selection, training and development, performance

management

Scientist-Practitioner Model:

- Use psychological principles to understand and solve real world problems

- Scientific research on human work behavior understand the behavior

-

Application to the world of work improve behavior, environment and psychological conditions of

employees

I/O Professions:

1. Human Resource Management/ Organization Development - in-house, dedicated to only one organization

2. Academe - researchers, professors,

3.

Organization Consulting - independent, provides services to different organizationsHuman Resource Management:

1.

HR Planning

2.

Recruitment and Selection

3. Performance Appraisal

4. Employee Relations

5. Training and Development

6. Career Development

7.

Compensation and Rewards

History of I/O Psychology:

W.L. Bryan - coined the term, "industrial psychology" (1904)Founding Fathers of I/O Psychology:

Walter Dill Scott – salespersons and the psychology of advertising

-

First professor in the new field

-

Opened a short-lived personnel consulting firm in 1919

Hugo Munsterberg - work and personnel selection for jobs

Frederick Taylor - believed that there was “one best method” for performing a particular job

o Scientific Management – using scientific principles to improve the efficiency and productivity of jobs

o Time and Motion Studies – work tasks are broken down into simple component movements and

timed to develop a more efficient method for performing the tasks

Lilian Moller Gilbreth - emphasized that human beings are the most important element in industry

-

Studied elements of human motion (“therblig”) with husband Frank - Among the first to recognize effect of stress and fatigue to workers

- One of the first I/O women psychologists



World War I:

Robert Yerkes – president of the American Psychological Association who worked with US Army to create

intelligence tests for the placement of Army recruits

o Army Alpha – literates

o Army Beta – nonliterate

1920 – Industrial psychology began to take hold as US experienced tremendous industrial growth

1921 – First doctoral degree in industrial psychology was awarded

-

Psychologists worked directly with industries as consultants and researches

James McKeen Cattell – founded the Psychological Corporation in 1921Elton Mayo – wanted to study the effects of the physical work environment on worker productivity in a

manufacturing plant of the Western Electric Company in Hawthorne Illinois

o Hawthorne Studies - behavioral changes occurring as a result of awareness amongst the employees

that they are being observed while performing the task, leading to both positive and negative results

o

Human Relations Movement – recognized the importance of social factors and something called

“worker morale” in influencing work productivity

- Harmonious work environment + good interpersonal relationships

among coworkers = productive work environment

- Workers in repetitive or low-level position (jobs that do not provide

satisfaction) will turn to the social environment of the work setting

for motivationWorld War II:

Army General Classification Test (AGCT) - Situational stress tests by the U.S. Office of Strategic Services

- Selection and training of pilots and measures of soldier attitude and morale

- Separate recruits into categories based on their abilities to learn military

duties and responsibilities

Post War and Modern Era:

Ergonomics – engineering psychology, human factors psychology

-

Spurred by the growth of the defense industry

Personnel Psychology – testing, selection, evaluation of employees

Development of college and graduate programs in I/O psychology

Civil Rights Legislation – had a major impact on I/O psychology-

Banned discrimination in employment practices

-

Forced organizations to take a closer look at the ways people were selected for jobs

-

Establish ad implement fair employment standards

Current Times:

I/O psychology is one of the fastest growing areas of psychology.

Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP) – professional organization of I/O psych

4 Key Trends in Work Place:

1.

Changing nature of work and rapidly expounding nature of jobs

o Organizations are becoming flatter, with fewer levels in the hierarchy, and being broken up into

smaller subunits with greater emphasis on work teams.o Organizational Downsizing – strategy of reducing an organization’s workforce to improve

organizational efficiency, productivity, and/or competitiveness

-

May be because of technological advancements (computers) and

economic downturns (having fewer workers do more work)

o

Outsourcing of Work – contracting with an external organization to accomplish tasks

2. Expanding focus on human resources

o Organizations realized that skilled and creative workers are the keys to success

o Greater focus on personnel issues recruiting, screening, testing potential workers

o

Talent Management – became a buzzword in organizations

-

emphasis on the value of workers and the need to select, care for, and

develop workers’ talents o Organizations will have to compete ferociously to attract and keep the best workers.

o Companies will have to offer more enticing benefit programs to attract and retain best workers

family-friendly policies, sponsored childcare, extended family leaves

o

Older workers will be retrained often to remain contributing members of the workforce.



3.

Increasing diversity and globalization of the workplace

o

Women and ethnic minorities

o Increased workforce diversity can help organizations:

Understand and reach new markets for products and services

Help in recruiting and retaining the best workers

Permeate entire organizational culture reduced conflict, greater cooperation among

workers, increased flexibility and innovation

o

Can also create great difficulties in the functioning of work teams increased conflict, inhibiting

cooperation, impeding performanceo Key to dealing successfully with diversity will involve getting beyond the surface issues that divide

people and getting at the deeper benefits that diversity brings.

4. Increasing relevancy of I/O psychology in policy and practice

o

Bigger impact on improvement of performance and making better working conditions

o

Issues that still need to be addressed:

Selecting and developing better organizational leaders

Workforce diversity and globalization

Optimal management and development of talent

Embracing positive change and innovation

Ulrich's Strategic HR Roles:



Chapter 2: RESEARCH METHODS IN I/O PSYCHOLOGY

Social Scientific Research Methods - describe, explain and predict phenomenon

- Unbiased approach to observation and interpretation of behavior by the IO

psychologist / researcher.

- Objectivity of the social scientific research method that distinguishes it from

others, when applied in the work area

Research Methodology – set of procedures and guidelines that allow us to investigate the hows and whys of human

behavior and to predict when certain behavior will and will not occur

Objectivity – overarching theme of scientific research methods in general and of social science research methods inparticular

Research Process:

1. Research Problem - idea or question what to research?

2.

Hypothesis - educated prediction

-

Statements about the supposed relationship between or among variables

a. Variables – factors to measure

b. Theory/Model - basis of predicted relationship between variables

- supposed relationship between variables

- organization of beliefs into a representation of the factors that affect behavior

3. Research Design - Detailed plan for data collection and analysis

-

Types of questions:o

Exploratory

o

Descriptive

o Explanatory/ Predictive

- Major Research Designs:

a. Experimental Method - Most commonly used research method

-

Gives the researcher a very high degree of control over the variables and

research setting

-

Determines the cause and effect relationships among the variables

- One major drawback is the artificiality creating a setting that is quite

different from the actual work setting

i.

Field experiment – actual work settingii.

Independent variable - controlled and manipulated by researcher

iii.

Dependent variable - resultant variable, which is acted upon by the independent variable

iv.

Extraneous variables - variables other than the independent variables which may influence

the outcome

v. Treatment group - group which undergoes change

vi. Control group - group which is not exposed to desired change

vii. Random Assignment – assigning subjects to groups by chance to control for the effects of

extraneous variables

viii.

Vigilant Decision Making – scans and considers all information in an orderly, sequential

fashion, taking into account all information, and reviewing all alternatives before making a

decisionix. Hypervigilant Decision Making – scans only the information that is needed in a particular

circumstance and scanning of information does not follow a systematic, ordered sequence

b.

Quasi-Experimental - experimental method but lacks the control or manipulation of sample / testing

group (independent variable)

-

As a result, analysis is largely about the group rather than individuals

- Cause-and-effect relationships cannot be determined

- Quite common in I/O psych because of the difficulties in controlling

extraneous variables

-

Researchers often try to measure as many possible extraneous variables as

they can in order to statistically control for their effects

c.

Correlational Method - Unlike experimental method, this methods studies the relations betweenvariables happening naturally

- Known as the observational method

- No manipulation of the variables in there



-

More workable in real work situations as it thrives on observation and study

of data to interpret the results (field research)

- Cannot determine cause-and-effect relationships

- Can be conducted with archival data

o Archival data – data that an organization has already collected

i. Multiple Regression Design – examine the relationship between a particular outcome and

multiple predictors

-

Allows the researcher to determine how a number of variables

correlate with a certain outcomeii. Mediation Model – the relationship between 2 variables is hypothesized to be explained by

or mediated by a third variable (mediator variable)

d. Meta-Analysis - research method that allows the results of 2 or more studies to be combined

together to get a probable conclusion or interpretation

-

Conducted when there are 20 or more separate studies of a given hypothesis or

topic

- The different studies may have some variables in common or may be totally

different

- Provides a holistic view

i. Effect Size – estimate of the magnitude of the relationship between any variable X and

variable Y (correlational)-

Size of the effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable

(experimental design)

ii. Correlational Coefficient – describes the relationships between variables

e. Case Study - allows only one time assessment of the behavior or application of the intervention to a

single group

-

More of a descriptive investigation and is quite open ended

-

Thrives well in uncontrolled test environment

4.

Data Collection - selection of testing group for a study

a. Sampling – selection of a representative group from a larger population for study

i. Random Sampling – each individual has an equal probability of selection

ii.

Stratified Sampling – division of the sampling population based on some defined groups andlevels / functions in the organization

5.

Data Analysis - statistical analysis of the data collected for interpretation

-

Takes into account both the quantitative and the qualitative data

a. Statistics – arithmetical procedures designed to help summarize and interpret data

6. Interpreting Results - drawing conclusions about the meaning of the results and their relevance to the actual

work behavior

- Understanding the relation between various parameters

Measurement of Variables:

Operationalized – clearly defining a research variable so that it can be measured

2 Techniques in Measuring Variables in I/O Psychology:1. Observation – recording certain behaviors that they have defined as the operationalized variable

a.

Obtrusive Observation – researcher is visible to the persons being observed

-

Participants may behave differently because they know they are part of a

research investigation

b.

Unobtrusive Observation – participants are unaware of the researcher’s presence and do no know

that their behavior is being studied

- Researcher can be fairly confident that the recorded behavior is typical

but there are ethical concerns about protecting the privacy of the

participants

2.

Self-Report – relying on research participants’ reports of their own behaviors and attitudes

-

Allows the researcher to collect massive amounts of data relatively inexpensive- Requires thorough knowledge of measurement theory as well as research methods and

statistics

a. Surveys – common self-report measure in which participants are asked to report on their attitudes,

beliefs, behaviors



-

There is a possibility of distortion or bias of responses

Reliability – stability of a measure over time or the consistency of the measure stable, consistent, and free of

random error

- Agreement between 2 or more assessments made of the same event or behavior

Validity – accuracy of inferences or projections we draw from measurements

- Whether a set of measurements allows accurate inferences or projections about something else

Rigor of the Study – follow good social science practices, well-designed, drawing appropriate conclusions

Independent Variables in I/O Psychology:

Amount and frequency of compensation Styles of supervision

Work schedules

Incentive programs

Dependent Variables in I/O Psychology:

Productivity

Work quality

Employee turnover/ absenteeism/ satisfaction theoretically tied to one another

Employee Engagement – attitudes about their job, the organization, and their commitment to it

Internal Validity – extent to which extraneous or confounding variables are removed

- Deals with how confident we are that the change in a dependent variable was actually caused by

the independent variable, as opposed to the extraneous variableExternal Validity – whether research results obtained in one setting will apply to another setting

Ethical Issues in I/O Psychology:

Guiding Principles (as listed by the American Psychological Association):

1. Striving to benefit the persons with whom the psychologist is working and taking care to do no harm

2.

Being honest and accurate in the science, teaching, and practice of psychology

3.

Respecting the rights of people to privacy and confidentiality

Informed Consent – a research participant is fully informed of the nature of the experiment and has the right not to

participate

Participants must be debriefed at the end of the research.

Researchers must also protect the privacy of research participants by either collecting data anonymously orkeeping the data confidential.

Quantitative Data – measurement data

- Numerical representation of a variable dependent variables

- Ex.: weight on a scale, a score on a test, grade point average

Qualitative Data – categorical or frequency data

- Numbers that are used as labels to categorize people or things independent variables

2 Types of Statistics:

1.

Descriptive – summarize recorded observations of behavior

- Simplest way to represent research data as it gives the researcher a general idea of the results

a.

Frequency Distribution – arranges scores by categoriesb. Measures of Central Tendency – present the center point n a distribution of scores

i.

Mean – average

ii.

Median – midpoint of a distribution of scores

c.

Variability – estimates the distribution of scores around the middle or average score

-

High: widely dispersed across a large number of categories

- Low: closely clustered in a few categories

i. Standard Deviation – indicates how closely the scores spread out around the mean

- Greater SD: more widely dispersed the scores

-

Smaller SD: more closely bunched the scores

2.

Inferential – used for analyzing data to test hypotheses

a.

Statistical Significance – the probability of a particular result occurring by chance, used to determinethe meaning of research outcomes

- A research result is statistically significant if its probability of occurrence by

chance is less than 5 out of 100

Normal Distribution of Variables – distribution of scores along a continuum with known properties



-

Bell-shaped curve

t-Test – statistical test for examining the difference between the means of two groups

- Most common statistical technique for the simplest type of experimental design (treatment group, control

group, single dependent group)

- Examines the difference between the means on the dependent variable for the 2 groups

Statistical Analysis of Experimental Method Data:

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) – statistical method that looks at differences among more than 2 groups on a single

dependent variable1. One-Way Analysis of Variance – single independent variable with more than 2 levels and 1 dependent

variable

2. Factorial Analysis of Variance – involves more than 1 independent variable

-

Number of different groups in a research study is determined by the number

of independent variables and their levels

Main Effect – change in the dependent variable due to the independent variable

Interaction – the effect of 1 independent variable on the dependent variable differs, depending on the level of the

second independent variable

3. Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) – examines data from multiple groups with multiple dependent

variables

Statistical Analysis of Correlational Method Data:

Predictor – independent variable

Criterion – dependent variable

Correlation Coefficient – measures the strength of the relationship between the predictor and criterion

- The closer the C is to either +1 or -1, the stronger the linear relationship between the 2

variables

Positive CC – increase in 1 variable is associated with an increase in the other

Negative CC – an increase in 1 variable is associated with a decrease in the other

Multiple Regression – allows a researcher to assess the relationship between a single criterion and multiple

predictors

Factor Analysis – shows how variables cluster to form meaningful factors-

Useful when a researcher has measured many variables and wants to examine the underlying

structure of the variables or combine related variables to reduce their number for later analysis



Chapter 12: GROUP PROCESSES

Group - two or more individuals come together in social interaction to achieve some goal

- Formal (producing a product/service) or informal (develop and maintain social relationships)

Team - Interdependent workers with complementary skills, working towards shared goals

Effective Team Building Work Group:

Definable membership

Group consciousness

A sense of shared purpose

Inter-dependence Interaction

Ability to act in a unitary manner

Roles - patterns of behavior that are adapted based on expectations about the functions of a position

o

Role Expectations - beliefs concerning the responsibilities and requirements of a particular role

o

Role Differentiation - it is a process by which group members learn about performing different roles

o Role Ambiguity - a sense of uncertainty over the requirements of a particular role

o Role Conflict - results when the expectations associated with one role interfere with the

expectations concerning another role

Study by Benne and Sheats, 1948:

o Group Task Roles – getting job done

-

Information giver, procedural technician, evaluator-critico

Group Building and Maintenance Roles – building IPR

-

Encourager, harmonizer, compromiser

o Self Centered Roles – achieving personal goals

- Recognition seeker, aggressor, help seeker

Prosocial Behaviors – organizational citizenship behaviors

Belbins Team Roles:

Team Roles as a Self-Awareness Tool

Team Roles as a Tool for Effective Teams

Team Roles as a Tool for Effective Staff Selection

Team Roles in Workplace Design

1.

Leader (CO) - responsible for the over-all performance of the team; recognizes team’s strengths and

weaknesses and ensures that the best use is made of each team member’s potential

2. Shaper (SH) - influences the way in which team effort is applied, directing attention to the setting of

objectives and priorities

3. Worker (IM) - gets things done; carrying out agreed plans systematically and efficiently

4.

Creator (PL) - advances new ideas and strategies; offers new insights on the agreed actions

5.

Complete Finisher (CF) - actively searches for aspects of work that need more than the usual degree of

attention and maintains a sense of urgency within the team6. Monitor Evaluator (ME) - analyzes problems and evaluates ideas and suggestions so that the team stays

focused on its tasks

7. Team Facilitator (TW) - supports members in their strengths, helps compensate for their weakness and

improves communication



8.

Resource Investigator (RE) - reports on ideas, developments, and resources outside of the team and creates

external contacts that may be useful for the team

Group Norms - unwritten rules adopted by group members, indicating appropriate and inappropriate behaviors

- Become rules once they're formalized or documented

Purposes of Group Norms:

Helps the group survive

Help commit work group members to producing quality products or services

Increase predictability of members’ behaviors

Provide a sense of identity for the group expression of shared values and beliefs

Rules and norms help provide a structure and plan for group members’ behaviors.

Organizational Socialization - integration of new member with the existing system

- New employee learns about the group norms & roles, and develops skills and

competencies to accomplish the team tasks

3 Processes:

1.

Development of specific work skills and abilities

2.

Acquisition of a set of appropriate role behaviors

3. Adjustment to the work group’s norms and values

3 Stages:

1. Anticipatory Socialization - realistic expectations; validating the match

2.

Accommodation - “learn the ropes”; budding relationships 3. Role Management - transition from newcomer to insider, mastering the tasks

New employee socialization should be planned and systematic – part of an integrated employee orientation

and training program.

Group Processes - social processes to bind, regulate, co-ordinate and stimulate activities & actions

1. Conformity - adhering to the group norms to maintain group’s identity and activities

- Those with more power and influence in the group will have a better chance of resisting the

group’s conformity pressure

-

If a member has a past history of being a good, conforming member, nonconformity will be

tolerate more

2. Cohesiveness - amount or degree of attraction that holds the people together

-

For a cohesive group to be productive, the reason for the cohesiveness must be work-related Size – the smaller the group, the more cohesive and more satisfied the members

Status – the more equivalent the status of group members, the greater the

cohesiveness

Stability – the more stable the membership, the more members have to develop

strong ties with one another

Similarity – the more similar, the more cohesive “thinking alike”

We-They Feeling – intragroup cohesiveness created by the existence of a common

threat, which is usually another group “we’re the good guys, they’re the bad

guys”

3. Group Efficacy - a group’s shared beliefs in their ability to attain and contribute towards the organizational

goal- higher the personal efficacy, higher is the group efficacy

4. Cooperation – coordinating their efforts in an attempt to meet the organizational goals

o

Reciprocity rule – tendency for persons to pay back those to whom they are indebted for assistance

-

“Do to others, what you want them to do to you"

o

Task interdependence – individual task performance depends on the efforts of others

o

Social Loafing - free riding, felt dispensability

- Occurs most frequently when workers believe that their individual performance will

not be measured

- More likely to occur in low-cohesiveness groups

o

Equity Theory Motivation – if group members perceived other as engaging in

social loafing, it increased their tendency to loaf

-

Can be avoided by:o Increase evaluation apprehension - measure individual contribution to group

outcomes



o

Enhance attraction to the task - make the task challenging, appealing and

involving

o Ensure attraction to team members - form groups of friends

5. Competition - individuals working towards individual goals in a group

- Can be both positive as well as negative

Conflict - behaviors exhibited by team members that inhibit the performance of others to attain team goals

- FUNCTIONAL - confrontation between two parties that enhance and benefit group performance

-

DYSFUNCTIONAL- confrontation or interaction between groups that harms the organization or hinders the

achievement of organizational goalsRelationship between Conflict Intensity & Outcomes:

Levels of Conflict:

1.

Intra-individual - one individual, 2 goals

2.

Inter-individual - two individuals, 1 goal

3.

Intra-group - an individual or fraction against the others in a group

4. Inter-group - two groups fulfilling their own goals

5. Inter-organizational - between different organizations

Sources of Conflict:

Limited resources

Work interdependence

Difference in goals

Interpersonal styles

Different Personalities

Conflict Resolution Strategies:

1. Individual CRS – conflicting parties can use themselves to try to resolve the conflict

2.

Managerial CRS – steps that managers or third parties can take to encourage conflict resolution

Managing Conflict:

- Thomas; 1976,1992

1.

Dominating – one party wins, the other loses win-lose2. Accommodation - giving in or acting in a self-sacrificing manner to resolve the conflict lose- win

3.

Compromise – each party must give up something (bargaining) lose-lose

4.

Collaboration – cooperating to reach a mutually beneficial solution win-win

5.

Avoidance – suppressing the conflict, not allowing it to come into the open, withdrawing no conflict?

Managing Inter-group Conflict:

Decision-making

Superordinate goals - goal that 2 parties are willing to work & attain

Expansion of Resources

Teambuilding

Conflict Stimulation Techniques:

Asking for suggestions and complaints Bringing in outsiders – consultants / counselors

Restructuring the organization

Group Decision Making:

1.

Autocratic – group leader makes decisions alone, using only the info the leader possesses

Positive

Neutral

Negative

Too little

conflict

Appropriate

conflict

Too much

conflict

Low Moderate High

INTENSITY

O U T C O M E



a.

Consultative DM – leader seeks info from group members to assist in reaching a decision, but holds

the final say

2. Democratic – all group members are allowed to discuss the decision and then vote on a particular course of

action majority rule

3. Consensus – all group members have agreed on the chosen course of action

Critical Factors in choosing the process/ type of decision making:

How much time is given for DM?

Amount of knowledge critical to DM

Level of commitment and participation necessary for implementationBrainstorming - a group process generating creative ideas or solutions through a noncritical and non-judgmental

process

Groupthink – concurrence-seeking tendency that overrides the ability of a cohesive group to make critical decisions

-

Occurs in highly cohesive decision-making groups

-

Reduces the effectiveness of the group’s ability to make high-quality, critical decisions

- Has 8 symptoms (Janis):

Illusion of invulnerability – faith in the group, ignoring potential disastrous outcomes

Illusion of morality – view themselves as the good guys

Shared negative stereotypes – belittle any opposing viewpoints

Collective rationalization – explain away any negative info that runs counter to the group

decision Self-censorship – suppressing own doubts

Illusion of unanimity – mistakenly believing that decision is a consensus, assuming that

silence indicates support

Direct conformity pressure – pressuring a dissenting member to concur with the decision

Mindguards – protecting the group from any opposing opinions or negative info

Group Polarization – tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than those made by individuals

-

In the group, the individual is presented with persuasive arguments by other members that

bolster the individual’s original stance on the issue

- Individuals adopt the values of the group

KSAOs – knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics

Self-Managing Work Teams – teams that have complete responsibility for whole tasksTeam Building - interdependent group of workers with complementary skills working towards common objective or

goal

Stages of Team Formation:

1. Forming - team members are like hesitant winners by the side of the pool

2. Storming - they start to realize the amount of work that lies ahead and almost panic

3. Norming - they get used to working together and helping each other

4. Performing - they become a more effective unit, with everyone working in concert

5.

Transforming/Adjourning - The team is working so well that they feel, this is the best team. Or team is

adjourned once the task is accomplished and its time for team members to move to other projects.

Benefits of a Good Team:

Improved performance A more motivating environment

A shared responsibility for assignments

Ability to respond more quickly to changes in technology

More effective use of delegation

A shared commitment to goals

Greater creativity and effectiveness in tackling problems

Ability to assign tasks more flexibly

More effective decisions

Improved communication

Increased cross training & development



Chapter 11: COMMUNICATION IN THE WORKPLACE

Communication - creative and dynamic continuous process, rather than a discrete exchange of information

- A transmission of information from one individual / group to another individual / group

Communication Process:

1. Message - the content, idea, view or feelings to be shared or communicated

2.

Encoding - process of preparing the message for transmission in some form

3.

Sender - the person who intends to encode and transmits the message (originator / encoder)

4.

Channel - the medium which carries the message from sender to receiver5. Receiver - the person who receives the message sent by the encoder and processes it for further

communication (decodes)

6. Decoding - the process of translating the message into an understandable form.

7. Feedback - process of acknowledgment that the message has been received and processed (it may have

been understood or there may be some ambiguity)

-

Important for an affirmation

- We give feedback when it affects us and when the relationship with the sender is important

- Communicate, verbally or non-verbally our feelings and agreements / disagreements, the effect

of it on us

Components of Communication:

1.

Verbal messages – the words we choose2.

Nonverbal messages – body language

3.

Para verbal messages – how we say words

– includes pitch, pace and tone

Factors Affective Effective Communication:

1. Source Factors – characteristics of the sender that influence the effectiveness of a communication

Status of the source – the higher the organizational status of the sender, the more

likely the communication will be listened to and acted on

Credibility/ believability of the sender – if the source is trued (leadership role), it is

more likely that the message will receive proper attention

Sender’s communication style – more expressive and organized trainers tend to do a

better job of imparting learning to trainees Encoding skills of the sender – source’s ability to translate an abstract message into

some sort of shared code to be clearly conveyed to the receiver

2.

Channel Factors – characteristics related to the vehicle through which the message is communicated

Selection of the proper channel – visual devices, e-mails

Semantic problems

o

Jargon – special language developed in connection with certain jobs

(technical language)

- Medium, timing

- Frequency and quality of face-to-face communication between supervisors and

subordinates is positively related to workers’ job satisfaction.

-

Keeping written documentation of orders can decrease the likelihood that workers willforget their tasks positive effects on productivity and efficiency

- Computer-mediated meetings

o Low-status or shy members may be more willing to share info in computer-

mediated meetings.



o

Loss of social dynamics or nonverbal cues may lead to engaging in more

risky decisions

3. Audience Factors – elements related to the receiver

- attitude (mutual trust), willingness, status, listening

Attention span

Perceptual abilities

Receiver’s relationship to sender – if the receiver is subordinate to the sender, the

message may be better attended to

Decoding skills of the receiver

o

Oral Decoding Skills – most important decoding skills of all (listening skills)

o Active Listening – decoder asks clarifying questions, repeats the encoder’s

words, and provides feedback

Different Ways of Communication:

1. Verbal/ Non Verbal

2.

Oral/ Written

3.

Formal/ Informal

Hierarchy – represents the lines of status, authority, and communication within the organization

Directions of Formal Communication:

1. Downward – messages sent from superiors to subordinates

Instructions concerning job performance

Information about organizational procedures and policies

Feedback to the supervisee concerning job performance

Information to assist in the coordination of work tasks performance

-

Goals & objectives, policy & procedures, structure, history, clients, products & services, leaders,

benefits, programs & activities

- Most organizations still do not have enough of this communication

- Superiors overestimate the amount of information that their subordinates possess and desire

- Frequency and quality of superior-subordinate communication influences important

organizational outcomes

2.

Upward – messages from the lower levels of the organization to the upper levels

-

Data, problems, developments, opinions, ideas, complaints, grievances

- Supervisors are more accepting of feedback if they believe that it is motivated by a desire for

better performance

3. Horizontal/Lateral – messages between two parties at the same level in an organizational hierarchy

-

Data, problems, developments, opinions, ideas

Organigram – diagram of an organization’s hierarchy representing the formal lines of communication

Sociogram – diagram of the informal lines of communication among organizational members

Informal Communication:

1. Grapevine - informal communication channel that cuts across formal channel

- Info does not follow an orderly path and is at least 75% accurate

-

Serves a vital function in maintaining social relationship among workers

-

Can help in reiterating important messages that have been sent through formal communication

channels

- When innovations or changes were introduced to an organization, workers first learned about

the changes through formal communication channels, but it was the amount of communication

flowing through the org’s informal channels that influenced how quickly the changes would

actually be adopted by the work groups.

-

3 factors that determine the pattern of communication links that form the grapevine:

Friendship

Usage

Efficiency

2. Rumor - unverified belief that is in general circulation inside the organization (internal rumor) or in the

organization’s external environment (external rumor) -

Results where there is a shortage of information transmitted through the formal channels

-

3 Components:

Target - object of the rumor



Allegation - rumor’s point about the target

Source - original communicator of the rumor

- Management should aim to manage rumors rather than eliminate them:

Tune in to what’s being said

Keep employees informed about what’s going on

Feed accurate information to primary sources or liaison individuals

Conduct training programs on the disruptive nature of damaging rumors

Non Verbal Communication - process of conveying meaning in the form of non-word messages

-

Facial expressions, postures and gestures, body language, eye contacto Object Communication - clothing, hairstyles, gifts, etc.

- By observing someone's body language, we can learn a lot about what they are

thinking and how are they feeling more effective communication

-

Used by the sender:

o

Can be substituted for verbal communication

o Enhance verbal messages – emphasize what we are saying

o Convey underlying feelings

- Used by the receiver:

o Provide additional information – when verbal communication is limited or

receiver mistrusts the verbal message

o

Forming impressions about people Person Perception – making judgments about a person’s attitudes,

personality, and competence

Pygmalion Effect - a mechanism where the sender non-verbally communicates the expectations to the receiver,

thereby influencing his behavior

- Ex.: thumbs up, tap on the shoulder

Barriers to Communication:

Micro

o

Filtering – selective presentation of the content of a communication

- sender manipulating the information so that it can be viewed more favorably by the

receiver

o

MUM Effect – sender may not forward the message when it involves bad newso

Selective Perception – We hear what we want to hear, based on choices and perceptions

o

Information Overload – When information passed exceeds the processing capacity, it leads to

information overload

o Defensiveness – Individuals interpret message as threatening, thereby responding in ways that

retard effective communication

o Language – Words mean different things to different people, affected by age, education and cultural

background

Macro

o

Physical barriers

o System Design

o

Attitudinal Barrierso Ambiguity of words/phrases

o

Linguistics

o

Physiological factors

o

Presentation of information

o

Filtering

o Exaggeration – distortion of information by elaborating, overestimating, or minimizing parts of the

message

- Spoken messages are more prone to distortion than are written messages.

-

Downward-flowing message from a high-status source is less likely to be

intentionally altered.

-

Tendency for greater distortion of upward messages that are unfavorable incontent, less distortion of upward-flowing positive information

- Low trust in the receiver of a message resulted in a tendency toward distortion,

particularly if the information reflected unfavorably on the sender

Noise – physical or psychological distractions that disrupt the effective flow of communication



Communication Noise:

Environmental – noise that physically disrupts communication.

Physiological – state of the body, illness or some disability.

Semantic – one word, different meaning

Syntactical – grammatical mistakes esp. verbs

Organizational – poorly structured instructions

Cultural – stereotypical assumptions & differences

Psychological – attitudes & emotions can hamper communication

Communication Networks – systematic lines of communication among various senders and receiver1. Centralized - communication is directed through specific people and follows a protocol

- Faster, makes fewer errors in dealing with simple, repetitive tasks

- Difficulty in solving complex problems because central people may be subject to information

overload inefficient communication to others

-

Members have lower levels of satisfaction restriction on who can initiate communication,

who can communicate with whom

- Persons holding central positions have high levels of satisfaction, while noncentral members

have extremely low satisfaction

Chain - 5-member status hierarchy

-

Message typically originates at the top or bottom of the chain and works its way

upward or downward STRAIGHT LINE- Relatively slow process but direct, with all levels of the hierarchy being made

aware of the message because it must pass through each link

Y – represents 4 levels of status within the organization, but its last link involves

communication to more than one person UPSIDE-DOWN Y

Wheel – involves 2 status levels:

o

Higher-status member – hub or center through which all communication

must pass

o 4 lower-level members

- There are no direction communication links between the lower-level members

only indirect contact as information is relayed through the higher-status

member2.

Decentralized - the message can be directed or generated by anyone; people are free to approach anyone

and everyone

- Better at dealing with complex tasks, such as abstract problem solving

Circle – communication between members who are immediately accessible to each other

- Difficult to trace the original source of the message

- Fairly quick rate of transmission

All Channel/ Comcon – allows complete freedom among communication links

- Any member can freely communication with any other, all

members are accessible to each other

- Communication can be rapid, maximum opportunity for feedback

Employees’ satisfaction with the amount and quality of organizational communication was positivelycorrelated with measures of worker productivity receiving more and better communication = more

productivity

Engaging in high-quality cycles of communication can outperform those who do not have systematic cycles.

Employees who receive a great deal of info about the org in the form of downward communication tend to

be more satisfied and have higher organizational commitment.

Open and supportive downward communication can help organizations retain its surviving workers after a

companywide downsizing.

Workers tend to quit their jobs in clusters, clusters which tended to be among workers who communicated

freely with one another SNOWBALL EFFECT

Active Listening - focus on content with feelings

-

Barriers: Judging

Feeling superior

Comparing

Rehearsing what we are going to say next



A Pre-occupied mind

Trying to listen to something else

How to Enhance Active Listening:

Stop talking - to others and yourself

Demonstrate your interest - expressions

Encourage the speaker

Don’t interrupt

Empathize

Check your understanding by repeating after the speaker Let go of your judgments

7 C's of Communication:

1. Clear

2.

Correct

3.

Concise

4. Concrete

5. Coherent

6. Complete

7. Courteous



Chapter 8: MOTIVATION

Motivation – Originates from the Latin word “movere” which means “to move”

- A process that starts with a physiological or psychological

- Deficiency or need that activates a behavior or a drive that is

- Aimed at a goal or incentive

- Willingness to exert high levels of effort towards organizational goals, conditioned by the effort’s

ability to satisfy some individual need

-

A force that serves 3 functions:

Energizes – causes people to act (intensity) Directs – behavior toward attainment of specific goals (direction)

Sustains – effort expended in reaching those goals (persistence)

We can only infer motives by:

o

Observing goal-oriented behavior

o

Using some psychological measurement technique

Frederick Taylor – workers are motivated by money and material gains

Elton Mayo – stressed the role that interpersonal needs play in motivating workers

De-Motivation:

Theories of Motivation:



Need Theories of Motivation:

Needs – physiological or psychological deficiencies that the organism is driven to satisfy

1. Basic Need Theories – both maintain that several different types or categories of needs play a role in human

motivation

- Neither theory has led to any type of useful application or strategy for improving

work motivation

- Predictions made by both theories about need-driven behavior have not held up

a.

Need Hierarchy Theory – proposes 5 categories of needs, which form a hierarchy from the more

basic human needs to more complex, higher-order needs- Deficiency Needs - lower-order needs (physiological needs, safety needs,

social needs)

- Growth Needs – higher-order needs (social, esteem and self-actualization

needs)

-

high-level executives are no longer motivated by money to provide for

subsistence needs, but by a need for esteem, recognition, or self-growth

i. Physiological – basic survival needs

ii. Safety – physical safety (need for shelter), psychological security

iii. Social – acceptance by others, love, affection, friendship

iv. Esteem – recognition for accomplishments, admiration and respect from peers

v.

Self-actualization – reaching one’s highest potential, sense of fulfillment, drive to becomewhat one is capable of becoming

b.

ERG Theory – proposed by Clayton Alderfer

- As each level of need becomes satisfied, the next higher level becomes a strong

motivator

- Collapses Maslow’s 5 categories into 3:

i.

Existence – provision of basic material requirements (physiological, safety)

ii.

Relatedness – desire for relationships (social)

iii.

Growth –highest-order needs, development and realization of one’s potential

More than one need can be operative at the same time.

If a higher-level need cannot be fulfilled, the desire to satisfy a lower-level need increases.

2.

Achievement Motivation Theory – proposed by David McClelland-

People are motivated by different patterns of needs or motives

-

We all possess more or less each of these motives, although in each

individual a particular need tends to dominate

- States that 3 needs are central to work motivation:

a. Achievement – compelling drive to succeed and to get the job done

- Task-Oriented – prefer situations offering moderate levels of risk or difficulty,

desiring feedback about goal attainment

-

Love the challenge of work, desire to get ahead in the job, to solve problems, to be

outstanding work performers

b. Power – need to direct and control the activities of other and to be influential

-

Status-Oriented – motivated by the chance to gain influence and prestigei. Personal Power – used towards personal ends

ii.

Institutional Power – oriented toward organizational objectives

c.

Affiliation – desire to be liked and accepted by others, striving for friendship, interpersonal

relationships, working with others on a task

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) – a projective test that uses ambiguous pictures to assess psychological

motivation

- Highly individualized, variation in study time, unreliable scoring

There must be a match between the types of outcomes a particular job offers and the specific motivational

needs of the person.

High in need for achievement:

Make more money than those low in need for it More attracted to and successful in entrepreneurial careers

Less effective in team situations

Tendency to try to accomplish tasks by themselves many high-achieving college students

prefer individual projects)



High in need for affiliation:

Do best in a job in which they work with others as part of a team

Only cooperative when they feel secure and safe

High in need for power:

Thrive in jobs that satisfy their needs to be in charge

Mostly successful managers

Behavior-Based Theories of Motivation:

-

Each theory focuses on behavioral outcomes as critical to affecting work motivation1. Reinforcement Theory – behavior is motivated by its consequences (operant conditioning)

- Reinforcement is a much better motivational technique strengthens the

motivation to perform a particular desired behavior

-

Stimulus – response – reward

a.

Reinforcer – a consequence that follows a behavior and serves to increase the motivation to perform

that behavior again

i. Positive – events that are desirable to the person

- Making behavior occur more often by contingently presenting target with

something desirable

- Ex.: receiving praise, money, a pat on the back

ii.

Negative – events that lead to the avoidance of an existing negative state or condition-

Making behavior more often by withdrawing, something negative. Target avoids

an existing undesirable state

- Increases the motivation to perform the desired behavior again in an effort to

keep the aversive negative condition from returning

- Ex.: taking a short break (to escape noise), working hard (to not get scolded)

b.

Punishment – unpleasant consequence that directly follow the performance of a behavior

-

Weakens the tendency to perform the behavior again

-

Poor managerial strategy because:

o Can create feelings of hostility and resentment in workers

o Workers may try to retaliate and get back at punitive supervisors

o

Once the threat of punishment is taken away, the worker may continue touse the undesirable behavior

o

Leads to inefficient supervisors spending too much time watching

workers and administering punishment

Schedules of Reinforcement:

Interval – reinforcement is based on the passage of time

Fixed Interval – specified amount of time

- Reinforcement is not contingent on the performance of the desired

behavior reinforcement follows regardless of work performance

- Predictable people know when reinforcement is coming

- Ex.: hourly/daily/weekly/monthly salary

Variable Interval – exact time of reinforcement varies- Somewhat rare means of work compensation

- Ex.: worker for a small business gets paid monthly, but exact time

depends on when the owner does the payroll

Ratio – reinforcement follows the performance of a number of desired behavior

Fixed Ratio – performance of a set number of specified behavior

- Contingent on execution of the desired behavior high rates of

responding

-

Ex.: workers paid for number of components assembled, fruits picked,

reports written

Variable Ratio – number of responses required for a particular reinforcement varies

-

High levels of motivation contingent on performance, neverknow when the next reinforcement is coming

- Ex.: salesperson on commission

Ratio schedules result in higher levels of motivation and subsequent task performance than do fixed-interval

schedules.



Organizational Behavior Modification – application of conditioning principles to obtain certain work outcomes

-

Certain target behaviors are specified, measured, and rewarded

1. Specifying desired work behavior

2. Measuring desired behavior

3. Providing frequent positive reinforcement

4. Evaluation of the program’s effectiveness

Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation:

Deci and Ryan – proposed that people are often motivated by internal/intrinsic motivationIntrinsic Rewards – derived from the workers’ sense of accomplishment and competence at performing and

mastering work tasks and from a sense of autonomy or control over one’s own work

Intrinsic Motivation - perform well due to factors such as choice & autonomy, challenge, curiosity, enjoyment and

fun

Extrinsic Motivation - performance is driven by external factors such as evaluation of peers & supervisors,

competition, money and other tangible incentives (cash, travel, awards and celebrations)

How to make jobs intrinsically rewarding:

1. Harness Intrinsic Motivation

2. Design Motivating Jobs

3. Empowerment

Jobs need to be set up so that they are interesting and challenging and so that they call forth workers’creativity and resourcefulness.

Relying heavily on extrinsic rewards tends to decrease intrinsic motivation.

Goal-Setting Theory:

Goal-Setting Theory – emphasizes the role of specific, challenging performance goals and workers’ commitment to

those goals as key determinants of motivation

-

The theory that specific and difficult goals, with feedback, lead to higher performance

-

Often associated with Edwin Locke

- For workers to be motivated, goals must be clear, specific, attainable, and quantified

- Taking a large, challenging goal and breaking it down into a series of smaller, more easily-

attained goalsFactors Influencing the Goals –Performance Relationship:

Goal commitment

Adequate self-efficacy

Task characteristics

Culture

Self-Efficacy - the individual’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task

Job Design Theories of Motivation:

-

Stress the structure and design of jobs as key factors in motivating workers

- If jobs are well-designed, containing all the elements that workers require from their jobs to satisfy physical

and psychological needs, employees will be motivated1. Two-Factor Theory – proposed by Frederick Herzberg

-

Highlighted the role of job satisfaction in determining worker motivation

-

Job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are actually 2 separate and independent

dimensions

-

Has been criticized on methodological grounds no presence of the 2 distinct

factors

- Difficulty distinguishing hygienes and motivators

- Applies more to white-collar workers

-

2 factors are important in determining worker satisfaction and motivation:

a.

Motivators – elements related to job content that, when present, lead to job satisfaction

-

Ex.: type of work, level of responsibility, chances for recognitionb. Hygienes – elements related to job content that, when absent, cause job dissatisfaction

- Ex.: benefits, working conditions, type of supervision, base salary, company policies

2. Job Characteristics Model - emphasizes the role that certain aspects of jobs play in influencing work

motivation



-

Proposed by Hackman and Oldham

-

Employees must experience 3 important psychological states to be motivated:

Perceive their work as meaningful

Associate a sense of responsibility with the job

Have some knowledge of the results of their efforts

5 Core Job Characteristics:

1. Skill variety – a job that demands a range of skills is likely to be perceived as challenging and meaningful

2. Task identity – seeing the observable outcome or product of work effects

3.

Task significance – job has substantial impact on other people within the organization

4.

Autonomy – worker freedom and independence to choose how to schedule and carry out tasks(empowerment)

5. Feedback – receive direct and clear information about the effectiveness of performance

Experience of meaningful in work: skill variety, task identity, task significance

Sense of responsibility: autonomy

Workers’ experience of work results: feedback

Formula for Assessing the 5 Core Characteristics: (Motivating Potential Score, MPS)

Motivation is not a simple combination of the 5 job characteristics.

For a job to have any motivating potential, it must have both autonomy and feedback and at least one of the

3 characteristics.

Workers who have enriched, motivating jobs have better attendance records.

There is a positive correlation between the presence of core job characteristics and employee satisfaction

and self-reported motivation. Certain moderators can affect the success of the model in predicting worker motivation.

Growth Need Strength – need and desire for personal growth on the job

Job Diagnostic Survey (JDS) – a questionnaire that measures core job characteristics



Job Enrichment – redesigning jobs to give workers a greater role in the planning, execution, and evaluation of their

work

Cognitive Theories of Motivation:

- View workers as rational beings who cognitively assess personal costs and benefits before taking action

1. Equity Theory – workers are motivated to reduce perceived inequities between work inputs and outcomes

- First proposed by J. Stacey Adams

-

If workers perceive fair treatment, their motivation to work will be maintained and steady

performance can be expected- If they feel inequitable treatment, their motivation will be channeled into some strategy that

will try to reduce their inequity

a. Inputs – elements that a worker invests in a job

-

Ex.: experience, effort

b.

Outcomes – things that a worker expects to receive from a job

c. Comparison Others – persons used as a basis for comparison of making judgments of equity/

inequity

Lack of motivation is caused by 2 types of perceived inequity:

o Underpayment Inequity – worker’s perception that inputs > outcomes

Increasing outcomes – asking for a raise, finding some other way to get greater outcomes

from your job Decreasing input – limit work production or quality of work

Changing the comparison other

Leaving the situation – no longer motivated to work there

o Overpayment Inequity – worker’s perception that outcomes > input

Increasing input – work harder to even up the ratio

Decreasing outcomes – ask for a cut in pay (highly unlikely)

Changing comparison other – persons of higher work status and ability

Distorting the situation – thinking that work is of higher quality

- Weakens the predictive power of this theory

Propositions Relating to Inequitable Pay:

o

Over rewarded hourly employees produce more than equitably rewarded employees.o

Over rewarded piece-work employees produce less, but do higher quality piece work.

o

Under rewarded hourly employees produce lower quality work.

o

Under rewarded employees produce larger quantities of lower-quality piece work than equitably

rewarded employees

Distributive Justice - perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals

Procedural Justice - the perceived fairness of the process to determine the distribution of rewards

Equity theory has difficulty predicting behavior when people nonrationally.

Prestige associated with a higher title served as compensation, even though there is no raise in pay.

Equity Sensitivity – individuals vary in their concern over the equity of input-outcome ratio

2. Expectancy Theory – states that workers weigh expected costs and benefits of particular courses before they

are motivated to take action (VIE Theory)- The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an

expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness

of that outcome to the individual

-

Associated with Victor Vroom

-

Illustrates the notion that motivation is a complex phenomenon, affected by a number

of variables

- 3 core competencies:

a. Valence – desirability of an outcome to an individual

b.

Instrumentality – perceived relationship between the performance of a particular behavior and the

likelihood of receiving a particular outcome (link between 2 outcomes)

-

Whether the performance of the behavior will indeed lead to the expectedoutcome

c. Expectancy – perceived relationship between the individual’s effort and performance of a behavior

- Whether individual has the ability, skills, and energy to get the job done



Effort –Performance Relationship - the probability that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to

performance

Performance –Reward Relationship - the belief that performing at a particular level will lead to the

attainment of a desired outcome

Rewards –Personal Goals Relationship - the degree to which organizational rewards satisfy an individual’s

goals or needs and the attractiveness of potential rewards for the individual

Other Variables that Could Affect Productivity:

1. Systems and Technology – inadequate work systems, procedures, tools, and equipment

2. Individual Difference – lacking basic talents or skills, new employees who are motivated but lack knowledge

3.

Group Dynamics – 1-2 members are not good team players4.

Organizational – politics and conflict in the workplace

Documents

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