8/13/2019 Psilocybin From Past to Present - Gordon Wu MS3

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/psilocybin-from-past-to-present-gordon-wu-ms3 1/5

Psilocybin: From Past to Present

Gordon Wu MS3Psychiatry Clerkship

 The psychedelic compound psilocybin—found in certain species of hallucinogenic

mushrooms, has been a part of human culture for thousands of years!"# Muralspainted onto ca$es in the Sahara desert dating back to %&&& 'C are some of the

earliest e$idence of human interactions (ith mushrooms, but perhaps no(here else

(ere their magical properties more pri)ed than in ancient Mesoamerica (here the

*)tecs referred to the mushrooms as teonanácatl, or +Gods flesh+!" # Psilocybin

mushrooms (ere respected for their potency and reser$ed for important ceremonies

and religious purposes# -t took until !%./ for psilocybin mushrooms to enter *merican

society—thanks largely to *merican e0plorer 1# Gordon Wasson, (ho studied ritual

mushroom use in Ma)atec $illages and (rote a groundbreaking article in 2ife

maga)ine depicting the immense psychedelic $isions e0perienced "# 'elonging to the

Psilocybe species, chemist *lbert 4ofmann—the same man (ho in !%35 created 2S6—isolated the acti$e compound (ithin the mushroom Psilocybe Mexicana,# The initial

disco$ery of psilocybin (as met (ith optimism and used in psycholytic therapy by

psychiatrists# -n the !%7&s, Timothy 2eary at 4ar$ard 8ni$ersity championed the used

of psychedelics in psychotherapy and brought it to popular culture# 4o(e$er, as

recreational abuse of psilocybin flourished, so too did media sensationalism and

increasingly restricti$e drug la(s# 1ichard 9i0on famously called Timothy 2eary :the

most dangerous man in *merica# 7"; -n !%77, the 8nited States banned the

production and ingestion of hallucinogenic drugs and psilocybin (as placed in

Schedule ! category of illegal substances "# These restrictions made human research

$ery difficult to continue, and by the early !%/&<s almost all clinical trials (ith

hallucinogens (ere put to an end# Currently there has been a ne(found scientific

interest in the medical benefits of psilocybin# The ob=ecti$e of this paper is to e0plore

the early clinical findings of psilocybin as (ell as to discuss the current state of

psychedelic research#

6uring the early !%7&s, doctors Timothy 2eary and 1ichard *lpert headed a series

of clinical psilocybin e0periments kno(n collecti$ely as the 4ar$ard Psilocybin Pro=ect#

-n one of the more notable e0periments, titled the Concord Prison >0periment, 3

inmates at Concord State Prison (ere administered psilocybin in an attempt to induce

lifestyle changes and to reduce crime rates after release /"# -nitial conclusions at 7

months after release from prison sho(ed a .? incarceration rate for those (hounder(ent psilocybin psychotherapy compared to a 7@? reAadmission rate obser$ed

for the control group /"# 4o(e$er longer term follo(Aup statistically sho(ed only a

slight impro$ement in reAincarceration rate bet(een the t(o groups and (as

ultimately deemed uncertain# -n conclusion, 2eary stated :the key to longAterm

reduction in recidi$ism rates might be the combination of psilocybinAassisted group

psychotherapy (ith a comprehensi$e follo(Aup program modeled on *lcoholic

*nonymous to support the released prisoners# ."; -n another e0periment titled the

8/13/2019 Psilocybin From Past to Present - Gordon Wu MS3

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/psilocybin-from-past-to-present-gordon-wu-ms3 2/5

Marsh Chapel >0periment, their goal (as to stimulate and induce religious

e0periences in religious predisposed sub=ects using psilocybin as the sole moti$ation#

Graduate di$inity students (ere di$ided into t(o groups, the control group recei$ing

niacin and the e0perimental group gi$en psilocybin %"# *lmost all members of the

e0perimental group reported profound religious e0periences, pro$iding proof that

psychedelic drugs induce religious e0periences %"

# 4o(e$er after a fe( reckless years,both men found themsel$es entangled in a contro$ersial situation and under concerns

of legitimacy and safety Bboth 2eary and *lpert (ere famous for selfAe0perimentation

both researchers (ere fired and the clinical e0perimentation of psilocybin stopped to

a halt#

1ecently there has been a rene(al of scientific research into the potential medical

and psychological therapeutic benefits of psilocybin for treating conditions

including obsessi$eAcompulsi$e disorder, cluster headaches, and an0iety related

to terminal cancer# * &!& study on the effects of psilocybin in clinical e0periments

concluded that :although there is a mild risk of undesirable reactions such as

dysphoria, an0iety, or panic, the administration of moderate doses of psilocybin tohealthy, highAfunctioning and (ellAprepared sub=ects in the conte0t of a carefully

monitored research en$ironment is associated (ith an acceptable le$el of risk%" :# The

authors note, ho(e$er, that the drugs safety +cannot be generali)ed to situations in

(hich psilocybin is used recreationally or administered under less controlled

conditions# %"+

-n &&7, in the first D6* appro$ed clinical study of psilocybin since !%/&, 6r#

Drancisco Moreno at the 8ni$ersity of *ri)ona studied the effects of psilocybin in

patients diagnosed (ith obsessi$eAcompulsi$e disorder5"# The study (as composed of

nine sub=ects (ith 6SMA-EAdefined FC6 and no other ma=or psychiatric disorder#

Patients (ere gi$en $arying doses of psilocybin o$er a period of time (ith obsessi$eA

compulsi$e symptom se$erity measured using the aleA'ro(n Fbsessi$e Compulsi$e

Scale B'FCS and a $isual analog scale# Fther than one episode of transient

hypertension, there (ere no reported significant ad$erse effects# Dollo( up studies

sho(ed a significant decrease in FC6 symptoms in all sub=ects during at least one of

the sessions B3?A!&&? decrease in 'FCS score importantly (ith the selfAreported

impro$ement lasting o$er @ hours %"# That meant the effects of psilocybin for

treating symptoms of FC6 lasted beyond the initial 7A5 hour :high; from ingestion of

the compound# 6r# Moreno concluded that in a controlled en$ironment, psilocybin is

safe to use in sub=ects (ith FC6 and (as associated (ith acute reductions in FC6

symptoms in se$eral sub=ects 5"# 4e postulated that this effect may be due topsilocybin acting on the serotoninA* receptor, resulting in decreased responsi$eness

to serotonin 5"#

 Psilocybin has additionally sho(n rele$ance for treatment of cluster headaches,

kno(n as one of the :most painful syndromes kno(n to mankind !"#+ -n a &&7

study, half of cluster headache patients reported that small doses of psilocybin

terminated the attacks# *dditionally most of the patients reported e0tended periods

8/13/2019 Psilocybin From Past to Present - Gordon Wu MS3

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/psilocybin-from-past-to-present-gordon-wu-ms3 3/5

of relief after(ards, (hich if pro$en to be significant, (ould be a groundbreaking

treatment for cluster headaches !" #There are currently no medications a$ailable that

ha$e been able to stop and pre$ent a cluster headache cycle—these preliminary

results suggest further study for the use of psilocybin in neurological disorders#

Se$eral clinical trials are currently in$estigating the use of psilocybin in easing thepain and suffering associated (ith endAstage cancer# 6r Grob at 4arborA8C2* MedicalCenter performed a pilot study published in &&5 using psilocybin as treatment foran0iety in patients (ith ad$ancedAstage cancer# The trial (as a doubleAblind study oft(el$e patients diagnosed (ith ad$ancedAstage cancer and an0iety treated (ith amoderate dose B&# mgHkg of psilocybin !3"# Dollo(Aup data gathered using the 'eck6epression -n$entory, StateATrait *n0iety -n$entory and Profile of Mood States (asthen collected si0 months after the completion of the treatment sessions# The StateA

 Trait *n0iety -n$entory test demonstrated a significant reduction in an0iety at bothone and three months after treatment# The 'eck 6epression -n$entory sho(ed animpro$ement of mood that (as statistically significant at si0 monthsI the Profile ofMood States identified mood impro$ement after treatment (ith psilocybin that (as

near but did not reach significance!!"

# Ff note, there (ere no clinically ad$ersereactions either physiologically or psychologically for all t(el$e patients during thepsilocybin administration# -n conclusion this study established that mild to moderatedoses of psilocybin are safe and can markedly reduce an0iety and impro$e mood forend stage cancer patients !!"# -n an inter$ie( for the 9e( ork Times recently, 6r#Grob stated :e$en (ith this modest dose, it appears the drug can relie$e the angstand fear of the dying !!"#;

1oland Griffiths is a neuroscientist at Johns 4opkins 8ni$ersity (ith a passion and

interest in psychedelic research# -n &&5 6r Griffiths performed e0periments using

high doses of psilocybin in !5 healthy $olunteers# The ma=ority of the $olunteers

reported a profoundly spiritual e0perience, and impro$ements in both mood andattitude that lasted more than a year# :*fter transcendent e0periences, people often

ha$e much less fear of death,; Griffiths says# * year after his psilocybin study that

(as published in The Journal of Psychopharmacology, %@ percent of his patients said

that it (as one of the fi$e most meaningful e0periences of their li$esI 3% percent said

that it (as the most meaningful e0perience !@"# *dditionally the friends, family and

peers of the participants also reported that the psilocybin e0perience had made the

participants calmer, happier and kinder !@"#

6r# 6a$id J# 9utt, a psychiatrist at the -mperial College 2ondon, has recently

published a study in The Proceedings of the 9ational *cademy of Sciences, (hich

described using magnetic imaging techniKues to scan healthy $olunteers dosed on

psilocybin in order to :capture the transition from normal (aking consciousness to

the psychedelic state !!"#; 4is research has sho(n that changes in perception and

mood that follo( the ingestion of psilocybin are associated (ith deAacti$ation of

regions of the brain that normally (ork to connect our senses (ith our perception# -n

depressed people, 9utt e0plains, :one of those regions, the anterior cingulate corte0,

is o$eracti$e, and psilocybin may (ork by turning it off; !!"# 1esearchers did not

8/13/2019 Psilocybin From Past to Present - Gordon Wu MS3

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/psilocybin-from-past-to-present-gordon-wu-ms3 4/5

e0pect to find less brain acti$ity (ith psilocybin—it (as traditionally thought that

psychedelic $isions (ere the result of o$eracti$e brain synapses# -nstead the current

belief is that human consciousness makes sense of the (orld by filtering out certain

stimuli in an attempt to create order and stability in our mind# The $isual

hallucinations and delirium are not a product of drugs per sayI instead they are the

sights, sounds and thoughts that are normally suppressed—and it is under the

influence of psychedelics that this natural barrier is remo$ed and (e come to terms

(ith reality#

Drom its ancient spiritual roots (ith early humans to its modern status as a

Schedule - category narcotic, psilocybin has influenced human beings from all

cultures and time periods# *lthough research cooled off after the backlash against the

counter culture of the 7&s, today the clinical direction for the use of psilocybin in

psychotherapy is bright and full of optimism# 6r# Grob at the conclusion of his paper

(rites, :When you make people less afraid to die, then they<re less likely to cling to

life at a huge cost to society# *fter ha$ing such a transcendent e0perience,

indi$iduals (ith terminal illness often sho( a markedly reduced fear of dying and no

longer feel the need to aggressi$ely pursue e$ery last medical inter$ention a$ailable#

-nstead they become more interested in the Kuality of their remaining life as (ell as

the Kuality of their death !!"#; -n *merica (e spend too much of our healthcare

resources prolonging the last fe( days of life, much of it irresponsible, (asteful and

painful# 9o(, more than e$er, (e as a society must reali)e it is time for an honest

discussion as to the role of hallucinogens in modern medicine#

1eferencesL

1. *gurell S, 9ilsson J2# B!%75# +'iosynthesis of psilocybin# Part --# -ncorporation oflabelled tryptamine deri$ati$es+# Acta Chemica Scandinavica 22 B@L !!&5# PM-6 ./.&&3#

2. Eollen(eider, D# N# Nature Reviews Neuroscience 11, 7@A7.! BSeptember&!&

3. O a b c +6rug profilesL 4allucinogenic mushrooms+# >uropean Monitoring Centrefor 6rugs and 6rug *ddiction# !% September &!!# 1etrie$ed &!!A!A&@#

4. ^ Fheno=a >, Jokiranta J, Mkinen T, Qaikkonen *, *iraksinen MM# B!%5/# +Theoccurrence of psilocybin and psilocin in Dinnish fungi+# Journal of NaturalProducts 50 B@L /@!@#

5. httpLHHhealthland#time#comH&!!H&7H!7HmagicAmushroomsAcanAimpro$eApsychologicalAhealthAlongAtermH

6. Chilton WS, 'ig(ood J, Jensen 1># B!%/%# +Psilocin, bufotenine and serotoninLhistorical and biosynthetic obser$ations+# Journal of Psychedelic Drus 11 B!

L 7!%# PM-6 3%!!%#

7. Geyer M*# B!%%5# +'eha$ioral studies of hallucinogenic drugs in animalsL

implications for schi)ophrenia research+#Pharmaco!sychiatry  31 BSL /3%#

8/13/2019 Psilocybin From Past to Present - Gordon Wu MS3

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/psilocybin-from-past-to-present-gordon-wu-ms3 5/5

8. Met)ner 1# B!%%5# +4allucinogenic drugs and plants in psychotherapy and

shamanism+# Journal of Psychoactive Drus 40B@L 333@!

9. Strassman 1, Wo=to(ic) S, 2una 2>, Drecska ># B&&5# "nner Paths to #uter

S!ace$ Journeys to Alien %orlds throuh Psychedelics and #ther S!iritual

&echnoloies# 1ochester, EermontL Park Street Press#p# !@/# -S'9 %/5!.%@//@.#

10. 2eary T, 2it(in G4, Met)ner 1# B!%73# +1eactions to psilocybin administered in

a supporti$e en$ironment+# Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 137 B7L

.7!/3#

11. httpLHH(((#nytimes#comH&!H&@HHmaga)ineHho(ApsychedelicAdrugsAcanA

helpApatientsAfaceAdeath#htmlRpage(anted.Ur!

12. Matsushima , >guchi D, Qikuka(a T, Matsuda T# B&&%#+4istorical o$er$ie( of

psychoacti$e mushrooms+ BP6D#"nflammation and Reeneration 29 B!L @/.5#

13. Johnson MW, 1ichards W*, Griffiths 11# B&&5# +4uman hallucinogen researchL

guidelines for safety+ BP6D# Journal of Psycho!harmacoloy  22 B7L 7&3&#

14. Qeim '# B! July &&5# +Psilocybin study hints at rebirth of hallucinogen

research+# Wired#com# 1etrie$ed &!!A&5A&5#