Psikologi Eksperiment Bab 1

7/26/2019 Psikologi Eksperiment Bab 1

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The Need for Scientific Methodology

The Characteristics of Modern Science

The Objectives of Psychological Science

The Tools of Psychological Science

Scientific Explanation in Psychological Science

The Organization of the Text



How are science, methodology, and data

interrelated?


Science connotes content and process.

Methodology consists of the scientific

techniques we use to collect and evaluate data.Data are the facts we gather using scientificmethods.



What is commonsense psychology?


Heider called nonscientific data gatheringcommonsense psycho logy .

This approach uses nonscientific sourcesof data and nonscientific inference.

An everyday example is believing that“opposites attract.”



Explain nonscientific inference.


Nonscient i fic inference is the nonscientific useof information to explain or predict behavior.

The gambler’s fallacy, overuse of traitexplanations, stereotyping, and overconfidencebias illustrate this problem.



What is the gambler’s fallacy?


In the gambler’s fallacy , people misuse data toestimate the probability of an event, like when aslot machine will pay off.



Why is the overuse of trait explanations a problem?


When we overuse trait explanations to explainothers' behavior, we often make unwarranteddispositional attributions and underuse

situational information.

This bias can reduce the accuracy of ourexplanations and predictions.



How can stereotyping mislead us?


In stereotyping , we falsely assume that specificbehaviors cluster together.

For example, since Imei is a Chinese-Americanstudent, she must study 10 hours a day andexcel at math. In reality, she failed calculus.

Stereotypes ignore individual differences.



Why is overconfidence bias a problem?


In overconf idence b ias, we feel more confidentabout our conclusions than is warranted byavailable data.

This form of nonscientific inference can result inerroneous conclusions when we don’t recognizethe limitations of supporting data.



Why is the scientific mentality important?


Alfred North Whitehead’s scient i f ic mental i ty

assumes that behavior follows a natural orderand can be predicted.

This assumption is essential to science. There isno point to using the scientific method to gatherand analyze data if there is no implicit order.



What makes data empirical?


Data are empir ical when observed orexperienced.

Galileo’s empirical approach was superiorto Aristotle’s commonsense method.

Galileo correctly concluded that light objectsfall as rapidly as heavy ones in a vacuum.



What is a law?


A law consists of statements generallyexpressed as equations with few variablesthat have overwhelming empirical support.

Laws, like the Laws of Thermodynamics,are useful in the physical sciences.



What is a theory?


A theory is an interim explanation; a set ofrelated statements used explain and predictphenomena.

Theories integrate diverse data, explainbehavior, and predict new instances of behavior.



What is good thinking and why is it important?


Good th ink ing is critical to the scientific method.

We engage in good thinking when data collectionand interpretation are systematic, objective, andrational.



What is parsimony?


The principle of pars imony is that we preferthe simplest useful explanation.

For example, Crandall (1988) showed thata soc ial con tagion model of bulimiawas more parsimonious than competingexplanations.



How did Sir Karl Popper believe that science

advances?


Sir Karl Popper proposed that science advancesby revising theories based on the “weight ofevidence.”

Science is self-correcting as scientificexplanations and theories are challenged,and revised or replaced.



What role does the principle of modus tollens play in

science?


The pr inc ip le of modus tol lens allows us todisprove statements using a single, contraryobservation.

We can never prove a statement because acontradictory observation might be found later.



How does replication advance science?


Repl icat ion is an exact or systematic repetitionof a study.

Replication increases our confidence inexperimental results by adding to the weight ofsupporting evidence.



What are the four main objectives of science?


The four main objectives of science are:

description

prediction

explanation

control





Descr ipt ion is a systematic and unbiasedaccount of observed characteristics of behaviors.

Predict ion is the capability of knowing inadvance when certain behaviors should occur.

Explanat ion is knowledge of the conditions thatreliably produce a behavior.





Contro l is the use of scientific knowledge toinfluence behavior.



How does applied research differ from basic

research?


Appl ied research addresses real-worldproblems like how to improve student graduationrates.

Basic research tests theories and explainspsychological phenomena like helping behavior.



What are the main tools of psychological science?


The main tools of psychological science are:

observation

measurement

experimentation





Observat ion is the systematic noting andrecording of events. Systematic means thatthe procedures are consistently applied.

The events or their signs must be observable.

Observations must be objective so that therecan be strong agreement among raters.





Measurement assigns numbers to objects,events, or their characteristics. This is aninherent feature of quantitative research.

Baron and colleagues (1985) measured angerand depression using numerical scales.





Experimentat ion is the process we use to testthe predictions we call hypotheses and establishcause-and-effect relationships.

Experimentation is not always possible becauseour predictions must be testable .



What are the requirements for an experiment?


We must be able to manipulate the independentvariable and measure its effect on the dependentvariable.

Ethical concerns or technological limitations mayprevent experimentation.



What are the requirements for an experiment?

Scientific Explanation

An experiment requires that we create atleast two treatment conditions and randomlyassign subjects to these conditions.

In psychology experiments, we control

extraneous variables so we that we can

measure “what we intend to measure.”



How does an experiment establish cause and

effect?


An experiment attempts to establish a cause-and-effect relationship between the antecedentconditions (IV) and subject behavior (DV).

Experiments establish a tempo ral relat ionship ,because causes must precede effects. However,not all prior events are causes.



What are pseudosciences?


A pseudosc ience is any field of study thatgives the appearance of being scientific,but has no true scientific basis and has not

been confirmed using the scientific method.Modern pseudosciences include past liferegression, reparenting, and rebirthing.

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Psikologi Eksperiment Bab 1