prr.hec.gov.pkprr.hec.gov.pk/jspui/bitstream/123456789/489/1/103S.pdfv LIST OF CONTENTS CHAPTER # T I T L E PAGE # Title i Subtitle ii Dedications iii Supervisory Committee iv List

i

EVALUATION OF SALTBUSH (Atriplex amnicola) AS

A DIETARY FORAGE FOR NILI-RAVI BUFFALO

HEIFERS AND KAJLI LAMBS

By

JALEES AHMAD BHATTI

M.Sc. (Hons.) LIVESTOCK MANAGEMENT

A

dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment

of the requirements for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

in

Livestock Management

DEPARTMENT OF LIVESTOCK MANAGEMENT

FACULTY OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE

FAISALABAD, PAKISTAN

2009

ii


A DIETARY FORAGE FOR NILI-RAVI BUFFALO

HEIFERS AND KAJLI LAMBS

By

JALEES AHMAD BHATTI

M.Sc. (Hons.) LIVESTOCK MANAGEMENT

A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment

of the requirements for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

in

Livestock Management

DEPARTMENT OF LIVESTOCK MANAGEMENT

FACULTY OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE

FAISALABAD, PAKISTAN

2009

iii

Dedications

I dedicate this humble effort to

my mother,

Elder brother NAFEES BHATTI,

wife, son (IBRAHIM) and

daughter (FATIMAH)

who inspired and encouraged

me to higher ideals of life

iv

To

The Controller of Examinations

University of Agriculture

Faisalabad

The members of the Supervisory Committee find the dissertation submitted by Mr. Jalees

Ahmad Bhatti, Regd. No. 81-ag-619 satisfactory and recommend that it be processed for

the award of the degree.

SUPERVISORY COMMITTEE:

1. CHAIRMAN _________________________________ (DR MUHAMMAD YOUNAS)

2. MEMBER _________________________________ (DR MUHAMMAD RIAZ)

3. MEMBER _________________________________ (DR HAQ NAWAZ)

v

LIST OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER

# T I T L E

PAGE

#

Title i

Subtitle ii

Dedications iii

Supervisory Committee iv

List of Contents v

Acknowledgements viii

List of Tables ix

List of Figures xiii

List of Pictures xiv

Abbreviations used xv

Abstract

xvii

1 Introduction 1

2 Review of Literature 5

2.1 Feed Composition 5

2.1.1 Saltbush Levels 5

2.1.2 Feeds and Forages 7

2.2 Dry Matter Intake 8

2.2.1 Saltbush levels 8

2.2.2 Season 10


2.3 Water Intake 14


2.3.2 Season 16

2.4 Weight Gain 18


2.4.2 Season 20


2.5 Digestibility 25



vi

2.6 Blood Hematology 31



2.6.3 Season 33

3 Materials and Methods 34

3.1 Propagation of Forage Biomass 34

3.1.1 Mott Grass 34

3.1.2 Berseem 35

3.1.3 Lucerne 35

3.1.4 Saltbush Hay 36

3.1..5 Urea Treated Straw 37

3.2 Feed Analyses 37

3.3 Digestibility 39

3.4 Blood Hematology 40

3.5 Data Analyses 41

4 EXPERIMENT 1

Evaluation of Saltbush (Atriplex amnicola) as a

substitute of conventional fodders during

various seasons in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers

42

Abstract 42

4.1 Introduction 43

4.2 Materials and Methods 45

4.3 Results and Discussion 48

4.3.1 Meteorological Data 48

4.3.2 Feed Composition 49

4.3.3 Dry Matter Intake 61

4.3.4 Water Intake 67

4.3.5 Weight Gain 70

4.3.6 Digestibility 75

4.3.7 Blood Hematology 81

4.4 Conclusions 88

5 EXPERIMENT 2 90

vii

Evaluation of Saltbush (Atriplex amnicola) as a

substitute of Lucerne hay nitrogen with different

levels of saltbush nitrogen in comparison with

urea nitrogen in Kajli lambs.

Abstract 90

5.1 Introduction 91







5.3.5 Dry Matter and Organic Matter Digestibility 108


5.4 Conclusions 114

6 EXPERIMENT 3

Evaluation of Saltbush (Atriplex amnicola) in

Kajli lambs as a substitute of Lucerne hay based

Total Mixed Ration

116

Abstract 116

6.1 Introduction 117







6.3.5 Digestibility 131


6.4 Conclusions 137

7 Summary 138

8 Recommendations & Implications 143

9 Literature Cited 145

A Brief CV 158

viii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am thankful to almighty Allah, the Compassionate and the Merciful, who bestowed

upon me the patience, stamina and ability to conduct this research project.

I am greatly indebted and feel deep sense of gratitude to my Supervisor, Professor Dr

Muhammad Younas, Dean, Faculty of Animal Husbandry, University of Agriculture,

Faisalabad, for his keen interest in the execution and completion of this research work.

I am grateful to my committee members Dr Muhammad Riaz, Assistant Professor,

Department of Livestock Management and Dr Haq Nawaz, Associate Professor, Institute

of Animal Nutrition & Feed Technology, Faculty of Animal Husbandry, University of

Agriculture, Faisalabad, for their help, constructive criticism in the completion of this

work and review of this manuscript.

I am grateful to Dr(s) Muhammad Sajjad Khan and Safdar Ali, Department of Animal

Breeding and Genetics, for their sincere help in data handling and analysis of this study.

Thanks are extended to Professor Dr Muhammad Abdullah, Dean, Faculty of Animal

Production and Technology and Professor Dr Masroor Ellahi Babar, Chairman,

Department of Livestock Production, University of Veterinary & Animal Sciences,

Lahore for great help in the preparation of this project and review of the thesis.

Thanks are also extended to Mr Shamshad Ahmad and Mr Nadeem, for their help in

typing of this dissertation. Last but not the least I am thankful to my mother, wife and

other members of my family for their moral support.

JALEES AHMAD BHATTI

Regd No 81-ag-619

ix

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE

#

T I T L E PAGE

#

4.1 Distribution of Nili-Ravi Buffalo heifers in conventional

fodders substituted with Saltbush diets experiment.

46

4.2 Metrological data during experiment in buffalo heifers on

conventional fodders substituted with Saltbush diets.

48

4.3 Dry matter contents (%) of conventional fodders substituted

with saltbush diets fed to Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers.

49

4.4 ANOVA of Dry Matter contents in conventional fodders

substituted with Saltbush diets fed to Nili-Ravi buffalo

heifers.

51

4.5 Crude Protein contents of conventional fodders substituted

with Saltbush diets fed to Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers.

51

4.6 Crude Protein ANOVA of conventional fodders substituted


52

4.7 Crude Fiber contents (%) of conventional fodders substituted


53

4.8 Crude Fiber ANOVA of conventional fodders substituted with

Saltbush diets fed to Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers.

54

4.9 Ether Extract (%) of conventional fodders substituted with


54

4.10 Ether Extract ANOVA of conventional fodders substituted


55

4.11 Ash contents (%) of conventional fodders substituted with


56

4.12 ANOVA of Ash contents in conventional fodders substituted


57

4.13 NFE contents (%) in conventional fodders substituted with


57

4.14 ANOVA of NFE in conventional fodders substituted with


58

4.15 Mean daily DMI (kg) in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on


61

4.16 ANOVA of DMI in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on conventional

fodders substituted with Saltbush diets.

63

4.17 Daily water intake (liter) in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on


67

4.18 ANOVA of daily water intake in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on


68

4.19 Daily weight gain (kg) in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on


71

x

4.20 ANOVA of daily weight gain in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on


73

4.21 Dry Matter Digestibility (%) in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on


76

4.22 ANOVA of Dry Matter Digestibility in Nili-Ravi buffalo

heifers on conventional fodders substituted with Saltbush

diets.

77

4.23 Organic Matter Digestibility (%) in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers

on conventional fodders substituted with Saltbush diets.

77

4.24 ANOVA of Organic Matter Digestibility in Nili-Ravi buffalo

heifers on conventional fodders substituted with Saltbush

diets.

78

4.25 Red Blood Cells count (106

μl) in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on

conventional fodders substituted with Saltbush diets

82

4.26 ANOVA of RBCs (106



83

4.27 WBCs count (103 μl) in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on


83

4.28 ANOVA of WBCs (103 μl) in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on


84

4.29 Hemoglobin (g/dl) in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on


85

4.30 ANOVA of Hemoglobin (g/dl) in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on


86

4.31 PCV count (%) in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on conventional


86

4.32 ANOVA of PCV in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on conventional


87

5.1 Distribution of Kajli lambs to treatments in Lucerne hay

nitrogen substitution with Saltbush and urea nitrogen trial.

93

5.2 Dry Matter contents (%) and ANOVA of Lucerne hay

nitrogen substitution with saltbush and urea nitrogen diets.

96

5.3 Crude Protein contents (%) and ANOVA in Lucerne hay


97

5.4 Crude Fiber contents (%) and ANOVA in Lucerne hay


99

5.5 Ether Extract contents (%) and ANOVA in Lucerne hay


99

5.6 Ash contents (%) and ANOVA in Lucerne hay nitrogen

substitution with saltbush and urea nitrogen diets.

100

5.7 NFE contents (%) and ANOVA in Lucerne hay nitrogen


101

5.8 DMI (kg) and ANOVA in Kajli lambs fed on Lucerne hay


101

5.9 Daily water Intake (Lit) and ANOVA in Kajli lambs fed on

Lucerne hay nitrogen substitution with saltbush and urea

104

xi

nitrogen diets.

5.10 Weight gain (Kg) and ANOVA in Kajli lambs fed on Lucerne

hay nitrogen substitution with saltbush and urea nitrogen

diets.

105

5.11 DMD (%) and ANOVA in Kajli lambs fed on Lucerne hay


108

5.12 OMD (%) and ANOVA in Kajli lambs fed on Lucerne hay


109

5.13 RBCs (106

μl) and ANOVA in Kajli lambs fed on Lucerne

hay nitrogen substitution with saltbush and urea nitrogen

diets.

112

5.14 WBCs (103 μl) and ANOVA in Kajli lambs on Lucerne hay


112

5.15 Hemoglobin (g/dl) and ANOVA in Kajli lambs fed on

Lucerne hay nitrogen substitution with saltbush and urea

nitrogen diets.

113

5.16 PCV (%) and ANOVA in Kajli lambs fed on Lucerne hay


113

6.1 Distribution of Kajli lambs to different treatments of Lucerne

hay based Total Mixed Ration substituted with Saltbush.

120

6.2 DM contents (%) and ANOVA in Lucerne hay based Total

Mixed Ration substituted with different levels of saltbush.

122

6.3 CP contents (%) and ANOVA in Lucerne hay based Total


123

6.4 Crude Fiber (%) and ANOVA in Lucerne hay based Total


123

6.5 Ether Extract (%) and ANOVA of Lucerne hay based Total


124

6.6 ASH contents (%) and ANOVA of Lucerne hay based Total


124

6.7 NFE (%) and ANOVA of Lucerne hay based Total Mixed

Ration substituted with different levels of saltbush.

125

6.8 DMI and ANOVA in Kajli lambs on Lucerne hay based Total


127

6.9 Water intake (Lit) and ANOVA in Kajli lambs on Lucerne

hay based TMR substituted with different levels of saltbush.

128

6.10 Weight gain and ANOVA in Kajli lambs on Lucerne hay

based TMR substituted with different levels of saltbush.

130

6.11 DMD (%) and ANOVA in Kajli lambs on Lucerne hay based

TMR substituted with different levels of saltbush.

132

6.12 Organic Matter Digestibility (%) and ANOVA in Kajli lambs

fed on Lucerne hay based Total Mixed Ration substituted with

different levels of saltbush.

132

6.13 Red Blood Cells (106

μl) count and ANOVA in Kajli lambs on

Lucerne hay based Total Mixed Ration substituted with

134

xii


6.14 White Blood Cells (103 μl) count and ANOVA in Kajli lambs

fed on Lucerne hay based Total Mixed Ration substituted with


135

6.15 Hemoglobin (g/dl) values and ANOVA in Kajli lambs fed on



135

6.16 Packed Cell Volume (%) and ANOVA in Kajli lambs fed on


different levels of saltbush

136

xiii

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE

#

T I T L E PAGE

#

4.1 Overall mean Temperature and Relative Humidity

changes during different feeding periods

49

4.2 Overall means of Dry Matter (%) of feeds in different

treatments and during different periods

50

4.3 Overall means of Crude Protein (%) in different

treatments and during different periods.

52

4.4 Overall means of Crude Fiber (%) of feeds in different


53

4.5 Overall means of Ether Extract (%) of feeds in

different treatments and during different periods

55

4.6 Overall means of Ash contents (%) in feeds on

different treatments and during different periods.

56

4.7 Overall means of NFE (%) in feeds on different


58

4.8 Overall means of daily DMI (kg) in buffalo heifers on


63

4.9 Overall means of daily water intake (liter) in Nili-Ravi

buffalo heifers on different treatments and during

different periods

68

4.10 Overall means of daily weight gain (Kg) in Nili-Ravi

buffalo heifers on different treatments and during

different periods

72

4.11 Daily weight gain (Kg) of heifers on different


72

4.12 Overall means of DMD (%) of feeds in buffalo heifers

on different treatments and during different periods.

76

4.13 Overall means of Organic Matter Digestibility (%) of

feeds in buffalo heifers on different treatments and

during different periods

78

4.14 Overall means of RBCs (106

μl) in buffalo heifers on


82

4.15 Overall means of WBCs (103 μl) in buffalo heifers on


84

4.16 Overall means of Hemoglobin (g/dl) in buffalo heifers

on different treatments and during different periods.

85

4.17 Overall means of PCV (%) in buffalo heifers on


87

xiv

LIST OF PICTURES

PICTURE

# T I T L E

PAGE

#

3.1 Mott Napier plantation and production for heifer feeding 35

3.2 Berseem cultivation and cutting for heifer feeding 35

3.3 Sun cured Lucerne hay prepared for lambs feeding 36

3.4 Biomass production of transplanted Atriplex amnicola

shrub for heifers and lambs feeding.

36

3.5 Urea treatment of wheat straw for lambs feeding 37

4.1 Distribution of groups and tail to tail housing of heifers

for saltbush feeding experiment

46

5.1 Lucerne and Saltbush hay making under shade for

feeding to Kajli Lambs

94

5.2 Metabolic cages for lambs with separate feed and water

for each lamb

94

6.1 Distribution of lambs to different treatments with

individual feed and water arrangements

120

6.2 Prepared TMR diet having Lucerne hay substituted with

different levels of Saltbush designated as T1, T2 and T3

for feeding to Lambs.

121

6.3 Fecal collection bags adjustment for digestibility

estimations

121

xv

ABBREVIATIONS USED

ADF Acid-detergent fiber

ADG Average daily live weight gain

ADL Acid detergent lignin

Agric. Agricultural

Anim. Animal

ANOVA Analysis of variance

Aust. Australian

Bio. Biology

Bio-chem. Biochemistry

CF Crude Fiber

CP Crude Protein

CRD Completely Randomized Design

d day

DCP Digestible Crude Protein

DDM Digestible Dry Matter

DM Dry Matter

DMI Dry Matter Intake

DMD Dry Matter Digestibility

DOMI Digestible Organic Matter Intake

DOMIV Digestibility of organic matter in vitro

EE Ether Extract

Exp. Experimental

g gm, gram

GDP Gross Domestic Product

Husb. Husbandry

Ind. Indian

IVOMD In-Vitro Organic Matter Digestibility

IVDMD In-Vitro Dry Matter Digestibility

J Journal

kg kilogram

kg0.75

Per kg metabolic body weight

kg-1 Per kg

LSD Latin Square Design, Least Significant Difference

Med. Medical, Medicine

Mgt. Management

NDF Neutral Detergent Fiber

NFE Nitrogen-Free Extract

NRC National Research Council

Nutr. Nutrition

OM Organic Matter

OMD Organic Matter Digestibility

xvi

Pak Pakistan

Parasit. Parasitology

Proc. Proceedings

Prod. Production

Reprod. Reproduction

Res Research

Rum. Ruminant

Sci. Science. or Sciences

SGOT Serum Glutamic OxaloaceticTtransaminase

SGPT Serum Glutamic Pyruvate Transaminase

TDN Total Digestible Nutrients

Tech. Technology

Uni. University

Vet. Veterinary

xvii

Evaluation of Saltbush (Atriplex amnicola) as a dietary forage

for Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers and Kajli lambs

ABSTRACT

Livestock production in Pakistan is contributing almost 50 % to the value addition in the

agriculture sector and 11 % to GDP, which is higher than the contribution made by the

crop sector. Animal production is badly affected by shortage of feed resources. Forages

are an important source of animal feed and constitute nearly 70 % of the total cost of

livestock production. The area under fodder production (14 %) is hardly able to produce

58 million tones of fodder which is not sufficient even to meet the maintenance of the

existing livestock. The salinity and water logging are the major factors in deteriorating

the soil and further dwindling resources. Atriplex species are tolerant to cold and heat

stress and have great potential to increase the productivity of salt-affected land. Saltbush

can be used as an alternate feed for large and small ruminants in the salinity affected

areas. To exploit the potential feeding value of Saltbush, three experiments were

conducted to use Saltbush (Atriplex amnicola) as dietary forage for Nili-Ravi buffalo

heifers and Kajli lambs at Livestock Experiment Station, University of Agriculture

Faisalabad, Pakistan. Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers feeding management trial (Experiment 1)

was conducted to determine the effect of conventional fodder substitution with saltbush

during different seasons. Fifteen buffalo heifers (120±2 kg) were divided into five

groups, three each according to Latin Square Design fed on different treatments (T)

designated as T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 having Mott (Pennisetum purpurium), Berseem

(Trifolium alexandrinum), Mott+Saltbush, Berseem+Saltbush and

Mott+Berseem+Saltbush, respectively. Mean maximum temperature during different

periods (P) designated as P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 was 20.76±1.75, 22.62±1.75, 24.51±1.75,

37.67±1.75 and 40.98±1.75˚C, respectively. Crude protein contents were higher in

Berseem followed by T4 and T5. Lowest crude protein was during summer and higher

during mild season and winter. Ether Extract was higher in diets having Berseem and

Berseem+Saltbush than other treatments and also higher during mild season than severe

summer and winter. Ash contents were higher in saltbush substituted diets and also

during summer season. DMI was higher during mild season and was highest in heifers on

Berseem and Berseem+Saltbush diet. Daily water intake was comparatively higher in

heifers on saltbush substituted diets and also increased during summer season. Highest

daily weight gain was observed on Berseem alone and heifers on Saltbush combination

diets also gained more than on Mott grass. Weight gain was lower during winter as

compared to spring and summer. Statistically significant difference in DM (P<0.05), CP,

CF, EE, Ash and NFE (P<0.01), DMI, water intake and weight gain (P<0.01), DMD and

OMD (P<0.05), RBCs, WBCs, Hemoglobin and PCV (P<0.05) was observed between

treatments and periods. Saltbush substituted diets showed better DMD and OMD and also

changes were observed in RBCs, WBCs, Hemoglobin and PCV between treatments and

periods. The Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers showed comparable intake and gain on diets

having inclusion of Saltbush with conventional fodders especially performed better on

Berseem+Saltbush diets during winter season. Performance of heifers was also better on

xviii

saltbush combination diets having Mott+Saltbush and Berseem+Mott+Saltbush in the

diets during summer season. Therefore, the growth performance of Nili-Ravi buffalo

heifers can be improved by using Saltbush leaves and twigs in fresh form as part of

conventional fodders up to 50 % during different seasons. Saltbush can be incorporated in

the conventional diets of heifers to maintain daily intake and growth performance during

feed gaps. Saltbush can be used as an alternate forage source when conventional fodders

are short and their nutrient contents are less during severe winter and summer seasons.

The continuous supply of better feed to such neglected animals raised in saline areas can

be maintained to achieve early growth and sexual maturity.

Lucerne hay nitrogen replacement trial (Experiment 2) was conducted to substitute the

Lucerne hay nitrogen with different levels of saltbush and urea nitrogen on 30 Kajli

lambs divided into five groups of six lambs each using CRD (5x6) fed for ten (10) weeks

on 70% Lucerne hay and 30% wheat straw (T1), urea nitrogen replaced 20% T1 nitrogen,

urea nitrogen replaced 30% T1 nitrogen, Saltbush nitrogen replaced 20% T1 nitrogen and

saltbush nitrogen replaced 30% T1 nitrogen designated as T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5,

respectively. Crude protein contents were higher in saltbush diets as compared to T1

(15.50±.214 %) and T2 and T3, respectively. Crude fiber contents were 26.25±0.55,

31.00±0.55, 32.75±0.55, 27.00±0.55 and 27.50±0.55 % on T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5, and

EE contents were 2.75±.194, 3.00±.194, 2.75±.194, 3.00±.194 and 3.25±.194,

respectively. Ash contents in T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 were 8.50±.295, 11.00±.295,

11.75±.295, 11.25±.295 and 14.25±.295 % and Differences in dry matter (P<0.01) Crude

fiber (P<0.01) Ash (P<0.01) and NFE (P<0.09) contents were significant and crude

protein (P<0.290) and Ether Extract (P<0.364) were non-significant between treatments.

DMI was 0.97±0.05, 0.91±0.05, 0.87±0.05, 1.02±0.05 and 0.92±0.05 kg on T1, T2, T3,

T4 and T5, respectively. Daily water intake was comparatively higher (2.47±1.07 and

2.60±1.07 liters) on saltbush diets than control and urea nitrogen diets. Higher

(0.049±0.01 kg) daily weight gain on T4 than T1 (0.044±0.01 kg) was observed.

Significant difference in DMI (P<0.05), water intake (P<0.01) and weight gain (P<0.05)

was observed between treatments. DMD and OMD was higher on saltbush included diets

than control and urea substituted diets and significant OMD (P<0.01). Significant

(P<0.01) difference in RBCs, WBCs, Hemoglobin and PCV was observed between

treatments. The findings of the experiment indicated that the lambs fed on saltbush

included diets and urea nitrogen diets showed comparatively better intake, gained more

and also the digestibility values were comparable to control fed on Lucerne hay based

diets. The blood hematology values also indicated significant differences between

treatments. Dried saltbush leaves and twigs can suitably incorporated upto 30 % of the

diet nitrogen in the conventional hay based diets to increase the nutrient level of the diet

especially during drought and feed shortage periods when no alternate feeds are available

in the saline areas.

Lucerne hay based TMR trial (Experiment 3) was conducted to substitute the Lucerne

hay based TMR with different levels of saltbush on 12 Kajli lambs divided into three

groups of four lambs each using CRD (3x4). The lambs were fed for 35 days on TMR

diet designated as T1 (CGM 20.5, Lucerne hay 60, Molasses 18 and mineral mixture 1.5

%), T2 (Saltbush hay replaced 30 % Lucerne hay of T1) and T3 (Saltbush hay replaced

xix

45 % Lucerne hay of T1), respectively. CP was 16.25±.144, 16.00±.144 and 15.00±.144

%, respectively. Significant DM (P<0.019), CP (P<0.01) differences were observed

between treatments. CF was highest (16.75±.417 %) in T3 diet having 45 % saltbush

included ration followed by T2 (15.25±.417 %) and T1 (14.25±.417 %). Highly

significant CF (P<0.01) and non significant EE (P<0.311) difference was noted between

treatments. Ash contents were highest (13.75±.264 %) in T3 followed by T2 (12.75±.264

%) and T1 (10.50±.264 %). Significant Ash (P<0.01) and non significant NFE (P<0.43)

difference was observed among treatments. Daily DMI in Kajli lambs was 0.930±0.025,

0.842±.025 and 0.902±.025 kg in T1, T2 and T3, respectively. Daily water intake was

3.434±0.148, 3.135±0.148, 4.009±0.148 on T1, T2 and T3, respectively. Highest

(72.6±18.2 g) daily weight gain was recorded on T3 followed by T1 (46.4±18.2 g) and

T2 (36.3±18.2 g), respectively. Significant DMI (P<0.045) water intake (P<0.01) and

weight gain (P<0.34) was non-significant between treatments. DMD and OMD in lambs

was lower on T3 having 45 % saltbush than control (T1) and DMD (P<0.34) and OMD

(P<0.06) differences were among treatments. Differences between treatments in blood

hematology were non significant. The results indicated that the DM and CP contents were

similar in saltbush diets and Lucerne hay based TMR. The lambs on saltbush included

diets also showed similar DMD and OMD digestibility. It is concluded that Kajli lambs

on TMR diets performed equally good on saltbush substituted diets and can be fed on

TMR in the form of complete diet pellets or mash having upto 45 % saltbush inclusion as

leaf meal protein.

Buffalo heifers and small ruminant needs special attention in the saline areas during

drought spells to maintain their performance. This is only possible if alternate feed

resources like saltbush is given due importance while propagation, harvesting/lopping,

procurement and utilization in different combinations and forms with conventional feeds

and forages. The best way to use this potential shrub (saltbush) is only to dry the leaves

and soft twigs and use upto 45 % in the conventional diets on dry matter basis. It will be

more appropriate to have complete formulated diets (TMR) in the form of pellets or

thoroughly mixed mash diets.

It was also observed that saltbush value can be further improved if some soaking or

processing is devised to minimize the salt contents from the leaves and twigs before

feeding to the animals, this will improve the nutrients and palatability. So the dried

saltbush leaves are having greater scope to be used as part of conventional browse, stall

diets and Total Mixed Rations in the saline areas especially along with other grain or

energy sources. It can also be produced and used as an emergency feed to be used during

severe seasons and drought spells to maintain the livestock condition score. It was further

observed that more precise investigations are needed on improved agronomic practices to

increase the quality and production of forage bio-mass per unit area, possibility of

involving commercial entrepreneurs for formula feed production and utilization, studies

on economic feasibility of saltbush feed production through farmer cooperatives,

production and feeding management economics under different farming conditions and

screening of blood metabolites including mineral profile in different species of animals

and on different feeding levels.

xx

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Livestock production is an important sector of agriculture in Pakistan and contributing

almost 50 % to the value addition in the agriculture sector and 11 % to GDP, which is

higher than the contribution made by the crop sector. Certain species of livestock has

been undergoing gradual changes during the last about three to four decades and at

present possesses 23.8, 25.5, 24.7 and 54.7 million cattle, buffaloes, sheep and goats,

respectively (Economic Survey, 2006).

The economic significance of livestock is evident from the fact that this sector actually

engaged 30-35 million rural masses generating 30-40 % of their income by keeping 2-3

cattle/buffaloes and 5-6 sheep/goats per family. Despite decades of neglect, milk is the

largest and the single most important commodity and Pakistan is ranked fifth largest milk

producer in the world. The total value of milk produced is higher than the value of two

major crops that is wheat and cotton (Economic Survey, 2006).

Forages are an important source of animal feed and constitute nearly 70 % of the total

costs of livestock production. The farmers are giving more concentration to produce cash

crops and attach low priority to growing fodder for the animals. The area under fodder

production is about 2.7 million hectare which is only 14 % to the total cultivated land in

the country which produces 58 million tones of fodder which is not sufficient even to

meet the maintenance requirements of the existing livestock.

In terms of roughage’s our animals are getting about 40 % less green fodder including the

pastures and roughage’s situation shows a deficiency of about 19 % (Sial and Alam,

1988). The feeding of animals even at the present level of their population is highly

inadequate, resulting into very low yields of milk and meat. A projected expanding

animal population will further worsen the feed resources situation in the country and will

require a more than 50 % increase in the feed supply.

xxi

Animals rely mostly on pastures, cereal straws, crop residues and other wastes and

farmers mostly rely on expensive feed supplements to maintain their animals. Good

animal production requires fodders that contain high concentrations of metabolisable

energy, moderate to high concentrations of crude protein.

The salinity and water logging are the major factors in deteriorating the soil and further

dwindling resources. Pakistan has about 6.3 million hectares of salt affected land. The

yields of wheat, rice, cotton and sugarcane had declined by 64, 68, 59 and 62 %,

respectively due to recently developed mildly salt affected regions (Qureshi et al., 1993).

Halophytes are plant species growing naturally on saline lands and have potential for land

rehabilitation (Squires and Ayoub, 1994). The halophytes occupy an important niche in

salt affected waste lands due to their high degree of salt tolerance. Atriplex species are

halophyte shrubs that have considerable forage potential in the arid and semiarid

rangelands of West Asia (Le Houerou, 1992, 1995) and also grown in the Middle East

(Nefzaoui ,1997).

Saltbushes are the major salt tolerant fodder species for productive use of salt land having

medium to high concentration of protein, low concentration of metabolisable energy and

relatively low to high concentrations of salt (Barrett-Lennard et al., 2003, Barrett-

Lennard et al., 2004, Norman, et al.,2002).

Saltbush leaves are apparently high in nitrogen concentration (1.5 to 3%). However,

some nutritional factors like high level of salt can limit their feeding value and their

acceptability by animals. Shrubs also influence the chemical and physical properties of

soil on which they grow the surface soil beneath plants of Atriplex vesicaria has twice the

capacity to supply mineral nitrogen compared to the areas between shrubs. Removal of

shrubs reduced the rate of mineralization and nutrient cycling in the soil (Grice and Muir,

1988). Understory grasses and herbs in stands of halophytic shrubs can be the major

xxii

component of the forage available. Under these conditions, diet quality and quantity will

be affected by the composition and amounts of the substory.

However, these lands can be reclaimed and utilized for livestock production and

wastelands may be the alternative for the fodder area. Preliminary work in Pakistan

focused on adaptation of Atriplex species grown in saline areas produced promising

results of biomass production (15-20 tons/ha) on wastelands proved them a strong

candidate for alternate vegetation. Fortunately, in different saline environments

throughout Pakistan, Atriplex species (A. lentiformis and A. amnicola) outperformed and

generally proved the most productive (Abdullah et al., 1993; Ahmad and Ismail, 1995;

Rashid et al., 1993, Aslam et al., 1993). Atriplex species in particular have great potential

to increase the productivity of salt-affected land.

It is a valuable source of energy and crude protein, and it tolerates drought and heavy

grazing (Vallance, 1989; Nefzaoui, 1997). Morcombe et al. (1996) found that saltbush

plantations can be used to provide a feed source which could partly fill the autumn feed-

gap for sheep and more productive stands of saltbush, grown together with winter active

plant species, are needed to improve the economic viability of this grazing resource. The

waste and salt affected lands could only be used for livestock production. A. halimus and

A. nummularia are the most important species used for rangeland reclamation in the

Mediterranean desert shrublands (Vallance, 1989; Le Houerou, 1996). Barrett-Lennard et

al. (2004) also indicated increased farm profits only if the moderately productive saline

land (2.5 % of the total) was revegetated and used to fill the autumn feed gap.

Livestock farmers under such conditions are only making special arrangements only to

feed the buffaloes and cows in lactation and mature stock to market them appropriately

and ignoring the replacement heifers and growing small ruminants especially during

drought season in the saline areas. However, there is an urgent need to develop forage

production strategy for stress areas by inducting alternate forage sources to incorporate

practically in the existing conventional fodder production and feeding management

system. Saltbush (Atriplex amnicola) has been found promising for introduction into

xxiii

degraded range lands to produce fair amount of biomass for livestock. If Saltbushes are

used for animals feeding, will help meet the deficits of our livestock and in turn will

increase the farmer’s income, availability of animal products and improve soil conditions.

The present studies were conducted to explore potential of Atriplex amnicola as a

substitute for conventional fodders in the diet of Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers and Kajli lambs

in the saline areas. The objectives of the investigations were as under:

1. To study the effect of Saltbush (Atriplex amnicola) forage as a substitute of

conventional fodders (Mott and Berseem) during various seasons in Nili-Ravi

buffalo heifers.

2. To evaluate the potential of Saltbush (Atriplex amnicola) nitrogen to replace

different levels of feed nitrogen in comparison to urea, in Lucerne hay based

Kajli lambs ration.

3. To determine the potential of Saltbush (Atriplex amnicola) as a substitute of

Lucerne hay based Total Mixed Ration in Kajli lambs.

xxiv

CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Several research workers have done appreciable work on various aspects of saltbush

(Atriplex amnicola) as sole feed and in combination with conventional feeds and

investigated its effect on feed composition, dry matter intake, water intake, weight gain,

digestibility and blood hematology in different species of small and large ruminants in

different arid and semi-arid regions of the world in particular Pakistan, India, Nepal,

Saudi Arabia, Australia and USA. Some of the pertinent reviews on the related topics are

presented in the ensuing paragraphs.

2.1 FEED COMPOSITION

2.1.1 Saltbush Levels

Pichard et al. (1988) reported high (35-55 %) dry matter content of green leaves of 13

species of trees and shrubs and CP conent was lower than expected (<12 %). The CP

content of whole dried plants ranged from 6.6 % in A. Amnicola to 9.2 % in A. Vesicaria

(Malcolm et al. 1988). Diets with shrub pasture containd more CP than those on grass

pastures, A canescens (10 % CP), K. Prostrata (12 % CP) and C. Lanata (12 % CP) were

recommended for rangeland improvement by Otsyina and Mckell (1986). Guevara et al.

(2005) compared saltbush and alfalfa hay and reported mean values of ash 25.3 % and CP

13.6 %. Bhattacharya (1989) reported CP and CF contents on a DM basis were 15 and 31

% for M. Sativa, 13 and 30 % for Acacia Cyanophylla and 10 and 37 % for Haloxylon

persicum, respectively. A. Halimus cuttings contained 18 % CP and 24 % CF on DM

basis. The low OM content of 760 g/kg together with its digestibility of 0.56 % resulted

in Atriplex having a low metabolizable energy of 6.28 MJ/kg DM and mean nitrogen

concentration of atriplex DM was 16.6 g/kg when offered leaves, fruits and twigs of

Atriplex barclayana alone or with tapioca meal 100, 200 or 300 g/d. (Benjamin et al.,

1992).

xxv

Malcolm et al. (1988) reported higher chloride contents in leaves than twigs of 5 Atriplex

species sown in saline soil in Western Australia and was highest for A. Vesicaria and

lowest for A. amnicola. Wilson (1966) concluded that the high ash content of saltbush (20

to 38 %), which is principally NaC1, may nutritionally be a disadvantage to animals.

Gihad (1993) reported up to 10 % NaCl in saltbush. Grice and Muir (1988) reported that

A.vesicaria contains around 6 % sodium and CP content of saltbush leaf is either

comparable to or higher than other annual and perennial grasses, but it is quite likely that

some saltbush species show variation in chemical composition as a result of change in

season and the soil on which the shrubs are growing. Bhatia et al. (1994) reported higher

(P<0.01) digestion of nutrients from low grade roughage in buffaloes than in cattle and

concluded that eating pattern is governed by ruminant species and fibrous components of

the diet.

Jacobs and Smith (1977) reported significant differences in chemical composition

between (Atriplex nummularia, A. Canescens, A. Brewerii and A. Lentiformis) species

and between seasons. Kandil and El-Shaer (1989) reported that Atriplex nummularia had

higher nutritive value in spring and winter than in summer and autumn and found

satisfactory alongwith barley (150 g) for sheep and goats during wet season, but they

would need more energy in dry season. Correal et al. (1986) averaged over spring,

summer, autumn and winter for all 4 species of atriplex, DM and protein contents were

31.7 and 16.7 %, respectively and protein content was only slightly reduced in the

summer (14.5 %), consistent protein and energy levels make these atriplex species a

useful alternative forage source in arid zones. Ueckert et al. (1990) reported that spring

Atriplex canescens growth having 16 % CP.

Gupta et al. (1994) conducted an experiment on male growing buffaloes fed pelleted feed

mixture containing 35 % dried leucaena leaves, 16 % wheat, 5 % rice bran, 12 % de-oiled

rice bran, 5 % de-oiled mustard cake, 15 % wheat straw, 10 % molasses, 1 % mineral

mixture and 1 % NaCl had 16 % CP, 17 % CF, 3.5 % EE, 5.5 % total ash, 42 % NFE.

Quirk et al. (1992) reported that the diets of native pasture hay (0.44 % N) was of

relatively poor quality (1.10 % N, 70 % stem) having 0, 10, 25, 50, or 80 % C.

xxvi

Rotundifolia hay and medicago sativa hay (2.42 % N) treatments were also fed with

native pasture hay at the same dietary legume proportions. Ohgi et al. (2006) reported CP

as 22.3 % in timothy pasture and those of total diet were 18.9 %, respectively in grazing

Holstein cows.

2.1.2 Feeds and Forages

Napier and Other Fodder: Nandra et al. (1985) reported DM 27.05 and 27.20 % in

Berseem at the time of ensiling and silage had DM 27.43 %, CP 11.5 %, EE 3.83 %, CF

34.70 % and ash 9.00 %. Grings et al. (1992) reported CP 13.9, 16.0, 18.1, and 20.3 % in

the diets containing 0, 10.1, 20.8 or 31.5 % distillers dried grains and observed little

additional benefit by feeding greater than 18.1 % dietary CP.

Chauhan (1983) reported increased CF and CP contents decreased in hay with increase in

the height of Napier grass hybrid NB-21 (Pennisetum purpureum X P. Americanum)

plants from 45 to 120 cm. Devasena et al. (1994) reported that Panicum maximum grown

in India showed decreased EE (3.7 and 2.0 %) and ash (15.8 and 12.7 %) and CF (25.3

and 33.7 %) increased as the stage of growth progressed CP (15.8 and 7.9 % at 15 and 75

ds of harvest, respectively), NFE reached a maximum at 45 ds of harvest (44.0 %

compared to 39.4 % at 15 ds' harvest). Karnezos et al. (1994) reported that herbage CP

were highest for lucerne (253 g/kg) and lowest for wheatgrass (159 g/kg).

Urea Treated Straw: Chauhan and Dahiya (1993) reported increased CP with urea

treatment from 8.14 % in untreated silage to 11.10 and 13.05 % in maize silage without

or with 1 or 1.5 % urea, respectively and concluded that nutritive value of maize silage

can be greatly improved with urea treatment. Khan et al. (1992) found DM, CP and

ammonia content of the silage mixture (50 % sugarcane bagasse supplemented with 5 %

urea, 10 % fresh cattle manure and 35 % water) were increased (47.6 to 54.4 %, 18.4 to

22.2 % and 0 to 2.2 %, respectively) after 60 ds. Virk et al. (1993) reported that CP

content improved (P<0.05) by treatment when wheat straw was impregnated with animal

urine (N 4.3 g/litre, 0.7 litre/kg straw) or treated with 4 % urea solution. Wilson et al.

(1975) found that goat diets nitrogen content ranged from 1.6 to 3.0 % generally greater

than sheep.

xxvii

2.2 DRY MATTER INTAKE (DMI)

DMI was thought to be affected by many factors such as type of ruminant species, soil

and water conditions, type and maturity stage of forage, stage of animal, choice of feeds

available, mineral matter of forages, season, environmental conditions, management

conditions, grazing system and drinking water facilities.


In Pakistan researchers found that dwarf goats can be maintained on 100 % Atriplex

amnicola diet and suggested supplements of good quality local fodders or concentrates

for growth (Nawaz et al., 1994). Many researchers found fourwing saltbush useful plant

for rangeland in Balochistan province and could serve as a forage reserve species to

supplement natural vegetation (Rehman et al., 1988). The earlier study (Leigh, 1972)

revealed that Atriplex vesicaria provides maintenance rather than production

requirements in sheep and may make up 25 % of the diet in summer and 90 % during a

drought and contributes very little to diet when alternative feed is available. Where high

and low salt feeds are available together, ruminants will endeavor to select a diet that

optimizes the overall feeding value of the ingested diet (Masters et al., 2006).

Forage type had a significant (P<0.001) effect on DMI in Awassi lambs given chopped

alfalfa hay, dried foliage of Atriplex nummularia or Atriplex halimus, lambs receiving

the alfalfa hay diet showed high DMI compared to those fed the diets containing saltbush

and found that inclusion of Atriplex nummularia in the diet up to 50 % had no significant

effect on DMI, whereas the inclusion of Atriplex halimus above 25 % reduced DMI as

reported by Abu-Zanat (2005) and found that it is possible to replace up to 50 % of

alfalfa hay by A. nummularia without negative effects on intake of dry matter. Kennedy

(1995) observed similar intake in swamp buffaloes (Bos Bubalus bubalis) and crossbred

cattle (Bos indicus x B. taurus) offered lablab (Lablab purpureus), verano (Stylosanthes

hamata cv. verano), sorghum (Sorghum bicolor x S. sudanense) and pangola grass

xxviii

(Digitaria eriantha) but were higher in those given sorghum than those given the other

forages.

Atriplex numularia bushes were able to sustain stock an extra one to two months into a

drought compared to the grass land (Danthonia stipa) as reported by Leigh and Wilson

(1970). Pasternak et al. (1985) reported that low feed intake of Atriplex nummularia was

the main limiting factor in the development of sea water irrigated fodder and an intake of

400 g per head daily was found effective only with the addition of 400 g corn meal per

head.

Some researchers (Waghorn et al., 1994) reported that addition of salt to the sheep diet

had no effect on DMI, but they found increased DMI in the diet with bentonite plus salt

compared with controls (P<0.01). Masters et al. (2005) reported that increasing sodium in

the diet significantly decreased feed intake in weaner wethers either as a main effect or

through an interaction with potassium and it was also found that organic matter intake

was reduced from 1.35 kg at the lowest levels of sodium and potassium to 0.67 kg at the

highest levels. The response surfaces indicated that production was depressed even at the

lower levels of sodium, whereas high potassium depressed intake at high levels of sodium

only. In another study Masters et al. (2006) reported depressed feed intake and

production at high salt intakes by grazing ruminants. Feed intake was erratic and

decreased by about 20 to 30 % at high intakes of salt and also there was an adverse effect

on animal health and rumen microorganisms, leading to decreased digestion (Gihad,

1993). Reduced feed intake in sheep, some became very emaciated, by those receiving 2

% NaCl (Peirce, 1957).

Clarke (1982) concluded that saltbush can be compared favorably with normal pastures

while examining grazing trial on the saltbushes, in terms of the number of grazing days

possible. During water deprivation DMI reduced at 27.7 % in lambs and 19.7 % in kids

(P<0.05) fed on dry Abu-70 forage (Sorghum vulgaris) and this reduction in DMI was

compensated by a significant improvement in DM digestibility (Mousa and Elkalifa,

1992). Grice and Muir (1988) reported that high concentration of salt in saltbush diets

xxix

increase the demand for fresh water for drinking, particularly in summer and limited

water supply can lead to a decrease in feed intake and result in a loss of live weight.

Wilson (1975) reported that wethers halved their feed intake when maintained only on

saltbush while studying as to how a common arid zone saltbush can strongly affect water

needs when sheep maintained on 1 % drinking salt solution. Riaz et al. (1994) also

reported significant decrease in feed intake with the increase in level of Atriplex in the

rations as a result of Atriplex amnicola feeding alone or in combination with the

conventional forage (Sudex) in Teddy goats. Benjamin et al. (1992) observed that sheep

only maintained liveweight, despite daily intakes of Atriplex up to 1200 g DM and

tapioca up to 300 g on diets of atriplex alone or with tapioca meal 100, 200 or 300 g/day.

2.2.2 Season

The results of the studies on Harnai lambs in highland Balochistan, Pakistan has been

reported by Rehman et al. (1990) who reported that lambs can be maintained on fourwing

saltbush during winter with a little of extra protein supplementation (cotton seed cake) as

a result of studies on nutritive value of fourwing saltbush in growth and digestibility trials

when compared with some of the conventional rations. Improving pasture nutrition for

sheep in different grazing seasons on a characteristic wheatgrass saltbush mixed range

pasture, sheep preferences for grass and shrub in spring and winter were similar,

averaging 84 % grass and 16 % shrub and summer dietary preferences ranged from 69 to

93 % grass and 7 to 31 % shrub. Preference for fourwing saltbush was consistently lower

than crested wheatgrass in all seasons. Sufficient amounts of the mixed pasture were

grazed to reduce the need for supplemental feed, when compared to crested wheatgrass

monoculture (Royer et al., 2005).

Hadjipanayiotou (1995) found no difference in DMI in Chios sheep and Damascus goats

fed on a diet of 50 % concentrate and 50 % barley hay (8 % CP) over 3 seasons (spring,

summer and winter) in Cyprus having mean maximum temperature 13.5 °C in winter,

26.1 °C in spring and 36.5 °C in summer, respectively. Heat stress reduced (P<0.01) feed

intake in 24 crossbred pregnant ewes subjected to thermo neutral (20°C) and heat (35°C)

conditions for 3-5 wk pre partum and 6 wk post partum to evaluate the trend of

xxx

physiological responses and productivity of pregnant and lactating ewes under such

conditions (Abdella et al., 1993). Goats adjust their feed intake in accordance with the air

temperature, the intake decreasing as the temperature rises above 20oC and eat more in

cold weather, although intake is inhibited by extreme cold (French, 1970).

Ueckert et al. (1990) found that A. Canescens appeared to be unpalatable to Angora kids

during Sept-Oct when more grasses and forbs were available, but was readily eaten by

yearling ewes during winter when annual forbs were unavailable. Average daily DMI as

reported by Fulsoundar and Radadia (1993) was 13.86 and 14.76 kg/d (P<0.01) in 6

Mehsana buffaloes and 6 Kankrej cows at 39°C provided with shelter alone (control) or

shelter and also splashed with water at 10 min intervals between 12.30 and 14.20 h, daily

for 13 weeks. Akram et al. (1991) also reported no difference in fodder consumption in

male and female Nili Ravi buffalo calves in Pakistan kept under shade (in a shed)+fan

assisted ventilation; shade+fan assisted ventilation+sprinkling/wetting; shade+sprinkling;

tree shade+sprinkling.


Napier Elephant Grass (Pennisetum purpureum) Intake: DMI were not different

between treatments in Murrah buffaloes (120-125 kg) given diets based on pearl millet

silage and concentrates, without and with rye grass (Lolium perenne) hay at amounts

providing roughage: concentrate ratios of 50:50, and 75:25 or 85:15, respectively

(Chauhan et al. 1994b). DMI in male buffalo calves as observed by Chauhan et al. (1984)

ranged from 2.34 to 3.05 kg/100 kg body weight fed daily on hybrid strains of pearl

millet Napier or a standard NB-21 variety. The male buffalo calves received 75 %

Elephant grass with berseem + 25 % concentrate as produced in the findings of El-Shamy

and El-Kossy (1987) had the best results in terms of feed cost and feed conversion

efficiency compared with different types of roughage (clover, or Napier grass) on

different roughage to concentrate ratios. Reddy and Reddy (1982) found significantly

higher DMI in crossbred Murrah buffaloes with the complete diets, which also had higher

protein digestibility than the control given pelleted or loose complete diets containing

dried grass 47.5 %, wheat bran 20 %, groundnut oilcake and molasses each at 10 %,

xxxi

minerals and vitamins, or cut Napier grass to appetite with concentrates at 1 kg/2.5 kg

milk (control). Poudal et al. (1994) also observed no significant difference among groups

and fortnightly periods in DMI in buffalo heifers fed on a concentrate plus rice straw and

maize silage, ipil-ipil (Leucaena sp.) or khanyu (Ficus semicordata).

Berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum) and Lucerne (Medicago sativa) Intake: Gupta et al.

(1983) reported higher intake in lactating Murrah buffaloes when given choice to have

more than one feeds and observed average DMI of 2.39, 2.51, 2.74, 2.53 and 2.62 kg,

/100 kg body weight fed a concentrate roughage diet, concentrate and wheat straw to

meet the maintenance requirement and berseem and lucerne to meet the production

requirements, berseem or lucerne only to provide maintenance and production

requirements, respectively. Rao et al. (1983) also reported highly significant difference in

DMI in lactating Murrah buffaloes fed a 1:2 mixture of green berseem and green oats

given at 45, 30, 15 and 0 kg daily and the ration balanced for protein by adding

concentrate and then for energy with rice straw and DMI from dry fodder on the 4

respective diets was 23.3, 42.3, 62.0 and 83.5 kg and total concentrate was 8.9, 17.2, 26.3

and 35.2 kg per week. Chawla et al. (1994) indicated that berseem and lucerne straw

were of similar in nutritive value to buffaloes fed on diets containing wheat straw,

berseem straw or lucerne straw ad libitum, respectively plus a mineral/vitamin

supplement and DMI was similar on berseem straw and lucerne straw which was higher

(P<0.01) than wheat straw.

Urea Treated Wheat Straw: According to Akbar et al. (1990) the DMI of 2.69, 2.50

and 2.48 kg in young male buffaloes on diets including rice straw chopped and mixed

with 4, 7 or 10 % molasses and then ensiled with 5 % urea and it was noted that silage

crude protein content increased slightly with the increase in the molasses level. Coskun et

al. (1992) noted decreased straw intake in Merino rams with aqueous ammonia (25 %

NH3) treatment but there were no differences in liveweight gain between groups.

Chaudhary and Srivastava (1995) reported no difference in DMI and feed conversion in

Murrah male buffalo calves fed on a diet of wheat straw and concentrate mix.

xxxii

Ghosh and Amitava (1993) reported that DMI of Black Bengal goats among different

treatments did not differ significantly fed on 3 complete diets containing dried rumen

contents (DRC), urea and molasses (88:2:10), DRC, dried poultry droppings and

molasses (73:17:10) and DRC, berseem hay and molasses (62:20:10).

Sajjan and Yadav (1994) reported similar DMI in growing buffalo calves on diets

containing concentrate and wheat straw (control), or urea treated waste litter replacing 20

and 30 % of diet. Studies conducted at NARC, Islamabad revealed an increased dry

matter, CP and ammonia content of the silage mixture (47.6 to 54.4 %, 18.4 to 22.2 %

and 0 to 2.2 %, respectively) were observed after 60 ds supplemented a basal diet

containing 50 % sugarcane bagasse with 5 % urea, 10 % fresh cattle manure and 35 %

water and mean DMI was 3.70 kg /100 kg liveweight (Khan et al., 1992). Urea

supplements increased intake of Rhodes grass by 12 % in buffaloes and 22 % in cattle,

and of spear grass by 34 % in buffaloes and 41 % in cattle fed on mature Rhodes grass

hay (Chloris gayana) with a mineral supplement or with a supplement of minerals and

urea (17.6 g N/d) and on mature spear grass hay (Heteropogon contortus) with mineral

supplementation at intervals of 3 h and urea (0, 5, 21 and 97 g/d) and it was also observed

that Rhodes grass was eaten in greater amounts by cattle, whereas buffaloes ate more

spear grass (Kennedy et al., 1992a).

Virk et al. (1993) impregnated wheat straw with animal urine (N 4.3 g/litre, 0.7 litre/kg)

or treated with urea solution (65 litre/100 kg, urea 4 kg) and found increased DMI with

straw treatment. Ammonia and urea treatment (3 %) increased intake in Barbari lambs by

60 and 30 %, respectively as studied by Rokbani and Nefzaoui (1993) and intake of

ammonia treated and chopped straw was twice that for untreated straw. Dahiya et al.

(1992) found highest DMI in lactating buffaloes on treatment 2, where diet containing 4

% urea treated and ensiled wheat straw, green fodder (Trifolium alexandrinum) 20,

concentrate mixture 2 kg or that diet with the concentrate replaced by cottonseed cake 1.5

or 3.0 kg (treatments 1 and 2). Whereas no difference in feed intake between growing

buffalo groups was reported by Shah et al. (1990) on diets containing wheat straw

untreated or treated with 10 % calcium hydroxide solution and concentrate.

xxxiii

The digestible DMI was higher (P<0.05) in male growing buffalo calves fed diet plus

urea molasses supplement including fish meal and diet plus urea molasses supplement

including mustard seed meal than on oil extracted rice bran 1.5 kg and wheat straw ad

libitum diet and they concluded that buffalo calves can be successfully reared with diets

containing urea and molasses, deoiled rice bran and low quality crop residues without

adversely affecting growth as reported by Sahoo et al. (1992).

2.3 WATER INTAKE

Water intake by any species of animals may depend on the moisture level of feed, salt

contents of feed, enviromantal conditions, tolerance level of ruminant species and feeding

and management conditions under which animals are being maintained. Studies are

numerated in the following paragraphs.


In the arid areas of Australia, high moisture content is often associated with a high salt

content; selectivity of a low salt diet may differ from that of a high moisture diet, non

pregnant, non lactating sheep tolerate 1.3 to 1.5 % NaCl in drinking water without serious

decrease in feed intake. Addition of salt to the diet had increased water intake relative to

controls (P<0.01) with the addition of salt (0.51 % Na) and 3.0 % bentonite without or

with Na (0.49 %) to hay based pelleted diets and recommended that salt should not be

added to diets used for live sheep shipments (Waghorn et al., 1994). Squires (1993) also

reported greater tolerance in sheep than cattle; therefore, sheep are commonly grazed in

those areas where almost total reliance is on underground waters of high salinity and

tolerance to saline diets depends on chemical composition of the salt (in feed and water),

physiological state and previous experience. Non pregnant, non lactating sheep tolerate

1.3 to 1.5 % NaCl in drinking water without serious decrease in feed intake. Primary

results of feeding Atriplex halimus as a sole feed to camels, sheep and goats showed an

increase in water intake as a general reaction to increasing salt concentration compared

with clover hay; camels, sheep and goats (in descending order) were able to tolerate

xxxiv

saltbush fodder and Gihad (1993) concluded that concentrated supplementary feeds

should be offered to livestock given Atriplex together with a reliable water source to

maintain a balanced nutritional state.

In another study Peirce (1959) examined the tolerance of sheep for mixtures of sodium

chloride and magnesium chloride in the drinking water and found that many of the

animals refused to drink satisfactorily when saline waters were first offered and intake of

water increased with increasing level of salt mixtures in drinking water, respectively.

Peirce (1960) concluded that intake of water increases with the increasing level of

mixtures in water, respectively fed sheep on chaffed lucerne and wheaten hays and

offered rain water to drink; other groups were offered different levels of mixture of

sodium chloride and sodium sulphate in drinking water. He conducted further experiment

(Peirce, 1966) and reported that a concentration of solution having 0.2 % salts had higher

water intake than that of rain water. Meintjes and Olivier (1992) also found significantly

changed water intake, fractional turnover of body water from control values while

investigating the effect of dosing identical amounts of sodium chloride, via 2 different

routes, on feed intake and water and electrolyte balance in sheep. Hemsley (1975)

reported increased water intake by two litres per d while studying the effects of the

ingestion of large amounts of sodium chloride (150 g/d) on digestion and absorption in

sheep offered a diet consisting of 89 % linseed meal.

Studies done by Alim (1991) in Egypt in the hottest months of the year (July and August)

revealed that water intake of buffaloes and cattle kept in a feedlot was 33.4 and 21.1

litres/d and for hay and silage diets were 87 and 77 litres for buffaloes and 67 and 54

litres for cows given ad libitum berseem hay or mixed silage comprising berseem and

barley forage 2:1, plus a concentrate to buffaloes and Friesian x native cows. Garg and

Nangia (1993) reported increased voluntary water intake in salt-fed (200 g/d) buffaloes.

Riaz et al. (1994) observed significant (P<0.01) difference in water intake while studying

the effect of Atriplex amnicola alone and in combination with the sudex on performance

of Teddy goats. Gihad (1993) reported that the general reaction of sheep to increasing salt

concentration was to increase the volume of drinking water and when sheep drank water

xxxv

containing 1.0 % sodium chloride they suffered no ill effects, 1.5 % was detrimental to

some and 2 % was detrimental to all sheep and concluded that concentrated

supplementary feeds should be offered to livestock given atriplex together with a reliable

water source to maintain a balanced nutritional state. Sheep having high concentration of

salt in saltbush diets increased the demand for fresh water for drinking, particularly in

summer and limited water supply can lead to a decrease in feed intake and result in a loss

of live weight and also found that sheep on a diet of A. vesicaria would consume up to

240 g salt per d and in summer would require some 12 litres of water compared to 3 litres

of water on grassland (Grice and Muir, 1988).

Water intake of Awassi wethers was 2.9 times higher as investigated by Arieli et al.

(1989) sheep fed at maintenance and given diets containing saltbush (Atriplex

barclayana) 477 g, 347 g of pellets containing barley grains and sodium chloride (3:1) or

a control diet fed the high salt diets. Benjamin et al. (1992) reported apparent water

intake of 14 litre/d for an atriplex DMI of about 1300 g/d in sheep fed on leaves, fruits

and twigs of Atriplex barclayana and diets offered were Atriplex alone or with tapioca

meal 100, 200 or 300 g/d.

2.3.2 Season

El-Nasr et al. (1994) found reduced need for drinking water in Barki sheep when

supplements were given in the morning while studying the effects of type of supplement

in relation to the quality of pasture, grazing period, forage intake and utilization, and

sheep performance under simulated drought conditions. Bharadwaj et al. (1992) housed

16 lactating Murrah buffaloes during June and July (from 29.1 °C to 43.3 °C ) in a

covered shed, without (group 1) or with showers (group 2) given at 11.00 and 15.00 h,

given tree shade (group 3) or kept in the sun and given showers at 11.00 and 15.00 h

(group 4) for 60 days and reported mean values for water intake in June and July were

84.8 and 86.3 litre/day and and for groups 1, 2, 3 and 4 was 83.6, 83.4, 85.8 and 89.5

litres/day. Fulsoundar and Radadia (1993) provided shelter alone (control) or shelter and

also splashed with water at 10-min intervals between 12.30 and 14.20 h, daily (treated) to

groups each with 6 Meshana buffaloes and 6 Kankrej cows, all lactating. The trial lasted

xxxvi

13 weeks and began in the second week in March (39°C). For control and treated

buffaloes average daily water intake was 54.99 and 52.35 litre/d (P<0.05), 3.99 and 3.56

litre/kg feed and 9.71 and 8.85 litre/kg milk. For cows corresponding values were 36.91

and 33.23 litre/d (P<0.01), 36.91 and 33.23, 4.01 and 3.39 litre/kg feed, and 6.71 and

6.03 litre/kg milk.

Shafie et al. (1994) housed singly five adult Rahmani x Ossimi rams, with rumen

cannulae in climatic chambers at 18°C or 35°C. Rams were fed to appetite on barley

grain and berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum) hay. Rams kept at 35°C reduced their

concentrate intake by about 13 % without altering roughage consumption, but heat stress

increased water intake by about 50 % and decreased faecal and urinary water loss by 25

and 40 %, respectively. Insensible water loss at 35°C was twice that at 18°C.

Hadjipanayiotou (1995) In a 2nd experiment, 4 rumen fistulated Chios sheep and 4

Damascus goats were fed on a diet of 50 % concentrate and 50 % barley hay over 3

seasons (spring, summer and winter) in Cyprus. Mean maximum temperature was 13.5°C

in winter, 26.1°C in spring and 36.5°C in summer, respectively, daily water consumption

was greater (P<0.001) in summer (3.4 and 2.2 litres for sheep and goats, respectively)

than in winter and spring (1.6 and 1.3 litres, respectively). Schoeman and Visser (1995)

recorded cumulative feed and water intake and body weight of 30 growing ewe lambs of

3 different breeds weekly for 34 weeks. Weekly water intake increased two-fold per 1°C

increase in ambient temperature in Dorper and Mutton Merino lambs than in Blackhead

Persians. These results suggest that sheep of the Blackhead Persian, and probably also

other indigenous breeds balance their water requirements at a more economical level and

would be a more appropriate choice than those breeds currently being managed in

sustainable sheep production systems in areas where water availability is limited.

Muna and Abdelatif (1992) fed Desert rams about 18 months old and 40 to 45 kg on

concentrates or lucerne hay in shade or exposed to direct solar radiation (in July-August)

in a 2 x 2 factorial design with periods of 28 ds. Minimum and maximum temperatures

were 24.3°C and 39.8°C. DMI was higher (P<0.05) with the concentrate diet, while the

ratio of water consumption to DMI was higher (P<0.01) with lucerne hay. Ahmed and

xxxvii

Abdelatif (1994) used adult desert rams to evaluate the effects of water restriction (46 %

ad libitum) and feed restriction (32 % ad libitum). Water restriction decreased DMI

(g/kg0.75

) and feed restriction decreased water intake (ml/kg).

2.4 WEIGHT GAIN


The high concentration of salt in saltbush (A. vesicaria) diets increase the demand for

fresh water for drinking, particularly in summer, and limited water supply can result in a

loss of live weight (Grice and Muir, 1988). Sheep on 1 % drinking salt solution lost

weight rapidly when maintained only on saltbush (Wilson, 1975). Significant (P<0.01)

decrease in weight gain with the increase in level of Atriplex in the rations and Teddy

goats showed slight decrease of body weight offered 100 % Atriplex amnicola diets but

they may be in a more normal situation by reducing the mineral contents of saltbush by

mixing of some other fodders locally available such as Sudex (Riaz et al., 1994).

Sheep only maintained liveweight, despite daily intakes of Atriplex barclayana upto 1200

g DM and tapioca upto 300 g fed on leaves, fruits and twigs of atriplex alone or with

tapioca meal 100, 200 or 300 g/d in a proportion roughly equivalent to that eaten by

sheep grazing freely in atriplex plantations as reported by Benjamin et al. (1992). Sheep

will remain healthy, produce wool and even lamb on an exclusive Atriplex vesicaria diet

as reported by Knowles and Candon (1951), although it may be difficult to fatten sheep

on it. Harnai lambs in highland Balochistan can be maintained on fourwing saltbush

during winter with a little of extra protein supplementation of cottonseed cake (Rehman

et al., 1989, 1990) and maintained lambs on fourwing saltbush as winter maintenance

browse in comparison with native range grazing with or without protein and energy

supplementation and reported a gain of 0.95 kg in 10 weeks period.

Abu-Zanat (2005) also reported significant (P<0.001) effect of forage type on growth rate

of Awassi lambs, receiving the alfalfa hay diet showed high growth rate compared to

those fed the diets containing different proportions (25, 50 and 75 %) of Atriplex

xxxviii

nummularia or Atriplex halimus mixed with alfalfa hay, treatments had significant

(P<0.05) effect on live weight changes of lambs, except for the diet containing 25 % of

Atriplex nummularia browse, all lambs fed diets containing the saltbushes exhibited loss

in body weight. Leigh and Wilson (1970) noticed significant increase in weight of sheep

grazing on Atriplex nummularia due to the volume of extra feed produced compared to

Danthonia-Stipa grassland and the bushes were able to sustain stock an extra one to two

months into a drought compared to the grassland. Murrah buffaloes showed higher body

weight gain than Haryana or Jersey heifers as a result of feeding according to NRC

(1971) standards fodder to concentrate ratio of 1:0.5 and 1:0.3 and feed to gain ratio was

8.03 and 10.18 in buffaloes and cattle, respectively (Chaudhary et al. 1987, Bhaskar et al.

1988).

Gihad (1993) observed adverse effect on sheep health due to high intake of salts. At 1.0

% NaCl in water they suffered no ill effects, 1.5 % was detrimental to some and 2 % was

detrimental to all sheep. But Peirce (1957) reported a decline in body weight of the

affected animals and at 2.0 % NaCl became very emaciated and even two died. Masters

et al. (2005) observed significantly decreased liveweight gain and wool growth in weaner

wethers with increasing sodium in the diet either as a main effect or through an

interaction with potassium given 3 levels of added potassium (0, 0.38, and 0.77 mol/kg

DM equivalent to 0, 15, and 30 g/kg DM) and 4 levels of added sodium (0, 0.87, 2.18,

and 3.48 mol/kg DM, equivalent to 0, 20, 50, and 80 g/kg DM) as the chloride salts and

response surfaces indicate that production was depressed even at the lower levels of

sodium, whereas high potassium depressed liveweight gain at high levels of sodium only.

Daily weight gain in Murrah buffaloes on Brachiaria humidicola pasture in a region of

Brazil given autoclaved bone meal and dicalcium phosphate was 779 and 650 g (P<0.05),

respectively and intake of mineral mixture was 66 and 30 g (P<0.01) and Nascimento et

al. (1993) found no significant difference in performance between the buffalo groups as

to forage.

2.4.2 Season

Feeding grass alone did not affect the Teddy goats health in three seasons (Summer,

Autumn and Winter) as indicated by Khanum et al. (1987), but in late season loss in body

xxxix

weight was observed due to lignification process of Kallar grass under sodic soil

conditions and brackish water. Rambouillet x Suffolk wether lambs weight gains from

wheatgrass sainfoin (Agropyron and Thinopyron) mixtures suggest (Karnezos et al.,

1994) that grazing sainfoin monocultures offers advantages over mixtures and across

years, cumulative weight gain ranged between 7.9 kg for wheatgrass and 16.4 kg per

head for lucerne, concluded that lucerne or sainfoin offer greater opportunities for spring

lamb production than wheatgrass or wheatgrass-sainfoin pastures.

Lactating buffaloes and Friesian x native cows daily milk yield increased by about 5 % in

those housed in the winter months and spring milk yields tended to be higher in buffaloes

and cows kept out in the open than in those kept under shade given ad libitum berseem

hay or mixed silage comprising berseem and barley forage 2:1, plus a concentrate during

the hottest months (July and August) in Egypt (Alim, 1991). Akram et al. (1991) reported

significant improved body weight gain by shade and ventilation in male and female Nili-

Ravi buffalo calves allotted to 4 treatments: kept under shade (in a shed) + fan-assisted

ventilation; shade + fan-assisted ventilation + sprinkling/wetting; shade +

sprinkling/wetting; tree shade + sprinkling/wetting and calves kept outdoors served as

controls.


Napier Grass: Kozyr (1980) reported daily weight gain of 178.9, 179.3, 168.5 and 181.4

g in 3 months old precocious lambs on diet containing 60 % concentrate without or with

10, 20 or 30 % hay and with 40, 30, 20 or 10 % silage, respectivley. Houria and Omar

(1994) found average daily body weight gain of 0, 60.0, 166.7, 175.6, 221.7 and 181.3 g,

in Ossimi ewes finished for 15, 30, 45, 60 or 75 days before slaughter, respectively and

feed conversion efficiency was 0, 9.96, 7.00, 7.40, 6.53 and 7.52 kg.

Blednov (1995) fed wethers on a diet of green feed, grass meal and concentrates, plus

zeolite at 3, 5 or 0 % DM and reported a daily body weight gain of 107, 93 and 91 g,

respectively. Sivaiah and Mudgal (1984) observed a daily growth rate of 443-569 g and

reported least gain in the group given 100 % energy and protein and greatest in the group

xl

given 120 % energy and 100 % protein in Murrah buffaloes given feeds based on

berseem, sorghum and wheat straw to supply 80, 100 or 110 % protein and 100 or 120 %

energy according to NRC (1971) standards. Patel et al. (1984) reported higher milk yield

in buffaloes given combination of feeds and found 4 % fat corrected daily yield of 6.4,

6.4, 5.9 and 5.5 kg given a concentrate mixture (21.3 % CP), dry fodder to appetite with

or without 5 kg fresh Napier grass daily or similarly cottonseed (19.1 % CP) as

concentrate.

Naidu and Raghavan (1985) found that feed required/kg liveweight gain was least in

Murrah buffaloes given roughage 75 and concentrate 25 % fed on forage 100 (grass and

berseem hay in equal proportions), forage 85 and concentrate 15, or forage 75 and

concentrate 25 %. Average daily gain were not different in male Murrah buffaloes, 8 to

12 months old and weighing 120 to 125 kg diets based on pearl millet silage and

concentrates, without and with rye grass (Lolium perenne) hay at amounts providing

roughage:concentrate ratios of 50:50, and 75:25 or 85:15, respectively (Chauhan et al.

1994b). El-Shamy and El-Kossy (1987) also reported best results in male buffalo calves

in terms body weight, daily gain and feed conversion efficiency in the group on 75 %

Elephant grass with berseem + 25 % concentrate fed on different types of roughage

(clover, or Napier grass) on different roughage to concentrate ratios.

Langer et al. (1985a) reported no difference in daily weight gain in Murrah buffalo calves

given diets with wheat straw to appetite, daily 5 kg green fodder and 1.5 kg concentrate

with maize 10 and 10, groundnut cake 25 and 12, rice bran 30.0 and 31.7, wheat 23 and

32, rice 12 and 12 and urea 0 and 2.3 %, respectively. Rajnish and Singh (1992) found

non significant difference in weight gain and reported daily body weight gain of

425±39.85, 407±38.89, 379±38.22 and 378±39.53 g in male Murrah buffalo calves fed

diets containing 100 % of CP and TDN requirements (NRC, 1981) in a mixed ration or

feeds given separately, or 80 % of CP and 100 % of TDN in a mixed ration or feeds given

separately.

xli

Average daily body weight gain was observed as 625 and 825 g fed male buffalo calves a

standard feed mixture and an experimental feed mixture, respectively containing 60 %

experimental feed mixture plus 40 % chopped rice straw as reported by Ragheb et al.

(1989). Dien et al. (1990) reported increasing weight gain in male Murrah buffaloes with

the increasing concentrate level in the diet and reported a daily weight gain of

390.2+38.7, 479.1+56.7 and 504.2+84.6 g fed on diets with a concentrate to roughage

ratio 22:78, 32:68 or 34:66, respectively. Male buffaloes 8 months old produced a daily

gain of 896, 887 and 936 g and average daily feed intake of 7.412, 7.487 and 7.131 kg/kg

weight gain on diets containing 10.1, 12.8 and 15.1 % protein, respectively (Aksoy,

1991). Parthasarathy et al. (1983) reported significantly stimulated daily liveweight

gains in supplementary feeding with forages and indicated the highest margin of profits

followed by concentrate.

Other Forages: James (1978) reported daily weight gain of 26.2 g in 6 Saanen x Malabar

goats given soft twigs of Leucaena with 18.2 % CP and 2.2 % calcium. Leucaena

supplementation increased weight gain in Blackhead Persian lambs fed on Chloris

gayana hay only ad libitum, hay plus leucaena 100 g, hay plus leucaena 200 g and hay

plus leucaena ad libitum and showed a gain of 13.70, 15.92 and 20.00 g/d more than on

Chloris gayana hay only (Mtenga and Shoo, 1990). Premaratne (1990) reported that

feeding fodder legumes increased weight gain compared with grazing alone in female

buffalo calves.

Quirk et al. (1992) reported increased ADG in yearling steers linearly with the proportion

of C. Rotundifolia in the diet and ADG were increased when 50 % C. Rotundifolia was

fed (to 5.24 kg/head day and 0.210 kg/head, respectively), while only 25 % M. Sativa was

needed to obtain significant increases in both parameters (to 5.69 kg/head day and 0.310

kg/head day) and they suggested that C. Rotundifolia successfully introduced into native

pasture will improve the performance of grazing cattle. Liveweight gain in Holstein

steers was 0.47, 0.84, 0.80, 0.68, 0.81 and 0.51 kg/d given Bermuda grass (Cynodon

dactylon) hay and diets supplemented with ground maize, whole maize, barley, sorghum

and wheat, respectively and they (Galloway et al., 1993) concluded that liveweight gain

xlii

is greater with supplements slowly degraded in the rumen (ground maize, whole maize

and sorghum) than with supplements that degraded rapidly (barley and wheat).

Shenkoru and Mekonnen (1994) found increased body weight gain from 59 to 87 g/d

with increasing leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala) leaf supplementation at 0, 100, 200

and 300 g/d with chickpea haulms and further suggested that split feeding of leucaena

leaf hay 200 and 300 g might lead to more efficient utilization of chickpea haulm, or

additional energy supplements may be required for higher leucaena supplementation.

Average daily body weight gain as reported by Gupta et al. (1994) in male growing

buffaloes was about 400 g fed to appetite for 42 ds on a pelleted feed mixture containing

16 % CP, 17 % CF, 3.5 % EE, 5.5 % total ash and 42 % NFE.

Poudal et al. (1994) fed buffalo heifers for 12 weeks on a concentrate plus rice straw and

maize silage, ipil-ipil or khanyu (Ficus semicordata) and reported daily gain of 461, 408

and 420 g, respectively. Hossain et al. (1995) reported average daily liveweight gain in

indigenous sheep as 41 g fed on wheat bran, 167 g Leucaena leucocephala leaves and

rice straw ad libitum and 70 g on wheat bran, 167 g Leucaena leucocephala leaves and

rice straw ad libitum plus free access to lick blocks and found that supplementation of

straw with lick blocks thus facilitates much faster meat production. Raicu et al. (1960)

also found better weight gains in wethers and rams at medium level than the lowest and

was more economical than the highest while studying the effect of different levels of

concentrates (viz., 75 to 100, 275 to 294 and 555 to 614 g per day) on growth and carcass

yield.

Urea Treatment: Buffalo heifer calves given 2 kg green fodder daily mixed with wheat

straw and a concentrate containing maize 35, 15 and 35, groundnut cake 12, 17 and 25,

wheat bran 38.7, 38.7 and 30.0, urea 2.3, 2.3 and 0, molasses 12, 12 and 10, and straw 0,

15 and 0 %, respectively and found non significant differences in weight gain (Langar et

al., 1985b) and concluded that buffaloes can be maintained on a diet containing urea and

straw.

xliii

Ahuja et al. (1982) reported total weight gain of 52, 51 and 44 kg for the 3 groups given a

concentrate based on maize, wheat, rice polishings and wheat bran with RBU, WBU or

DRBU, and wheat straw and green berseem. Akbar et al. (1990) reported a daily body

weight gain of 100, 90 and 80 g in young male buffaloes fed chopped rice straw mixed

with 4, 7 or 10 % molasses and ensiled with 5 % urea for 2 weeks. Shah et al. (1990)

found improvement (P<0.10) in weight gain of buffaloes fed on diets containing wheat

straw untreated or treated with 10 % calcium hydroxide solution and concentrate

containing 49 % wheat bran, 50 % cottonseed cake and 0.5 % salt.

Average daily gain in Barbari lambs was significantly increased by ammonia and urea

treatment (3 % ammonia or urea) and daily gain was increased by 60 % with ammonia

treated chopped straw given straw ad libitum and barley grain 400 g was offered to 20

lambs for 100 days and Rokbani and Nefzaoui (1993) observed that urea treatment had

little effect on weight gain; when straw was chopped, daily gain increased by 38 % and

they suggested that diets based on treated or untreated straw were more suitable for

feeding to sheep with a low performance potential or fed at maintenance level.

Urea treatment and fish meal supplementation increased (P<0.001) average daily gain in

growing dairy goats from 3.3±1.5 (urea sprayed rice straw) to 36.9±1.5 g/d (urea treated

rice straw) and from 13.0±1.5 (urea sprayed rice straw + fish meal) to 49.1±1.5 g/d (urea

treated rice straw + fish meal) fed on diets containing urea treated rice straw or urea

sprayed rice straw supplemented with rice bran without or with fish meal and Mgheni et

al. (1993) concluded that urea treatment promoted DMI with corresponding increased

growth due to increased rate and extent of degradation of urea treated rice straw

compared with urea sprayed rice straw and when a small amount of fish meal was

supplemented weight gain and feed conversion efficiency improved for straws.

Virk et al. (1993) reported improved palatability and increased DM intake by straw

treatment when wheat straw was impregnated with animal urine (nitrogen 4.3 g/litre, 0.7

litre/kg straw) or treated with urea solution (65 litre/100 kg straw, urea 4 kg) and stacked

for 3 weeks and daily body weight gain was similar in all groups. Feeding Aragonese

and Salz ewes with the complete milled feeds including ammonia treated straw and

xliv

lucerne hay during maintenance, pregnancy and lactation increased weight gain and

improved body condition as compared with a traditional diet during different phases of

the productive and reproductive cycles (Sierra, 1994). Kowalczyk (1994) reported that

wethers fed on ammoniated barley straw to appetite had a weight gain of about 60 g/d

whereas animals fed untreated and urea treated straw, offered to appetite or rationed

ammoniated straw lost weight at about 100 g/d. Barbary lambs given to appetite diets of

whole or chopped triticale straw untreated or treated with 3 % ammonia or urea 40 g in

water 250 ml/kg straw and supplemented with barley 400 g daily and mean daily gain

which was 50 and 52 g for untreated whole and chopped straw, was increased

significantly by ammonia treatment to 80 and 78 g and by urea treatment to 56 and 69 g

(Rokbani and Nefzaoui, 1994).

Sarwar et al. (1994) fed buffalo calves on diets containing wheat straw treated with urea

(4 %) without or with 1 % crushed cowpeas or crushed soyabeans and reported daily

body weight gain of 107, 363, 442 and 383 g, respectively. The daily body weight gain

(g/day) buffalo calves was greater (P<0.01) in urea treated straw plus germinated barley

24 % (640.15) followed by urea treated straw plus acid (556.80), urea (7.5 %) treated

straw (499.99) and untreated wheat straw plus concentrate mixture, 20 % CP (458.32)

and Yadav and Virk (1994) reported urea treated straw with 24 % germinated barley

containing 13.9 % CP and 58.54 % TDN an economical complete ration for growing

buffalo calves replacing native protein completely.

2.5 DIGESTIBILITY


Mean apparent digestibilities of Atriplex DM and OM were 0.59 and 0.56, respectively

fed sheep on leaves, fruits and twigs of Atriplex barclayana in a proportion roughly

equivalent to that eaten by sheep grazing freely in Atriplex plantations alone or with

tapioca meal 100, 200 or 300 g/day and reported that addition of tapioca to Atriplex did

not improve the digestibility (Benjamin et al., 1992). Bhattacharya (1989) reported OM

digestibility in desert sheep in Northern Saudi Arabia of 66, 56 and 53 % for M. Sativa,

xlv

H. Persicum and A. Cynanophylla diets, respectively and also reported that the respective

digestibility values being 61, 79 and 39 %, even though the digestibility of A. Halimus

groups was markedly higher than those in M. Sativa.

The halophyte species differed consisderably in IVOMD, which ranged from 50.1 to 87.2

% (70.8±8.5 %) and the control alfalfa IVOMD was only 64.3 %, reported that

halophytes as a group compared favorably to alfalfa, and ten Atriplex species appeared to

be far superior to alfalfa in IVOMD (Moore et al. 1982). Otsyina and Mckell (1986)

reported 51 % IVDMD in diets containing shrubs compared with 44 % for diets without

shrubs and recommended A canescens (10 % CP), K. Prostrata (12 % CP) and C. Lanata

(12 % CP) for rangeland improvement. Arieli et al. (1989) fed Awassi wethers at

maintanance and given diets containing saltbush (Atriplex barclayana) 477 g, 347 g of

pellets containing barley grains and NaCl (3:1) or a control diet and reported that digested

energy was proportionately 0.616 of dietary gross energy in the saltbush treatment, and

0.700 and 0.70 in the salt and control treatments, respectively and metabolizable energy

was proportionately 0.795, 0.786 and 0.815 of digested energy, respectively and

suggested low energetic utilization of saltbush related to its low digestibility and increase

in energy expenditure apparently related to mineral metabolism in the rumen.

Abu-Zanat (2005) reported that dietary treatments had significant (P<0.05) effect on

DMD (P<0.01) and OMD (P<0.01) while comparing digestibility of Atriplex halimus and

Atriplex nummularia and determine the proper proportion of saltbushes for partial

replacement of alfalfa hay in the diets of Awassi sheep and reported that inclusion of

Atriplex nummularia in the diet up to 50 % had no significant effect on DMD, whereas

the inclusion of A. halimus above 25 % reduced DMD and OMD and it is possible to

replace up to 50 % of alfalfa hay by A. nummularia without negative effects on intake

and digestibility of dry matter. Guevara et al. (2005) reported IVOMD of 47.0 % while

assessing some relevant nutritional parameters for saltbush vs. alfalfa hay. Saltbush

proved to be a highly productive species in areas that are marginal or unsuited for

conventional crops such as alfalfa.

xlvi

High levels of available N, acceptable OMD and consistent protein and energy levels

make these Atriplex species a useful alternative forage source in arid zones as reported by

Correal et al. (1986) while analyzing samples for 4 species of Atriplex during spring,

summer, autumn and winter. Ueckert et al. (1990) reported that spring A. Canescens

growth having 62 % DMD was readily eaten by yearling Angora goats, however, total

feed intake was less in goats fed. A. Cnescens alone compared with those given a 35 %

CP concentrate in addition to A. Canescens while evaluating Atriplex canescens as forage

for Angora goats and sheep. Bhaskar et al. (1988) reported higher CP digestibility and

nitrogen balance in buffaloes than cattle given fodder to concentrate ratio of 1:0.5 and

and concluded that buffaloes utilize nutrients better than cattle.

Morcombe et al. (1996) grazed Merino wethers at stocking densities 15, 20, 25 and 30

sheep/ha in 3 consecutive autumns on saltbush forage and reported about 50 % of edible

material was leaf having 70 % DDM and 50 % was small stems having 40 % DDM.

Masters et al. (2005) reported that increasing sodium in the diet significantly decreased

digestibility (OMD 59.1 to 57.3 %) either as a main effect or through an interaction with

potassium in weaner wethers given 3 levels of added potassium and 4 levels of added

sodium as the chloride salts.


Abdelhamid (1993) reported that the diet having urea 15 g gave the highest nutrient

digestibility in Rahmani rams given dried Egyptian sugarbeet pulp 350 + molasses 250 g;

that diet+urea 15 g; dried sugarbeet pulp 250+berseem hay 350 g and berseem hay 600 g.

DCP was 5.25, 5.16 and 5.67 %, TDN 67.94, 66.95 and 67.92 %, and nitrogen balance

27.8, 16.6 and 27.9 g daily in male buffalo calves given to appetite as sole ration of green

fodder PBN-83, -87, -20 and -71 hybrid strains of pearl millet Napier or a standard NB-

21 variety, respectively (Chauhan et al., 1984).

Chauhan and Chopra (1984) reported DMD during feeding with maize silage as 69.8,

72.0 and 71.9 % and with oat silage 67.3, 69.7 and 72.1 % in maize silage then oat silage

group, control, berseem hay 33 % and 66 %, respectively. Costantini et al. (1994)

xlvii

reported that combination of lucerne hay and fibrous byproducts did not influence OM

CP and GE digestibility and CF digestibility, byproducts showed a negative effect chiefly

on lucerne and to a lesser extent on them selves.

Digestibility of DM 57.1, CP 55.9, EE 60.7, CF 49.0 and NFE 68.8 % in male growing

buffaloes fed to appetite on a pelleted feed mixture contained 16 % CP, 17 % CF, 3.5 %

EE, 5.5 % ash, 42 % NFE (Gupta et al.,1994). Hart et al. (1990) reported that IVOMD of

stem and leaf were similar early in the season, but digestibility of stems declined

(P<0.05) more rapidly than that of leaves throughout the season in Rambouillet ewe and

wether lambs on wheat forage grazing treatments and supplemented with a 72 %

concentrate pellet at 0, 0.75 and 1.5 % of body weight per day.

Kirillova et al. (1992) reported that increasing the amounts of energy and protein in the

diet of young cattle by 20 to 25 % above the standard resulted in increases of 4.9 to 14.8

% in digestibility of nutrients and, in turn, in greater intake of roughage.

Morris and McCormick (1994) concluded that average IVDMD was similar for both

sorghums at 60.2 %, but of sweet sorghum tended to be higher than forage sorghum at the

hard dough stage (61.4 vs. 55.1 %). Mudgal and Sivaiah (1982) concluded that

digestibilities of most major nutrients were unaffected by diet given protein at 80, 100 or

110 % and energy at 100 or 120 % of NRC standards and roughage was wheat straw and

5 kg green bersweem to murrah buffalo calves, though 5 kg green berseem group

digestibility of CF and NFE tended to increase with increasing protein and energy.

Digestibility of EE increased significantly in buffaloes given roughage 75 and

concentrate 25 % as reported by Naidu and Raghavan (1985). Nandra et al. (1985)

reported digestibility of NFE 72.67 and of OM 68.29 % in adult male bufflaoes given the

silage (DM 27.43 % and DMD 66.58 %) for 25 ds and concluded that berseem (Trifolium

alexandrinum) makes good and nutritious silage when wilted 24 h and ensiled with an

equal quantity of oat fodder at milk stage.

xlviii

Nandra et al. (1989) reported that DMD was similar and CP digestibility was quite high,

76.7 and 79.6 %, CF digestibility was the same for both 60 % with oat ensiled and

berseem and oat forage in 1:1 ratio were ensiled then given alongwith concentrates to 5

lactating buffaloes, respectively.

Shafie et al. (1994) reported that adult Rahmani x Ossimi rams with rumen cannulae

digested slightly more DM, OM, CP, CF and NFE housed singly in climatic chambers at

18°C or 35°C fed to appetite on barley grain and berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum) hay.

Verma et al. (1990) reported digestibility of DM, CP, CF, NFE and N balance in Murrah

buffaloes higher (P<0.01) in groups fed on wheat straw and concentrate diet were

splashed for 15 min and 30 min than were not splashed lactating fed on wheat straw and

concentrate diet were not splashed on the body with water or splashed for 15 or 30 min

before milking to overcome summer heat stress.

Urea Treated Straw: Akbar et al. (1990) reported OMD of 56.6, 53.6 and 49.5 % in

young male buffaloes given rice straw mixed with 4, 7 or 10 % molasses and then ensiled

with 5 % urea for 2 weeks and silage CP content increased slightly with the increase in

the molasses level. DMD and OMD were higher with 6 % urea than with 4 % urea when

measured in sacco and only slightly higher and there was a small, but non significant

improvement in DMD and OMD in buffaloes fed on urea treated straw and further

suggested that small improvement in digestibility of the treated straw can be accounted

for by the increased transit rate of the feed and reduced time for microbial fermentation

(Ali et al., 1993).

Coskun et al. (1992) reported that digestibility in Merino rams for DM, CP, CF, OM was

47.74, 58.80, 58.83 and 49.22 % for untreated straw and 49.59, 73.42, 63.35 and 52.92 %

for aqueous ammonia (2.5 % NH3) treated straw, respectively.

Dahiya et al. (1992) reported that digestibilities of all nutrients except CF were highest in

the control group but only significant for OM (P<0.05) and NFE (P<0.01) in lactating

buffaloes on a control diet containing 4 % urea treated and ensiled wheat straw, green

xlix

fodder (Trifolium alexandrinum) 20, concentrate mixture 2 kg and minerals. Ghosh and

Amitava (1993) reported that digestibility of DM, OM and CF was higher (P<0.01) in

female Black Bengal goats fed urea and molasses (88:2:10) diets as compared to dried

rumen contents, molasses, berseem hay and dried poultry droppings diets. Hassen and

Chenost (1992) reported increased OMD by 15.8, 7.5 and 2.1 points, found by NH3

treatment for wheat straw, cocksfoot/ryegrass hay and maize stalk, respectively. Kandil

and El-Shaer (1989) found that digestibilities were significantly affected by advancing

maturity of Atriplex nummularia given ad libitum to sheep and goats supplemented with

barley 150 g/head daily and found satisfactory for sheep and goats during wet season, but

they would need more energy in dry season.

Kishan et al. (1994) reported digestibility in buffaloes increased from 47.1 to 53.0 %

given wheat straw treated with Coprinus fimetarius and Azotobacter chroococcum for 1

week followed by 4 % urea treatment for 1 month. Comparative index suggested that the

combination of fungus and nitrogen-fixing bacteria with later treatment with urea gave a

higher value compared with other treatments.

Mudgal et al. (1982) reported greater DMD with urea diets, though less in absolute terms

in Murrah buffalo calves offered diets with protein at 80, 100 or 120 % of NRC

recommendations, either from an ordinary diet of concentrate, berseem and wheat straw,

or with half the nitrogen provided by urea and the diet adjusted with starch and straw.

Premaratne (1990) found that straw digestibility were increased by urea treatment

compared with urea supplementation in rumen fishulated male buffaloes fed on diets

based on rice straw (urea treated or supplemented) and grass without or with supplements

of tree legumes (Leucaena leucocephala, Gliricidia maculata, Erythrina lithosperma,

Tithona diversifolia or Albizia). DMD of 54.71 %, CP 53.09 %, digestible CP was 4.65 %

and TDN was 55.19 % fed a diet based on ad libitum rice straw was supplemented with

wheat bran 1000 g, caged poultry manure 500 g, mineral mixture 30 g and salt 30 g and

given to Murrah buffaloes (Reddy, 1994).

l

Sarwar et al. (1994) reported DMD of 65.74, 69.30, 68.13 and 67.40 % in buffalo calves

fed on isoenergetic and isonitrogenous diets containing wheat straw treated with water at

100 litres/100 kg or treated with urea solution at 4 % without or with 1 % crushed

cowpeas or crushed soyabeans.

Shah et al. (1990) reported that DMD and OMD was higher (P<0.05) for treated straw

and indicated that the treatment had a positive effect on digestibility of CP, CF, EE and

NFE in growing buffaloes fed on diets containing wheat straw untreated or treated with

10 % calcium hydroxide solution and concentrate containing 49 % wheat bran, 50 %

cottonseed cake and 0.5 % salt. Virk et al. (1993) reported that digestibility of DM, CP,

CF, ADF and cellulose were improved by treatment of wheat straw in buffaloes. Ben-

Salem et al. (2002) reported that urea treatment of straw increased content of digestible

DM, OM, CP and NDF by 100, 100, 120 and 290 g/kg diet, respectively and further

increased when Atriplex nummularia was provided instead of urea treated straw and

concluded that cactus may be considered as an emergency feed and water source for

sheep in arid and semi-arid zones.

Boukila et al. (1995) reported that DMD was not affected by the treatments in wethers,

whereas organic matter and energy digestibilities were higher in sheep fed on ammonium

propionate diet (79.8 and 77.6 %, respectively) than in those fed on the ammonium

lactate diet (78.0 and 75.6 %, respectively).

2.6 HEMATOLOGY


Gill et al. (1994) reported that mean values for haemoglobin, erythrocyte count and

packed cell volume were non significant statistically among five different feeding

regimes of Sudex and Atriplex alone and with different proportions.


li

Berseem and Lucerne: Diet had no influence on haematocrit, haemoglobin, or blood

protein, in ewes on diets containing grass hay or hay with grass silage and concentrate

0.60 kg containing 0 or 60 % faba bean meal (Matras et al., 1992). Mulei et al. (1993)

reported that white cell count and eosinophils were lower in cows with retained fetal

membrane than in 10 normal cows and about 17 % of the cows with retained fetal

membrane had systemic involvement and further noted that the retained fetal membrane

were easy to remove in 23 cows (60.5 %) and the ease of removal was related to white

cell count. Pankaj et al. (1992) reported that packed cell volume and haemoglobin

content decreased while clotting time increased slightly; these effects

Treated Straws: Blood profiles showed no significant diet effects on packed cell

volume, haemoglobin, Na, blood composition was best in diets 2 and 3 (Abdelhamid,

1993) in mature Rahmani rams given daily (1) dried Egyptian sugarbeet pulp

350+molasses 250 g; (2) that diet+urea 15 g; (3) dried sugarbeet pulp 250 + berseem hay

(Trifolium alexandrinum) 350 g; (4) berseem hay 600 g. Abdelhamid et al. (1993)

reported that vitamin A levels positively affected haemoglobin content, packed cell

volume, total protein in Rahmani ram lambs fed on a mixture of concentrates:rice

straw+urea 1:2 at NRC (1980) recommended levels plus vitamin A at 5x NRC. Mathur

et al. (1994) reported no treatment effects on Hb, PCV, RBC and WBC counts at both

stages and highly significant effects due to treatments as well as time after feeding were

observed on blood urea N and total serum proteins in male Magra lambs fed protein (T1),

by-pass protein (T2), by-pass protein supplemented with urea (T3) and protein

supplemented with urea (T4) for a period of 360 days.

Sahoo et al. (1992) reported higher serum ammonia and urea concentrations (P<0.01) in

groups on urea molasses supplement than group on rice bran and wheat straw and

concluded that buffalo calves can be successfully reared with diets containing urea and

molasses, deoiled rice bran and low quality crop residues in growing buffaloes without

adversely affecting growth.

2.6.3 Season

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Ezequiel et al. (1989) reported that erythrocyte count was significantly less with 80 %

maize silage and blood haematocrit significantly higher than with 40 % Napier or

molasses grass hay and blood values were lowest for Holsteins. Hill et al. (1992) reported

that packed cell volume, mean cell haemoglobin concentration and haemoglobin levels

were higher in December, while mean cell volume was lower while studying

haematological values both in March and December. Pradhan and Sastry (1989) reported

higher PCV, Hb and protein in buffaloes in Haryana, India given presoaked straw than

the other treatments given concentrate at 1% of body weight, fresh forage 1 kg DM/100

kg body weight and wheat straw ad libitum alone or presoaked 1:1, mixed with

concentates 1:1, or mixed with the forage 1:1, fresh forage was green sorghum, green

sorghum (mature) and rape berseem in the hot, hot humid and cold period, respectively.

Water-deprived ewes had higher values for Hb, packed cell volume and skin temp than

controls and pure breeds had lower values for Hb and PCV than the crossbreds,

indicating better adaptability of the purebreds (Khalil et al., 1990).

The present literature reviewed in the above mentioned paragraphs indicated different

aspects of saltbush use alone and in combination with conventional fodders and forages.

Mainly the researchers highlighted the influence of saltbush utilization in different

species of animals especially in sheep and goats. The following aspect were discussed in

detail,

1- Preference for different species and their eating behavior on different levels of

saltbush use in the diets.

2- It was also indicated that the forage type and stage during different seasons

definitely affecting the growth and production of plants and also in animals.

3- Many scientists indicated upto 50 % inclusion of saltbush in the diets and also

revealed that the saltbush forage produced comparable nutritional and

performance value.

4- It was also noted that increase in water intake by taking saltbush diet especially

during summer season was mainly due to more salt contents in the saltbush.

5- It was also clearly indicated that the Saltbush can be conveniently used as part of

diet and can replace Lucerne diets in the animals raised in saline areas.

6- Some workers also indicated the scope of saltbush during drought and inclement

weather conditions to maintain the animal condition.

liii

CHAPTER 3

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The procedures and techniques used for the conduct of three saltbush feeding

experiments in Buffalo Heifers and Kajli lambs as described in proceeding chapters 4, 5

and 6 are given in the following paragraphs.

1- Evaluation of saltbush (Atriplex amnicola) as a substitute of conventional fodders

during various seasons in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers.

2- Evaluation of saltbush (Atriplex amnicola) as a substitute of Lucerne hay nitrogen

with different levels of saltbush nitrogen in comparison with urea nitrogen in

Kajli lambs.

3- Evaluation of saltbush (Atriplex amnicola) in Kajli lambs as a substitute of

Lucerne hay based Total Mixed Ration.

3.1 Propagation of Forage Biomass

Appropriate sowing and propagation program was adopted to ensure the availability of

required biomass having better nutrient quality of Mott grass, Berseem, Lucerne and

Saltbush fodder and forages for these three studies.

3.1.1 Mott grass (Pennisetum purpurium)

Mott grass cuttings were planted at a distance of 1 meter from plant to plant and row to

row (1x1 m) in an area of 3 acres. The plants were allowed to establish for about 5

months and then first cutting was taken for feeding. The subsequent cuttings were taken

at an interval of 35-40 days (Pic 3.1) to provide bio-mass of better nutrients to the

Buffalo heifers in the experiment-1. Mott grass was offered to Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers

alone and in combination with saltbush (50:50) accordingly. Mott grass being multicut

vegetative fodder is able to produce a mean yield of 92 tones per acre in 4-5

cuttings/year.

liv

Pic 3.1 Mott Napier plantation and production for heifers feeding.

3.1.2 Berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum)

Berseem seed was sown in 3 acres area and was allowed to grow for about two months

before cutting for the first time. The subsequent cuttings were taken at an interval of 40

days (Pic 3.2) used as fresh for feeding to Buffalo heifers in experiment-1 alone and also

in combination with Saltbush. Well managed Berseem crop during winter and spring

season produced quality fodder yield of 34 tones in 4-5 cuttings per acre.

Pic 3.2 Berseem cultivation and cutting for heifers feeding.

3.1.3 Lucerne (Medicago sativa) Hay Preparation

A proper propagation program was adopted to get sufficient bio-mass of Lucerne.

Perennial Lucerne sown in 2 acres area was used to produce the required amount of

fodder. Lucerne fodder was chopped and sun dried to convert it into hay (Pic 3.3).

Lucerne fodder produced from these areas was used for feeding of Kajli lambs in the

lv

experiment-2 to replace Lucerne hay based nitrogen with Saltbush and urea nitrogen and

Lucerne hay was also used for experiment 3 on Kajli lambs to replace Lucerne hay based

TMR with different levels (30 and 45 %) of Saltbush . Perennial Lucerne fodder is able to

produce a green biomass of 29 tones in 5-6 cuttings per acre per year.

Pic 3.3 Sun cured Lucerne hay prepared for lambs feeding.

3.1.4 Saltbush (Atriplex amnicola) Production and Hay Making

Nursery plants of saltbush (Atriplex amnicola) were transplanted at a distance of 2 meters

from plant to plant and row to row (2x2) in 2 acres salinity affected area at Postgraduate

Animal Research Station Proka, Faisalabad. After one year of transplantation, the forage

was harvested by lopping of leaves, twigs and soft stems for the first time and subsequent

cuttings were taken at 50-60 days interval (Fig 3.4). Green leaves and twigs of saltbush

were offered fresh to buffalo heifers in combination with green conventional fodders

(Mott and Berseem) in experiment 1. For experiment 2 and 3 saltbush lopped leaves and

soft twigs were dried by spreading in thin layers under to make quality hay.

Pic 3.4 Biomass production of transplanted Atriplex amnicola shrub for heifers and

lambs feeding

lvi

3.1.5 Urea Treated Wheat Straw

Treated wheat straw was used in different quantities to substitute 20 and 30 percent feed

nitrogen (Pic 3.5). To replace Lucerne hay nitrogen with urea nitrogen urea treated wheat

straw was used. To replace 20 and 30 % feed nitrogen 1.20 and 1.75 kg of fertilizer grade

urea was dissolved in 40 liter water and sprinkled over 100 kg wheat straw spread in

thick layer, respectively. The process was repeated for each 100 kg wheat straw and total

1000 kg was treated, stacked and covered with polyethylene sheet for three weeks to

complete the process.

Pic 3.5 Urea treatment of wheat straw for lambs feeding

3.2 Feed Analyses

Feed samples were collected in the three feeding experiments at the start of trial and

subsequently at monthly basis or whenever required. The samples of feed were collected

for determination of dry matter, crude protein, crude fiber, ether extract, NFE and ash

using following laboratory procedure (AOAC., 1990).

Dry Matter: Sample of green fodders were usually dried at 60-70oC in the oven. The dry

matter content of the samples was calculated by weighing these before and after drying to

a constant weight in an oven at 103-105oC. After cooling the samples to room

temperature in the desicator the final weight was recorded. The dry matter contents were

calculated by the following formula:

DRY MATTER (%) = W2/W1x 100

W1= Weight of sample before drying (g)

lvii

W2= Weight of sample after drying (g)

Crude Protein: Crude protein was estimated by kjeldahl’s method. The sample was

digested with concentrated H2SO4 in the presence of catalyst mixture containing K2SO4

and HgSo4 (9:1). The digested sample was diluted to a definite volume with water. A

known aliquot of the diluted sample was mixed with 40 percent NaoH solution to an

excess alkaline reaction and mixture was distilled with steam in the macro-kjeldahl’s

apparatus. The ammonia so liberated was collected in 10 ml N/20 HCL having a few

drops of methyl red as an indicator. The excess of acid was measured by titrating against

standard N/20 NH4 OH solution. The amount of N/20 NH3 liberated was determined by

difference. Nitrogen content was worked out by multiplying N/20 NH3 with 0.0007 and

crude protein was calculated as N x 6.25.

Ether Extract: Dried sample of about 1 to 2 gram was transferred to asbestos thimble.

The mouth of the thimble was plugged with fat free absorbent cotton. The thimble was

placed in the glass jacket and 150 ml diethyl ether was taken in the receiving flask of

Soxhlet’s apparatus. The apparatus was placed in the heating assembly maintained at

60oC. The extraction continued for about 8 hours. The thimble was then removed and the

ether was collected in the glass jacket until the receiving flask contained about 20-30 ml

ether along-with fat. The ether in the receiving flask was transferred to a beaker. The

ether was allowed to evaporate under hood and the extract was completely dried in an

oven for thirty minutes at 105oC. The weight of the extract was recorded after cooling the

beaker in the desiccators. Percentage of the extract was calculated by the following

formula:

ETHER EXTRACT (%) = W2/W1x 100

Where: W1 = Weight of sample

W2 = Weight of extract

Crude Fiber: One gram of fat free sample was heated at simmering temperature (about

80oC) with 1.25 percent 200 ml sulphuric acid solution for half an hour. The volume of

boiling medium was kept constant by frequent addition of hot water. The beaker was

covered with a cooling device i.e. 500 ml round bottom flask having cold water. Boiling

lviii

was stopped by adding 500 ml cold water. The contents were filtered immediately under

vacuum. The residue was washed five times with 100 ml hot water and then digested with

200 ml 1.25 percent sodium hydroxide solution for 30 minutes similar to acid digestion.

The sample was filtered until the washing became neutral. The residue was washed with

acetone and transferred to an ashing crucible. It was dried to a constant weight in an oven

and weighed. The crucible was placed in the muffle furnace at 650oC for ignition. The

weight of ash was recorded. Crude fiber was calculated with the following formula:

CRUDE FIBRE (%) = a – b/w x 100

Where a = dry weight after digestion

b = weight of ash

w = weight of the sample

Ash: In a clean and tarred crucible two grams of sample was taken. The crucible was

placed on hot plate and heated gradually until the sample was carbonized. The crucible

was put into the muffle furnace at 650oC until white/light gray/reddish ash was obtained.

The crucible was placed in desiccators for cooling and weight was recorded immediately.

The ash percentage was calculated by the following formula:

TOTAL ASH (%) = Weight of ash/weight of sample x 100

Nitrogen Free Extract (NFE): The NFE was calculated by difference by the following

formula:

NFE (%) = 100 - (% CP + % CF + % EE + % ASH)

3.3 Digestibility

For the determination of Dry Matter and Organic Matter Digestibility, the data on

daily feed intake and total feces voided by each animal during last week (7 days) of each

feeding period and for each experiment were collected. The samples of feed offered, orts

and feces voided were dried in the oven accordingly to determine the dry matter and the

samples were burned to determine the Organic Matter by difference.

lix

Dry Matter Digestibility (DMD) was determined by using following equation.

DMD = W1-W2/W1 X 100

W1 = Weight of DMI

W2 = Weight of DM in feces

Organic Matter Digestibility (OMD) was determined by using following equation

OMD = W1-W2/W1 X 100

W1 = Weight of Organic Matter Intake

W2 = Weight of Organic Matter in feces

3.4 Blood Hematology

Blood samples from each animal were obtained during feeding trial. Samples were drawn

from the jugular vein with a sterile needle. The site was leaned and treated with

methylated spirit before drawing the blood. About 10 ml of blood was drawn from each

animal in a single prick used for hematological analysis. For hematological work blood

sample was mixed with dried E.D.T.A. (an anticoagulant) at the rate of one mg/ml of

blood. The following hematological test analyzed by hematological analyzer and also

used the laboratory procedures.

Hemoglobin (ICSH, 1967; Benjamin, 1985)

Erythrocyte count (Schalm et al., 1975)

Total Leukocyte count (Coles, 1974)

Packed cell volume (Bush, 1975)

The following hematological procedures were used for these studies.

Red Blood Cells (RBCs): Leucocytes diluting pipette was filled with blood up to 0.5

scales. Normal saline solution was drawn up to 101 scales to obtain a 1: 200 dilution. The

contents were mixed thoroughly by holding the pipette horizontally. Few drops from the

pipette were discarded and counting chamber was filled with the diluted blood. Three

minutes time was allowed to settle the cells and RBCs were counted under the high

power objective in five squares of the central block of the chamber for each sample. The

lx

cells per cubic millimeter were calculated (Schalm et al., 1975) and expressed in 106

μl

(millions/cumm).

White Blood Cells (WBCs): Leukocyte diluting pipette was filled with blood up to 0.5

scales and diluted with 2 percent acetic acid colored with gentian violet (TLC solution)

up to 11 scales to obtain a 1:20 dilution. About one third of the contents were discarded

and counting chamber was filled with the dilution. Cells were allowed to settle for a

while. The numbers of cells in the four corner blocks of the chamber were counted. Total

leukocytes were calculated (Coles, 1974) and expressed in 103 μl (thousands/cumm).

Hemoglobin: Hemoglobin was estimated by the colorimetric method (ICSH, 1967 and

Benjamin, 1985) with the following test principle

Hemoglobin + Cyanide + Ferricyanide = Cyan-met-hemoglobin

Hemoglobin is treated with a dilute solution of potassium ferricyanide and potassium

cyanide at a slightly alkaline pH (Drab kin solution). The ferricyanide oxidizes iron in the

hemoglobin and converts the later to met-hemoglobin which is measured photo-

metrically. Concentration of hemoglobin percentage was noted from the tale of values

against the absorbance reading. Distilled water was used as blank.

Packed Cell Volume: Special capillary tubes, 75 mm long and one-mm diameters filled

with blood. The open end was sealed with the help of flame. Capillary tubes were

centrifuged at 10,000 revolution/ minute) for 10 minutes and the values was read with the

help of haematocrit scales in percentage as described by Bush (1975).

3.5 Data Analyses

The data collected was entered in the Excel Computer soft ware and was analyzed using

Mixed Model Least-Squares and Maximum Likelihood Computer Program (Harvey,

1990) to calculate analysis of variance (ANOVA) and means were separated by least

significant difference (LSD) test (Steel et al., 1997) and Duncan’s Multiple Range Test

(Duncan, 1955).

lxi

CHAPTER 4

EXPERIMENT 1


A SUBSTITUTE OF CONVENTIONAL FODDERS

DURING VARIOUS SEASONS IN NILI-RAVI

BUFFALO HEIFERS

Abstract

Feeding management experiment was conducted to determine the effect of conventional

fodder substitution with saltbush during different seasons on the performance of Nili-

Ravi buffalo heifers. Fifteen buffalo heifers of same weight (120±2 kg) were divided into

five groups, three each according to Switch back Latin Square Design (5x5x5) fed on T1,

T2, T3, T4 and T5 having Mott (Pennisetum purpurium), Berseem (Trifolium

alexandrinum), Mott+Saltbush, Berseem+Saltbush and Mott+Berseem+Saltbush,

respectively. Mean maximum temperature during P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 was 20.76±1.75,

22.62+1.75, 24.51±1.75, 37.67±1.75 and 40.98±1.75˚C, respectively. Mean DM contents

of T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 were 19.10±.626, 18.40±.626, 22.50±.626, 22.40±.626 and

21.40±.626 %, and during P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 were 20.80±.626, 19.70±.626,

18.70±.626, 20.70±.626 and 23.90±.626 %, respectively,. CP contents on overall basis in

T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 were 8.20±0.23, 16.80±0.23, 8.60±0.23, 13.80±0.23 and

11.50±0.23 % and during P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 were 12.00±0.23, 12.20±0.23,

12.00±0.23, 12.00±0.23 and 10.7±0.23 %respectively. CF contents in T1, T2, T3, T4 and

T5 were 29.50±0.26, 25.30±0.26, 32.30±0.26, 30.10±0.26 and 30.00±0.26 % and during

P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 were 30.20±0.26, 29.60±0.26, 28.60±0.26, 28.70±0.26 and

30.00±0.26 %, respectively. EE contents during P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 were 3.80±0.11,

4.01±0.11, 3.90±0.11, 4.30±0.11and 4.00±0.11 and in T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 were

3.30±0.109, 5.00±0.109, 3.50±0.109, 4.20±0.109 and 4.00±0.109 %, respectively. Ash

contents during P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 were 11.20±0.07, 11.00±0.07, 11.00±0.07,

11.60±0.07and 12.50±0.07 % and in T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 were 09.60±0.07,

09.50±0.07, 13.20±0.07, 13.20±0.07and 11.75±0.07 %, respectively. NFE contents

during P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 were 43.70±0.3, 44.00±0.2, 44.60±0.2, 44.20±0.2 and

45.50±0.2 % and in T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 were 50.40±0.2, 39.90±0.2, 46.40±0.2,

41.00±0.2 and 44.30±0.2 % respectively. Mean daily DMI during P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5

was 2.36±0.14, 2.78±0.14, 3.35±0.14, 3.60±0.14 and 2.66±0.14 kg, and on T1, T2, T3,

T4 and T5 was 3.03±0.12, 3.23±0.12, 2.65±0.12, 3.08±0.12 and 2.76±0.12 kg,

respectively. Daily water intake was comparatively higher in heifers on saltbush

substituted diets and also increased during summer season. Highest daily weight gain was

observed on Berseem alone and heifers on Saltbush combination diets also gained more

than on Mott grass. Weight gain was lower during winter as compered to spring and

lxii

summer. DMD of T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 was 59.90±0.19, 62.80±0.19, 64.00±0.19,

64.50±0.19 and 63.80±0.19 % and during P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 was 62.40±0.19,

62.70±0.19, 64.90±0.19, 62.90±0.19 and 62.10±0.19 %, respectively. OMD during P1,

P2, P3, P4 and P5 was 60.10±0.002, 60.10±0.002, 62.60±0.002, 62.30±0.002 and

58.80±0.002 %, and on T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 was 57.00±0.002, 61.50±0.002,

60.90±0.002, 63.50±0.002 and 61.00±0.002 %, respectively. RBCs count in heifers on

T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 was 5.32±0.05, 5.14±0.05, 5.28±0.05, 4.97±0.05 and 5.21±0.05

106

μl and during P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 was 2.37±0.75, 4.55±0.75, 6.21±0.75, 6.43±0.75

and 6.38±0.75 106

μl, respectively. WBCs (103 μl) count in heifers on T1, T2, T3, T4 and

T5 were 9.19±0.75, 9.63±0.75, 9.34±0.75, 8.85±0.75 and 8.96±0.75 and during P1, P2,

P3, P4 and P5 was 12.12±0.04, 7.90±0.04, 8.62±0.04, 8.68±0.04 and 8.66±0.04 103 μl,

respectively. Hemoglobin (g/dl) contents in heifers on T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 were

8.49±0.05, 8.87±0.05, 8.69±0.05, 8.64±0.05 and 9.01±0.05, and during P1, P2, P3, P4

and P5 were 7.01±0.25, 9.09±0.25, 9.16±0.25, 9.26±0.25 and 9.18±0.25 g/dl,

respectively. PCV during P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 was 34.33±0.05, 31.40±0.05,

26.07±0.05, 26.07±0.05 and 25.87±0.05 and on T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 were 29.67±0.75,

26.93±0.75, 28.47±0.75, 28.60±0.75 and 30.07±0.75 %, respectively. Statistically

significant difference in DM (P<0.05), CP, CF, EE, ash and NFE (P<0.01), DMI, water

intake and weight gain (P<0.01), DMD and OMD (P<0.05), RBCs, WBCs, Hemoglobin

and PCV (P<0.05) was observed between treatments and period. Saltbush substituted

diets showed better DMD and OMD and also changes were observed in RBCs, WBCs,

Hemoglobin and PCV between treatments and period. It is concluded that saltbush can be

incorporated in the conventional diets of Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers upto 50 % to maintain

daily intake and growth performance and can be used as an alternate forage source when

conventional fodders are short and their nutrient contents are less during severe winter

and summer season.

_____________________________________________________________

Key Words: Saltbush (Atriplex amnicola), Mott (Pennisetum purpurium), Berseem

(Trifolium alexandrinum), buffalo heifer, digestibility, blood, season,

DMI, water intake, substitution.

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Livestock sector has played a significant role in national economy and rural social system

over the years by providing quality food and export earnings. At present this sector

accounts for nearly 11 % of national GDP. Buffaloes are the major dairy animal in

Pakistan and are mainly raised in Punjab (60.8 %) and Sindh (31.8 %). Pakistan is the 5th

largest milk producing country but per head milk is less that half as compared to

production level of animals maintained in the developed countries. The present per capita

lxiii

consumption of milk and meat is at 68.6 litres and 14.5 kg per annum, which is far below

the recommended dietary allowance level for an individual (Economic Survey, 2006).

Animal production in Pakistan is mainly affected due to shortage of quality feed

resources especially during severe summer and winter season. Fodder crops are an

important resource to economise the production and its importance may be assessed from

the fact that it alone constitutes nearly 70 percent of the total cost of livestock production.

The area under fodder production is about 2.7 million hectare (14% cultivated land) in

the country which produces 58 million tones of fodder which is not sufficient even to

meet the maintenance requirements of the existing livestock. In our country, this resource

hardly contributes 24 % of the feed requirement.

Due to the increased growth rate of population both of human being and animals, there is

more pressure on our land resources. Over grazing denuded the soil and plain areas are

also becoming unfit for normal crop production due to salinity that is further aggravating

the situation. Due to cutting down of forests and intensive cropping, at present about 10%

of the worlds land surface is affected by salinity and sodicity (Sczaboliz, 1991). Pakistan

with approximately 6.3 m ha of salt-affected land is lying barren and is not producing any

crop of fodders. According to one estimate, in recently developed mildly salt affected

regions with in the country the yields of wheat, rice, cotton and sugarcane had declined

by 64, 68, 59 and 62 %, respectively (Qureshi et al., 1993).

A projected expanding animal population will further worsen the feed resources situation

in the country and will require a more than 50 percent increase in the feed supply.

Improvements in the utilization of fibrous feed resources in such countries, primarily the

natural vegetation might be a solution. Understory grasses and herbs in stands of

halophytic shrubs can be the major component of the forage available. Saltbush has the

ability to flourish on a wide range of soil types and climatic conditions and survive in

saline and waterlogged conditions (Le Houerou, 1986; Grice and Muir, 1988). Saltbushes

are the major salt tolerant fodder species for productive use of salt land. Saltbush leaves

are apparently high in nitrogen concentration (1.5 to 3%). However, some nutritional

lxiv

factors like high level of salt, can limit their feeding value and their acceptability by

animals. (Barrett-Lennard et al., 2003, Barrett-Lennard et al., 2004, Norman et al., 2002).

In the process of reclamation if certain fodder like Atriplex grown on such soils it will

help meet the deficits of our livestock and this in turn will increase the farmer’s income

and availability of animal products. However, these lands can be reclaimed and utilized

for livestock production.

Realizing the importance of this sector there is need to improve the animal production

practices through better feeding management of growing buffalo heifers which are

ignored by the farmers because they are paying more attention to lactating and market

buffaloes. Feeding management experiment was conducted to evaluate the substitution of

conventional fodders with saltbush during different seasons in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers.

4.2 MATERIALS AND METHODS

Feeding experiment was conducted at Livestock Experiment Station, University of

Agriculture Faisalabad, to determine the desirable level of conventional fodders (Mott

and Berseem) substitution with saltbush (Atriplex amnicola) during various seasons in

Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers. Fifteen Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers approximately of same age

and body weight (120±2 kg) were divided into five groups, three each fed for a period of

five weeks excluding one week for adjustment and for subsequent four periods of five

weeks each according to switch back Latin Square Design (5x5x5) arrangement so that to

test the effect of each treatment on each heifer (Table 4.1). The experiment was started in

winter (December) and continued up to summer (June) to cover three seasons (winter,

spring and summer).

Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers were fed on fresh fodders and forages alone and in different

proportions. The feed combinations were made and mixed on dry matter basis. The

heifers were fed on Mott grass (Pennisetum purpurium), Berseem (Trifolium

alexandrinum), Mott+Saltbush, Berseem+Saltbush and Mott+Berseem+Saltbush diets

lxv

designated as T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5, respectively in the feeding period one and

treatments were switched over in the subsequent feeding periods, i.e. 2, 3, 4 and 5 for five

weeks each accordingly (Table 4.1). All the heifers were kept in conventional tail to tail

system of housing in individual pens and were let loose for four hours for loafing in the

open katcha area near sheds (Pic 4.1).

Table 4.1 Distributin of Nili-Ravi Buffalo heifers in conventional fodders

substituted with Saltbush diets experiment.

Groups Heifers P1 P2 P3 P4 P5

A 3 T1 T5 T4 T3 T2

B 3 T2 T1 T5 T4 T3

C 3 T3 T2 T1 T5 T4

D 3 T4 T3 T2 T1 T5

E 3 T5 T4 T3 T2 T1

T1 = Mott T2= Berseem T3= Mott+ Saltbush, 50:50 T4=Berseem+Saltbush, 50:50

T5= Mott+Berseem+Saltbush, 33.3:33.3:33.4

Pic. 4.1 Distribution of groups and tail to tail housing of heifers for saltbush feeding

experiment

Data on climatic changes were recorded to determine the effect of environmental

variation (Temperature and Relative Humidity) on feed composition, feed intake, water

intake, weight changes, digestibility and blood hematology.

Fresh fodder and forage was offered ad libitum heifers on different treatments

accordingly. The data on daily feed and water intake were recorded. Fresh and clean

water was made available round the clock. All heifers were weighed at the start of

experiment and subsequently at weekly interval.

lxvi

Feed Analyses: Two representative samples (first at the start of experiment and

subsequently at monthly basis or whenever required) were taken from bulk of fresh

fodder used for feeding to heifers on different treatments during each period (5x5x2). The

samples thus collected were oven dried (Procedure given in Chapter 3) for the

determination of dry matter and retained for further use to analyse for crude protein,

crude fiber, ether extract, NFE and ash contents.

Digestibility: Digestibility was determined by total fecal collection method. Total daily

faeces voided by each heifer under different treatments were collected in the plastic

drums having lid to cover and weighed accordingly. Samples were taken from the

composite for dry matter determination and samples were retained for further analysis.

Dry Matter and Organic Matter digestibility was determined by analyzing two

representative samples of feed offered, refused and faeces taken from the composite dried

samples collected during the last week from each treatment diets during different periods

(5x5x2). Organic Matter was determined by ashing the samples of feed offered, refused

and faeces. Organic Matter digestibility was estimated by difference accordingly. The

detailed procedure is given in Chapter 3 (Materials and Methods).

Blood Hematology: The blood samples were taken from each heifer belonging to

different treatments three times during each period and averged per animal bases for

convenience in data analyses (5x5x3). The blood samples were collected in the 10 cc

disposable syringes having added EDTA and tested in the hematological analyzer for

Hemoglobin, Erythrocyte count, Total Leukocyte count and Packed Cell Volume

(Chapter 3).

Data Analyses: The data collected was analyzed by Mixed Model Least-Squares and

Maximum Likelihood Computer Program (Harvey, 1990) to calculate analysis of

variance and means were separated by Duncan’s Multiple Range Test (Duncan, 1955).

lxvii

4.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.3.1 Meteorological Data

The buffalo heifers experiment was started in winter season and ends in the summer

seasons. Mean maximum temperature ranged from 20.76 to 40.98˚C from P1 to P5.

Highest temperature (40.98oC) was recorded in the P5 followed by the P4 (37.67˚C) P3

(24.51˚C), P2 (22.62˚C) and P1 (20.76˚C), respectively (Table 4.2). Mean minimum

temperature recorded during the P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 was 10.20±1.75, 8.56±1.75,

12.50±1.75, 22.62±1.75 and 27.92±1.75˚C and mean relative humidity during the

morning (8.00 am) and evening (5.00 p.m.) recorded was 84.69±2.5, 80.62±2.5,

75.19±2.5, 54.95±2.5 and 53.38±2.5; and 64.00±2.5, 51.55±2.5, 45.60±2.5, 41.95±2.5

and 42.93±2.5, respectively (Table 4.2).

Table 4.2 Metrological data during experiment in buffalo heifers on


Particulars P1 P2 P3 P4 P5

Temperature °C

(SE ±1.75) Maximum 20.76 22.62 24.51 37.67 40.98 Minimum 10.20 08.56 12.50 22.62 27.92

Relative Humidity (%) (SE ±2.5) 8.00 a.m. 84.69 80.62 75.19 54.95 53.38 5.00 p.m. 64.00 51.55 45.60 41.95 42.93

Overall mean relative humidity was 74.35±2.5 (highest), 66.09±2.5, 60.40±2.5,

48.45±2.5 and 48.16±2.5 (lowest), and mean temperature was 15.48±1.75, 15.59±1.75,

18.51±1.75, 30.15±1.75 and 34.45±1.75 oC during the P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5,

respectively. Mean relative humidity showed a decreasing trend with the increase in the

environmental temperature during different feeding periods (Fig 4.1).

lxviii

Similar environmental temperature (from 29.1 °C to 43.3 °C) changes reported in June

and July in India by Bharadwaj et al. (1992) as observed in this study during period 5

having mean maximum temperature of 40.98 °C and overall mean temperature of 34.45

°C.

4.3.2 Feed Composition

Dry Matter (DM): DM contents of T1, T2,T3, T4 and T5 diets fed to buffalo heifer

during period (P) P1 were 22.50±1.40, 13.50±1.40, 25.00±1.40, 21.50±1.40 and

21.50±1.40 %, during P2 were 19.50±1.40, 14.00±1.40, 23.50±1.40, 21.00±1.40and

20.50±1.40 %, during P3 feeds DM contents were 19.00±1.40, 15.50±1.40, 21.00±1.40,

18.50±1.40 and 19.50±1.40 % during the P4 was 17.50±1.40, 22.00±1.40, 20.00 ± 1.40,

23.00±1.40 and 21.00±1.40 % and during P5 the DM contents were 17.00±1.40,

27.00±1.40, 23.00±1.40, 28.00±1.40 and 24.50±1.40 %, respectively (Table 4.3).

Table 4.3 Dry matter contents (%) of conventional fodders substituted with

saltbush diets fed to Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers.

Treatments P1 P2 P3 P4 P5

% (SE ±1.40)

T1 22.50 19.50 19.00 17.50 17.00

T2 13.50 14.00 15.50 22.00 27.00

T3 25.00 23.50 21.00 20.00 23.00

T4 21.50 21.00 18.50 23.00 28.00

T5 21.50 20.50 19.50 21.00 24.50

T1 = Mott, T2= Berseem, T3= Mott+ Saltbush, 50:50,

T4=Berseem+Saltbush, 50:50 T5= Mott+Berseem+Saltbush, 33.3:33.3:33.4

15.48 15.5918.51

30.1534.45

74.3566.09 60.4

48.45 48.16

01020304050607080

05

10152025303540

P 1 P 2 P 3 P 4 P 5RH %TEMP oC

PERIODS

Fig. 4.1 Overall mean Temperature and Relative Humidity changes during different

feeding periods

Temperature Relative Humidity

lxix

Dry matter contents in buffalo heifers on T1 during the P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 were

22.50±1.40, 19.50±1.40, 19.00±1.40, 17.50±1.40 and 17.00±1.40 %, on T2 (Berseem)

diet were 13.50±1.40, 14.00±1.40, 15.50±1.40, 22.00±1.40 and 27.00±1.40 %, on T3

were 25.00±1.40, 23.50±1.40, 21.00±1.40, 20.00±1.40 and 23.00±1.40 %, on T4 diet

were 21.50±1.40, 21.00±1.40, 18.50±1.40, 23.00±1.40 and 28.00±1.40 %, and on T5

having combination of Mott+Berseem+Saltbush were 21.50±1.40, 20.50±1.40,

19.50±1.40, 21.00±1.40 and 24.50±1.40, respectively (Table 4.3).

On overall basis mean dry matter contents of T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 were 19.10±.626,

18.40±.626, 22.50±.626, 22.40±.626 and 21.40±.626 percent, respectively. Dry matter

contents were highest in T3 followed by T4, T5, T1 and T2, respectively. On overall

basis during various periods (1 to 5) dry matter contents were 20.80±.626, 19.70±.626,

18.70±.626, 20.70±.626 and 23.90±.626 percent, respectively (Fig 4.2).

Fig. 4.2 Overall means of Dry Matter (%) of feeds in different treatments and


Significant (P<0.05) difference was recorded in dry matter percent between treatment and

between periods (Table 4.4).

Crude Protein Contents: During P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 crude protein contents in T1 feed

was 8.00±.519, 8.00±.519, 8.50±.519, 8.50±.519 and 8.00±.519 %, respectively, and in

T2 was 17.50±.519, 16.00±.519, 18.00±.519, 18.00±.519 and 14.50±.519, respectively

(Table 4.5). Crude protein contents in T3 during the period 1 to 5 were 8.50±.519,

19.1

18.4

22.5 22.4

21.4

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5%

20.8

19.7

18.7

20.7

23.9

17

19

21

23

25

P 1 P 2 P 3 P 4 P 5%

lxx

8.50±.519, 9.00±.519, 8.53±.519 and 8.67±.519, respectively. Crude protein contents in

T4 feed were 13.50±.519, 17.50±.519, 12.69±.519, 13.50±.519 and 12.00±.519 %,

respectively and on T5 (MBS) the values were 12.37±.519, 11.20±.519, 12.00±.519,

11.50±.519 and 10.50±.519, respectively (Table 4.5).

Table 4.4 ANOVA of Dry Matter contents in conventional fodders substituted


SOV Df S.S. M.S. F.Value Prob.

Treatments 4 144.520 36.130 9.217 .0001

Periods 4 152.320 38.080 9.714 .0001

Trt. * Periods 16 322.280 20.142 5.138 .0001

Error 25 98.000 3.920

Total 49 717.120

Table 4.5 Crude Protein contents (%) of conventional fodders substituted with



% (SE ±.519)

T1 08.00 08.00 08.50 08.50 08.00

T2 17.50 16.00 18.00 18.00 14.50

T3 08.50 08.50 09.00 08.53 08.67

T4 13.50 17.50 12.69 13.50 12.00

T5 12.37 11.20 12.00 11.50 10.50



Crude protein contents on overall basis of T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 were 8.20±0.23,

16.80±0.23, 8.60±0.23, 13.80±0.23 and 11.50±0.23 %, respectively (Fig 4.3). On overall

basis during P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 crude protein contents were 12.00±0.23, 12.20±0.23,

12.00±0.23, 12.00±0.23 and 10.7±0.23 %, respectively (Fig 4.3).

lxxi

Fig. 4.3 Overall means of Crude Protein (%) in different treatments and during

different periods.

Statistically highly (P<0.01) significant difference was noticed between treatments,

periods and interaction of both (Table 4.6).

Table 4.6 Crude Protein ANOVA of conventional fodders substituted with Saltbush

diets fed to Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers.

SOV df S.S. M.S. F.Value Prob.

Treatments 4 522.880 130.720 242.074 .0000

Periods 4 14.880 3.720 6.889 .0007

Trt. * Periods 16 47.320 2.957 5.477 .0001

Error 25 13.500 .540

Total 49 598.580

Crude Fiber (CF) Contents: During P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 crude fiber contents in T1

feed were 34.56±.592, 30.50±.592, 27.50±.592, 28.00±.592 and 26.90±.592 %,

respectively, and in T2 feed was 23.75±.592, 24.50±.592, 25.00±.592, 25.50±.592 and

28.00±.592, respectively, on T3 (combination of MS) crude fiber was 34.00±.592,

33.00±.592, 31.50±.592, 31.17±.592 and 32.10±.592 %, respectively. Crude fiber

contents in T4 feed were 28.50±.592, 30.00±.592, 29.50±.592, 29.50±.592 and

33.00±.592 %, respectively and on T5 (MBS combination) the values were 30.50±.592,

30.00±.592, 29.50±.592, 29.50±.592and 30.50±.592 %, respectively (Table 4.7).

8.2

16.8

8.6

13.8

11.5

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5%

1212.2

12 12

10.7

10

10.5

11

11.5

12

12.5

P 1 P 2 P 3 P 4 P 5%

lxxii

Table 4.7 Crude Fiber contents (%) of conventional fodders substituted with



% (SE ±.592)

T1 34.56 30.50 27.50 28.00 26.90

T2 23.75 24.50 25.00 25.50 28.00

T3 34.00 33.00 31.50 31.17 32.10

T4 28.50 30.00 29.50 29.50 33.00

T5 30.50 30.00 29.50 29.50 30.50



During P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 crude fiber contents on overall basis were 30.20±0.26,

29.60±0.26, 28.60±0.26, 28.70±0.26 and 30.00±0.26 %, respectively (Fig 4.4). Crude

fiber contents in T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 on overall basis were 29.50±0.26, 25.30±0.26,


Fig. 4.4 Overall means of Crude Fiber (%) of feeds in different treatments and


Highly (P<0.01) significant difference in crude fibre was noticed statistically between

treatments, periods and interaction of both (Table 4.8).

During P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 Ether Extract (EE) in T1diet was 3.00±.245, 3.34±.245,

3.00±.245, 4.00±.245 and 3.50±.245 %, respectively, and on T2 was 5.00±.245,

5.00±.245, 4.75±.245, 5.16±.245 and 5.00±.245 %, respectively, on T3 having

combination of MS Ether Extract during P1 to P5 was 3.00±.245, 3.50±.245, 3.50±.245,

29.4

25.3

32.330.1

30

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5%

30.2 29.628.6 28.7

30

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

P 1 P 2 P 3 P 4 P 5%

lxxiii

4.00±.245 and 3.50±.245, respectively. Ether Extract contents in T4 (BS) feed were

4.10±.245, 4.50±.245, 4.00±.245, 4.50±.245 and 4.20±.245 %, respectively and on T5

(MBS combination) the values were 3.60±.245, 4.00±.245, 3.80±.245, 4.25±.245 and

4.00±.245 %, respectively (Table 4.9).

Table 4.8 Crude Fiber ANOVA of conventional fodders substituted with Saltbush



Treatments 4 260.680 65.170 93.100 .0000

Periods 4 21.680 5.420 7.743 .0003

Trt. * Periods 16 120.320 7.520 10.743 .0000

Error 25 17.500 .700

Total 49 420.180

Table 4.9 Ether Extract (%) of conventional fodders substituted with Saltbush



% (SE ±.245)

T1 3.00 3.34 3.00 4.00 3.50

T2 5.00 5.00 4.75 5.16 5.00

T3 3.00 3.50 3.50 4.00 3.50

T4 4.10 4.50 4.00 4.50 4.20

T5 3.60 4.00 3.80 4.25 4.00



EE contents on overall basis during P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 were 3.80±0.109,

4.01±0.109, 3.90±0.109, 4.30±0.109 and 4.00±0.109 %, respectively. On overall basis

EE contents in T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 diets were 3.30±0.109, 5.00±0.109, 3.50±0.109,

4.20±0.109 and 4.00±0.109 %, respectively (Fig 4.5).

lxxiv

Fig. 4.5 Overall means of Ether Extract (%) of feeds in different treatments and


Statistically significant difference was noticed between treatments (P<0.01), periods

(P<0.04) and non significant between interaction (P<0.54) of both (Table 4.10).

Table 4.10 Ether Extract ANOVA of conventional fodders substituted with



Treatments 4 17.800 4.450 37.083 .0000

Periods 4 1.400 .350 2.917 .0415

Trt. * Periods 16 1.800 .112 .938 .5426

Error 25 3.000 .120

Total 49 24.000

During P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 ash contents of T1feed was 11.00±.17, 10.00±.17,

09.00±.17, 09.20±.17 and 09.00±.17%, respectively, and on T2 feed was 08.50±.17,

09.00±.17, 09.30±.17, 09.25±.17and 12.00±.17, respectively, on T3 having combination

of MS ash contents were 13.00±.17, 12.60±.17, 12.50±.17, 13.50±.17and 13.50±.17,

respectively. Ash contents in T4 diet were 12.00±.17, 12.10±.17, 13.00±.17,

13.50±.17and 15.00±.17%, respectively and on T5 having MBS combination ash values

were 11.40±.17, 11.30±.17, 11.50±.17, 12.10±.17and 13.00±.17, respectively (Table

4.11).

3.3

5

3.5

4.2 4

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5%

3.8 4 3.94.3 4

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

P 1 P 2 P 3 P 4 P 5%

lxxv

Table 4.11 Ash contents (%) of conventional fodders substituted with Saltbush diets

fed to Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers.


% (SE ±.173)

T1 11.00 10.00 09.00 09.20 09.00

T2 08.50 09.00 09.30 09.25 12.00

T3 13.00 12.60 12.50 13.50 13.50

T4 12.00 12.10 13.00 13.50 15.00

T5 11.40 11.30 11.50 12.10 13.00



Ash contents of T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 on overall basis were 09.60±0.07, 09.50±0.07,

13.20±0.07, 13.20±0.07and 11.75±0.07 %, respectively. During P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5

ash contents on overall basis were 11.20±0.07, 11.00±0.07, 11.00±0.07, 11.60±0.07and

12.50±0.07 %, respectively (Fig. 4.6).

Fig. 4.6 Overall means of Ash contents (%) in feeds on different treatments and

during different periods.

Statistically highly (P<0.01) significant difference was noticed regarding ash percent

values between treatments, periods and interaction of both (Table 4.12).

During P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 Nitrogen Free Extract on T1 feed was 52.50±.447,

51.001±.447, 50.50±.447, 48.50±.447and 49.50±.447%, respectively, and on T2 was

39.00±.447, 39.50±.447, 39.50±.447, 39.50±.447and 42.00±.447, respectively, on T3

9.6 9.5

13.2 13.211.7

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5%

11.2 11 11 11.6

12.5

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

P 1 P 2 P 3 P 4 P 5%

lxxvi

combination feed MS NFE during period 1 to 5 was 45.20±.447, 46.00±.447, 47.00±.447,

46.50±.447and 47.50±.447, respectively (Table 4.13). NFE contents in T4 were

38.50±.447, 40.00±.447, 41.50±.447, 42.00±.447and 43.40±.447%, respectively and on

T5 (MBS) the values were 43.50±.447, 43.50±.447, 44.50±.447, 44.50±.447and

45.50±.447, respectively (Table 4.13).

Table 4.12 ANOVA of Ash contents in conventional fodders substituted with



Treatments 4 130.320 32.580 543.000 .0000

Periods 4 15.920 3.980 66.333 .0000

Trt. * Periods 16 26.680 1.667 27.792 .0000

Error 25 1.500 .060

Total 49 174.420

Table 4.13 NFE contents (%) in conventional fodders substituted with Saltbush



% (SE ±.447) T1 52.50 51.00 50.50 48.50 49.50

T2 39.00 39.50 39.50 39.50 42.00

T3 45.20 46.00 47.00 46.50 47.50

T4 38.50 40.00 41.50 42.00 43.40

T5 43.50 43.50 44.50 44.50 45.50



During P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 NFE contents on overall basis were 43.70±0.2, 44.00±0.2,

44.60±0.2, 44.20±0.2 and 45.50±0.2 %, respectively. NFE contents in heifers on T1, T2,

T3, T4 and T5 on overall basis were 50.40±0.2, 39.90±0.2, 46.40±0.2, 41.00±0.2 and

44.30±0.2 %, respectively (Fig 4.7).

lxxvii

Fig. 4.7 Overall means of NFE (%) in feeds on different treatments and during

different periods.

Highly (P<0.01) significant difference in NFE was noticed statistically between

treatments, periods and interaction of both (Table 4.14).

Table 4.14 ANOVA of NFE in conventional fodders substituted with Saltbush diets

fed to Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers.


Treatments 4 718.200 179.550 448.875 .0000

Periods 4 19.400 4.850 12.125 .0000

Trt. * Periods 16 48.400 3.025 7.562 .0000

Error 25 10.000 .400

Total 49 796.000

The results of feed composition on overall basis indicated significant difference in dry

matter, crude protein, crude fiber, ether extract, ash and nitrogen free extract in buffalo

heifers on different treatments and during different periods. These findings were also in

line with the results of Kandil and El-Shaer (1989) reported that Atriplex nummularia

had higher nutritive value in spring and winter than in summer and autumn and found

satisfactory alongwith barley (150 g) for sheep and goats during wet season, but they

would need more energy in dry season. Correal et al. (1986) averaged over spring,

summer, autumn and winter for all 4 species of atriplex, DM, OM and protein contents

were 31.7, 72.6 and 16.7 %, respectively with an energy content of 3.567 Cal/g and

50.4

39.9

46.4

41

44.3

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5%

43.7 44 44.6 44.245.5

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

P 1 P 2 P 3 P 4 P 5%

lxxviii

protein content was only slightly reduced in the summer (14.5 %), consistent protein and

energy levels make these atriplex species a useful alternative forage source in arid zones.

Jacobs and Smith (1977) also supported the findings and reported significant differences

in chemical composition between Atriplex nummularia, A. Canescens, A. Brewerii and A.

Lentiformis species and between seasons, which might serve as some indication of

differences found in acceptability and feeding value and these Atriplex species have high

feeding value and would probably be utilized efficiently by ruminants as a crude protein

supplement.

Dry matter and crude protein contents were higher during summer season (P5) and lower

during winter season (T1) as observed in the study and were supported by Ashraf et al.

(1992) reported invariably higher DM and CF in berseem, lucerene and bajra at final

cuttings while lower at initial cuttings, CP, EE and Ash were greater at primary cuttings

while lower at late cuttings, CP decreased upto 3rd cutting while again increased at 4th

cutting, while DM and CF in sorghum and sadabahar were higher at final growth stages

as compared to initial growth stages but EE, Ash and CP were higher at initial stages

while lower at final growth stages, NFE showed inconsistent variations in all varieties of

these fodders with respect to maturity/cuttings.

Dry matter contents were comparatively high in the saltbush included diets as found in

the study were comfirmed by the Pichard et al. (1988) reported high (35-55 %) dry matter

content of green leaves of 13 species of trees and shrubs and CP conent was lower than

expected (<12 %). Nandra et al. (1985) reported DM 27.05 and 27.20 % in Berseem at

the time of ensiling had and silage had DM 27.43 %, CP 11.5 %, EE 3.83 %, CF 34.70 %

and ash 9.00 %.

The CP content of whole dried plants ranged from 6.6 % in A. Amnicola to 9.2 % in A.

Vesicaria grown in Western Australia as reported by Malcolm et al. (1988). Diets with

shrub pasture containd more CP than those on grass pastures. A canescens (10 % CP), K.

Prostrata (12 % CP) and C. Lanata (12 % CP) were recommended for rangeland

lxxix

improvement by Otsyina and Mckell (1986). Guevara et al. (2005) compared saltbush

and alfalfa hay and reported mean values of OM 74.7 %; ash 25.3 %; CP 13.6 %; Na 5.6

%; and Cl 7.7 %. Bhattacharya (1989) reported that A. Halimus cuttings contained 73 %

OM, 18 % CP and 24 % CF on DM basis.

The present study indicated higher ash contents in the saltbush included diets as

compared to conventional fodder diets especially Mott fodder and these findings were in

accordance with the results reported by other workers found a high ash content of

saltbush (20 to 38 %) and up to 10 % NaCl in saltbush (Wilson, 1966 and Gihad, 1993)

reported.

Grice and Muir (1988) reported that CP content of saltbush leaf is either comparable to or

higher than other annual and perennial grasses, but it is quite likely that some saltbush

species show variation in chemical composition as a result of change in season.

Morcombe et al. (1996) reported about 50 % of edible material was leaf (8.9 % CP).

Ueckert et al. (1990) reported that spring Atriplex canescens growth (16 % CP).

Chauhan (1983) reported increased CF and CP decreased in hay with increase in the

height of Napier grass hybrid NB-21 (Pennisetum purpureum X P. Americanum) plants

from 45 to 120 cm. Karnezos et al. (1994) reported that herbage CP were highest for

lucerne (253 g/kg) and lowest for wheatgrass (159 g/kg). Pichard et al. (1988) reported

high (35-55 %) dry matter content of green leaves of 13 species of trees and shrubs and

CP conent was lower than expected (<12 %). Diets with shrub pasture containd more CP

than those on grass pastures. A canescens (10 % CP), K. Prostrata (12 % CP) and C.

Lanata (12 % CP) were recommended for rangeland improvement by Otsyina and Mckell

(1986). Guevara et al. (2005) compared saltbush and alfalfa hay and reported mean

values of OM 74.7 %; ash 25.3 %; CP 13.6 %. Bhattacharya (1989) reported OM, CP and

CF contents on a DM basis were, respectively, 90, 15 and 31 % for M. Sativa. A. Halimus

cuttings contained 73 % OM, 18 % CP and 24 % CF on DM basis.

lxxx

4.3.3 Dry Matter Intake (DMI)

Mean daily DMI per heifer fed on T1 was 1.46±0.24, 2.41±0.24, 3.31±0.24, 4.56±0.24

and 3.38±0.24 kgs during the P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5, respectively (Table 4.15). The

heifers on T2 consumed 3.29±0.24, 3.16±0.24, 4.08±0.24, 3.43±0.24 and 2.18±0.24 kgs,

respectively and on T3 showed an intake of 1.59± 0.24, 2.86±0.24, 2.94 ±0.24, 3.64

±0.24 and 2.23± 0.24 during P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5, respectively. Heifers showed

increased DMI when fed on T3 during the P1 to P4 and slight decrease in intake during

the P5, this decrease may be due to rise (40.98°C) in the environmental temperature and

quality of forage offered to heifers (Table 4.15).

Table 4.15 Mean daily DMI (kg) in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on conventional fodders

substituted with Saltbush diets.

Treatments P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 (kg) (SE ±0.24) T1 1.46 2.41 3.31 4.56 3.38 T2 3.29 3.16 4.08 3.43 2.18 T3 1.59 2.86 2.94 3.64 2.23 T4 2.72 3.52 3.33 2.88 2.95 T5 2.71 1.95 3.09 3.47 2.56



The heifers fed on T4 and T5 showed an intake of 2.72±0.24 and 2.71± 0.24, 3.52±0.24

and 1.95±0.24, 3.33±0.24 and 3.09±0.24, 2.88± 0.24 and 3.47±0.24, and 2.95±0.24 and

2.56±0.24 kgs during the P1, P, P3, P4 and P5, respectively (Table 4.15).

The Nili-Ravi Buffalo heifers during P1 showed a daily DMI of 1.46±0.24, 3.29±0.24,

1.59±0.24, 2.72±0.24 and 2.71±0.24 Kg and during P2 intake was 2.41±0.24, 3.16±0.24,

2.86±0.24, 3.52±0.24 and 1.95±0.24 Kg fed on T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5, respectively.

DMI on T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 during P3 was 3.31±0.24, 4.08±0.24, 2.94±0.24,

3.33±0.24 and 3.09±0.24 Kg, respectively (Table 4.15). The DMI in buffalo heifer per

head per day during the P4 and P5 was 4.56±0.24 and 3.38±0.24, 3.43±0.24 and

2.18±0.24, and 3.64±0.24 and 2.23±0.24, 2.88±0.24 and 2.95±0.24, 3.47±0.24 and

lxxxi

2.56±0.24 Kg fed on T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5, respectively (Table 4.15). The heifers

showed increasing trend in DMI offered Berseem alone or Berseem alongwith saltbush.

Highest DMI was recorded in T2 (Berseem alone) followed by T4 (B+S), T1 (Mott

alone), T5 (B+M+S) and T3 (M+S). Highest DMI (3.60±0.14 Kg) was observed during

the P4 (before summer), followed by P3, P2, P5 and P1, when mean maximum

temperature was 37.67±1.75, 24.51±1.75, 22.62±1.75, 40.98±1.75 and 20.76±1.75°C,

respectively. Increased DMI was observed during the P3 and P4 where the temperature

was ranging between 24.51 to 37.67°C. DMI looks reduced at below 24.51±0.14 and

above 37.67±0.14°C (Fig. 4.8).

DMI trend in the heifers fed on T4 showed an increase from P1 to P2 and then slightly

decreased in the P3 to P4 (3.33±0.24 to 2.88±0.24) but again showed little increase

during the P5 (2.95±0.24). This may be due to better choice for the heifers having

Berseem and saltbush. When heifers were fed on T5 (MBS) increasing trend was

observed in DMI from P1, P3 and P4 (2.71±0.24 to 3.47±0.24) with a slight decrease in

P2 (1.95±0.24) but again decreased in P5 (2.56±0.24). DMI was increased from P1 to P3

and decreased during P4 and P5. In all the treatments heifers showed an increased DMI

of feeds as the periods passes (1 to 5).

On overall basis, the buffalo heifers consumed 3.03±0.12, 3.23±0.12, 2.65±0.12,

3.08±0.12 and 2.76±0.12 kgs feed per day fed on T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5, respectively

(Fig. 4.8). On overall basis DMI during P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 on different feeds was

2.36±0.14, 2.78±0.14, 3.35±0.14, 3.60±0.14, and 2.66±0.14 kgs, respectively (Fig. 4.8).

lxxxii

Fig. 4.8 Overall means of daily DMI (kg) in buffalo heifers on different treatments

and during different periods

Highly significant (P<0.01) difference in DMI was observed between treatments, periods

and interaction of both (Table 4.16).

Table 4.16 ANOVA of DMI in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on conventional fodders


SOV D.F. S.S. M.S. F.Value Prob.

Treatments 4 1337.89 334.47 40.16 0.000

Periods 4 964.85 241.21 28.96 0.000

Trt. * Periods 16 1765.35 110.33 13.25 0.000

Error 100 832.95 8.33

Total 124 4901.05

The findings of the study regarding increased DMI in heifers on saltbush combination

with conventional fodder were supported by some researchers revealing that Atriplex

vesicaria provides maintenance rather than production requirements in sheep and may

make up 25 % of the diet in summer and 90 % during a drought (Leigh, 1972). Saltbush

can be compared favorably with that from normal pastures in terms of the number of

grazing ds possible (Clarke, 1982).

In Pakistan researchers found that dwarf goats can be maintained on 100 % Atriplex


for growth (Nawaz et al. 1994). Atriplex numularia bushes were able to sustain stock an

extra one to two months into a drought compared to the grass land (Danthonia stipa) as

reported by Leigh and Wilson (1970).

3.033.23

2.65

3.082.76

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5Kg

2.36

2.78

3.353.6

2.66

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

P 1 P 2 P 3 P 4 P 5Kg

lxxxiii

The findings regarding forage type and mixture has significant effect on DMI as observed

in the study are completely in agreement with the results reported (Abu-Zanat, 2005) a

significant (P<0.001) effect on DMI in Awassi lambs given chopped alfalfa hay, dried

foliage of Atriplex nummularia or foliage of Atriplex halimus, lambs receiving the alfalfa

hay diet showed high DMI compared to those fed the diets containing saltbush and

suggested possibility to replace up to 50 % of alfalfa hay by A. nummularia without

negative effects on intake of dry matter.

Partially supportive findings reported by some researchers (Masters et al. 2005, 2006 and

Peirce, 1957) found significantly decreased feed intake in weaner wethers and grazing

ruminants with increasing sodium in the diet either as a main effect or through an

interaction with potassium, whereas high potassium depressed intake at high levels of

sodium only and at high salt intakes (NaCl).

Erratic and decreased feed intake (20 to 30 %) at high intakes of salt and also there was

an adverse effect on health and rumen microorganisms, leading to decreased digestion

(Gihad, 1993). Significant decrease in feed intake with the increase in level of Atriplex in

the rations as a result of Atriplex amnicola feeding alone or in combination with the

conventional forage (Sudex) in Teddy goats (Riaz et al. 1994) also in wethers when

maintained only on saltbush (Wilson, 1975).

Similar intake in swamp buffaloes (Bos Bubalus bubalis) and crossbred cattle (Bos

indicus x B. taurus) was observed offered lablab (Lablab purpureus), verano

(Stylosanthes hamata cv. verano), sorghum (Sorghum bicolor x S. sudanense) and

pangola grass (Digitaria eriantha) but were higher in those given sorghum than those

given the other forages (Kennedy, 1995).

The observation of Chauhan (1983) supported the findings of the study reagarding DMI

intake variation of Mott grass during winter and spring season and he reported that DMI

of animals fed Napier grass hybrid NB-21 (Pennisetum purpureum x P. Americanum) hay

lxxxiv

decreased with increasing plant height. DMI in male buffalo calves as noted by Chauhan

et al. (1984) ranged from 2.34 to 3.05 kg/100 kg body weight fed daily on hybrid strains

of pearl millet Napier or a standard NB-21 variety.

Decreasing trend in DMI was observed with the increase in the temperature this was

supported by French (1970) reported that goats adjust their feed intake in accordance

with the air temperature, the intake decreasing as the temperature rises above 20oC and

eat more in cold weather. Abdella, et al. (1993) also found reduced (P<0.01) feed intake

in 24 crossbred pregnant ewes subjected to thermo neutral (20°C) and heat (35°C)

conditions for 3-5 wk pre partum and 6 wk post partum.

During the flush season DMI was comparatively more as supported by Ueckert, et al.

(1990) found that A. Canescens appeared to be unpalatable to Angora kids during Sept-

Oct when more grasses and forbs were available, but was readily eaten by yearling ewes

during winter when annual forbs were unavailable.

The findings of Kandil and El-Shaer (1989) are also in agreement with the present results

and they reported that sheep and goats ate, digested and utilized A. nummularia at each

stage of growth with equal efficiency and DMI was significantly affected by advancing

maturity. Indian studies (Bharadwaj et al. 1992) also reported similar findings in Murrah

buffaloes kept in a covered shed during June (29.1 °C) and July (43.3 °C) showed mean

DMI of 12.14 and 17.76 kg/d. Fulsoundar and Radadia, (1993) also reported significant

(P<0.01) DMI of 13.86 and 14.76 kg/d in Mehsana buffaloes and Kankrej cows kept at

39°C provided with shelter alone (control) or shelter and splashed with water.

In the present study Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers showed significant difference in DMI on

combination of saltbush diets and Gupta et al. (1983) supported the results by reporting

higher intake in lactating Murrah buffaloes when given choice to have more than one

feeds and observed average DMI of 2.39, 2.51, 2.74, 2.53 and 2.62 kg, /100 kg body

weight fed a concentrate roughage diet, concentrate and wheat straw to meet the

maintenance requirement and berseem and lucerne to meet the production requirements,

lxxxv

berseem or lucerne only to provide maintenance and production requirements,

respectively. Average daily voluntary DMI of silage and concentates were 10.32 and

7.33, and 2.90 and 3.81 kg in lactating buffaloes given for 56 ds ensiled berseem and oat

forage in 1:1 ratio, respectively and concentrates containing 14 and 10 % crude protein

(Nandra et al. 1989).

The findings regarding increased consumption of Berseem forage during winter and

spring was in line with the findings of Reddy and Reddy (1982) reported significantly

higher DMI in crossbred Murrah buffaloes with the complete diets, which also had higher

protein digestibility than the control given pelleted or loose complete diets or cut Napier

grass to appetite with concentrates at 1 kg/2.5 kg milk (control). Chauhan and Chopra

(1984) also found DMI of 2.95, 3.12 and 3.27 kg/100 kg body weight in lactating

buffaloes incorporated berseem hay at 33 and 66 % in the concentrate mixture,

respectively.

Poudal et al. (1994) reported contrasting results and observed non significant difference

among groups and fortnightly periods in DMI in buffalo heifers fed on a concentrate plus

rice straw and maize silage, ipil-ipil (Leucaena sp.) or khanyu (Ficus semicordata). Some

researchers (Waghorn, et al. 1994) reported that addition of salt to the sheep diet had no

effect on DMI.

Hadjipanayiotou, (1995) als reported contrasting results as observed in the results of

present study and found no difference in DMI in Chios sheep and Damascus goats fed on

a diet of 50 % concentrate and 50 % barley hay (8 % CP) over 3 seasons, spring (26.1

°C), summer (36.5 °C) and winter (13.5 °C)) in Cyprus. Akram et al. (1991) also reported

no difference in fodder consumption in male and female Nili Ravi buffalo calves in

Pakistan kept under shade (in a shed) + fan assisted ventilation; shade + fan assisted

ventilation + sprinkling/wetting; shade + sprinkling/wetting; tree shade +

sprinkling/wetting. DMI were not different between treatments in Murrah buffaloes (120-

125 kg) given diets based on pearl millet silage and concentrates, without and with rye

lxxxvi

grass (Lolium perenne) hay at amounts providing roughage: concentrate ratios of 50:50,

and 75:25 or 85:15, respectively (Chauhan, et al. 1994b).

4.3.4 Water Intake

The daily water intake by the buffalo heifers fed on T1 during the P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5

was 2.82±0.58, 4.77±0.58, 5.25±0.58, 11.66±0.58 and 9.73±0.58 litres and in heifers on

T2 was 0.39±0.58, 2.70±0.58, 2.71±0.58, 13.55±0.58 and 14.21±0.58 litres, on T3

5.81±0.58, 11.41±0.58, 9.35±0.58, 17.14±0.58 and 13.91±0.58, on T4 was 8.24±0.58,

10.83±0.58, 8.46±0.58, 14.61±0.58 and 14.16±0.58, and on T5 was 6.61±0.58,

6.44±0.58, 6.84±0.58, 14.62±0.58 and 13.76±0.58 litres, respectively (Table 4.17).

Table 4.17 Daily water intake (liter) in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on conventional



Litre (SE ±0.58) T1 2.82 04.77 5.25 11.66 09.73 T2 0.39 02.70 2.71 13.55 14.21 T3 5.81 11.41 9.35 17.14 13.91 T4 8.24 10.83 8.46 14.61 14.16 T5 6.61 06.44 6.84 14.62 13.76



The highest (11.52±0.26) intake of water was observed in the heifers on T3, followed by

T4 (11.28±0.26), T5 (9.65±0.26), T1 (6.85±0.26) and T2 (6.71±0.26). Water intake was

comparatively higher in heifers on T3 and T4, which was mainly due to the addition of

saltbush in the diets, and water intake was lower in heifers on M and B fed on

conventional fodders Mott and Berseem, respectively.

On overall basis the mean intake of water was 6.85±0.26, 6.71±0.26, 11.52±0.26,

11.28±0.26 and 9.65±0.26 litres in heifer fed on T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5, respectively (Fig

4.9). On overall basis buffalo heifers fed on different feeds mean intake of water was

4.80±0.21, 7.23±0.21, 6.52±0.21, 14.32±0.21 and 13.16 ± 0.21 liters per day during P1,

P2, P3, P4 and P5, respectively (Fig 4.9).

lxxxvii

Fig. 4.9 Overall means of daily water intake (liter) in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on


Water intake was also affected by the changes in environmental temperature during

different periods and it was also having definite effect of forage type and combinations

during various periods. Highly significant difference in water intake was noticed between

treatments (P<0.01) and between periods (P<0.01), and in the interaction of treatments

and periods (Table 4.18).

Table 4.18 ANOVA of daily water intake in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on


SOV df S.S. M.S. F. Value Prob.

Treatments 4 541.68 135.42 19.60 0.000

Period 4 1806.88 451.72 65.37 0.000

Treatments*Period 16 240.22 15.01 2.17 0.010

Error 100 691.07 6.91

Total 124 3279.85

Mtenga and Shoo, (1990) found that leucaena supplementation increased water intake

increased with increasing leucaena in the diet and intake was highest in hay plus leucaena

ad libitum fed Blackhead Persian lambs.

Studies done by Alim (1991) in Egypt in the hottest months of the year (July and August)

revealed that water intake of buffaloes and cattle kept in a feedlot was 33.4 and 21.1

litres/d and for hay and silage diets were 87 and 77 litres for buffaloes and 67 and 54

litres for cows given ad libitum berseem hay or mixed silage comprising berseem and

barley forage 2:1, plus a concentrate to buffaloes and Friesian x native cows.

4.8

7.236.52

14.3213.16

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

P 1 P 2 P 3 P 4 P 5Lit.

PERIODS

6.85 6.71

11.52 11.28

9.65

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5Lit.

TREATMENTS

lxxxviii

Addition of salt to the diet had increased water intake relative to controls (P<0.01) with

the addition of salt (0.51 % Na) and 3.0 % bentonite without or with Na (0.49 %) to hay

based pelleted diets and recommended that salt should not be added to diets used for live

sheep shipments (Waghorn, et al. 1994). Peirce, (1957) reported increased intake of water

with the increase of concentration of sodium chloride in the water. Peirce (1960)

concluded that intake of water increases in sheep with the increasing level of mixtures in

water, respectively fed on chaffed lucerne and wheaten hays. He (Peirce, 1966) reported

that a concentration of solution having 0.2 % salts had higher water intake than that of

rain water. Meintjes and Olivier, (1992) also found significantly changed water intake

and electrolyte balance in sheep. Hemsley (1975) reported increased water intake in

sheep by two litres per d ingested large amounts of sodium chloride (150 g/d) offered a

diet consisting of 89 % linseed meal.

Garg and Nangia, (1993) also reported increased voluntary water intake in Salt-fed (200

g/d) buffaloes. Riaz et al. (1994) observed significant (P<0.01) difference in water intake

in Teddy goats on Atriplex amnicola alone and in combination with the sudex. Gihad,

(1993) reported that the general reaction of sheep to increasing salt concentration was to

increase the volume of drinking water to maintain a balanced nutritional state. Some

other researchers also observed similar findings in sheep having high concentration of

salt in saltbush diets increase the demand for fresh water for drinking, particularly in

summer and also found that sheep on a diet of A. vesicaria would consume up to 240 g

salt per d and in summer would require some 12 litres of water compared to 3 litres of

water on grassland (Grice and Muir, 1988).

Water intake of Awassi wethers was 2.9 times higher as investigated by Arieli et al.


barclayana) 477 g, 347 g of pellets containing barley grains and NaCl (3:1) or a control

diet fed the high salt diets. Benjamin, et al. (1992) reported apparent water intake of 14

litre/d for an atriplex DMI of about 1300 g/d in sheep fed on leaves, fruits and twigs of

lxxxix

Atriplex barclayana and diets offered were Atriplex alone or with tapioca meal 100, 200

or 300 g/d.

Bharadwaj et al. (1992) housed 16 lactating Murrah buffaloes, in a covered shed, without

(group 1) or with showers (group 2) given at 11.00 and 15.00 h, given tree shade (group

3) or kept in the sun and given showers at 11.00 and 15.00 h (group 4) for 60 ds during

June and July 1990, environmental temperature ranged from 29.1 °C to 43.3 °C, mean

values for water intake were 84.8 and 86.3 litre/d and 83.6, 83.4, 85.8 and 89.5 litres/d for

groups 1, 2, 3 and 4 was 15.16, 14.14, 15.54 and 14.96 kg/d. Fulsoundar and Radadia,

(1993) provided shelter alone (control) or shelter and also splashed with water at 10-min

intervals between 12.30 and 14.20 h, daily (treated) to Meshana buffaloes and Kankrej

cows in March (39°C) average daily water intake was 54.99 and 52.35 litre/d (P<0.05)

and 36.91 and 33.23 litre/d (P<0.01), respectively.

Shafie, et al. (1994) housed singly five adult Rahmani x Ossimi rams in climatic

chambers at 18°C or 35°C fed to appetite on barley grain and berseem (Trifolium

alexandrinum) hay kept at 35°C increased their water intake by about 50 %.

Hadjipanayiotou, (1995) used Chios sheep and 4 Damascus goats fed on a diet of 50 %

concentrate and 50 % barley hay over 3 seasons (spring, summer and winter) in Cyprus

with mean maximum temperature of 13.5°C in winter, 26.1°C in spring and 36.5°C in

summer, respectively, daily water consumption was greater (P<0.001) in summer (3.4

and 2.2 litres for sheep and goats, respectively) than in winter and spring (1.6 and 1.3

litres, respectively). Schoeman and Visser (1995) recorded increased weekly water intake

two-fold per 1°C increase in ambient temperature in Dorper and Mutton Merino lambs

than in Blackhead Persians.

4.3.5 Weight Gain

The Nili-Ravi buffalo heifer weight changes during the experiment were recorded on

weekly basis presented in Table 4.19. Daily weight gain of heifers fed on T1, T2, T3, T4

and T5 during P1 was 0.08±0.05, 0.28±0.05, 0.07±0.05, 0.14±0.05 and 0.15±0.05 kg

during P2 was 0.11±0.05, 0.63±0.05, 0.10±0.05, 0.27±0.05 and 0.38±0.05 kg during P3

xc

was 0.27±0.05, 0.56±0.05, 0.15±0.05, 0.40±0.05 and 0.50±0.05 kg during P4 was

0.41±0.05, 0.41±0.05, 0.35±0.05, 0.05±0.05 and 0.25±0.05 kg, and during P5 weight gain

was 0.23±0.05, 0.28±0.05, 0.33±0.05, 0.32±0.05 and 0.20± 0.05 kg, respectively (Table

4.19).

Table 4.19 Daily weight gain (kg) in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on conventional fodders



(kg) (SE ±0.05)

T1 0.08 0.11 0.27 0.41 0.23

T2 0.28 0.63 0.56 0.41 0.28

T3 0.07 0.10 0.15 0.35 0.33

T4 0.14 0.27 0.40 0.05 0.32

T5 0.15 0.38 0.50 0.25 0.20



On overall basis the weight gain on daily basis in heifers fed on T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5

was 0.22±0.01, 0.43±0.01, 0.20±0.01, 0.24±0.01 and 0.30±0.01 kg, respectively. Weight

gain was highest on T2 having Berseem followed by T5, T4, T1 and T3, respectively (Fig

4.10). During the P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 heifers fed different feeds on overall basis

showed a gain of 0.15±0.02, 0.3±0.02, 0.38±0.02, 0.30±0.02 and 0.27±0.02 kg,

respectively. While comparing weight gain during different periods, it was noticed that

highest (0.38±0.02) gain per day was achieved in P3 followed by P4 (0.30±0.02), P2

(0.30±0.02), P5 (0.27±0.02) and P1 (0.15±0.02), respectively (Fig 4.11).

Statistically significant difference was observed in weight gain between treatment

(P<0.06) and between periods (P<0.01) and non significant (P>0.876) difference in

interaction of treatments and periods (Table 4.20).

xci

Fig. 4.10 Overall means of daily weight gain (Kg) in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on


0.15

0.3

0.38

0.3 0.27

P 1 P 2 P 3 P 4 P 5KgPERIODS

0.22

0.43

0.20.24

0.3

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5Kg

TREATMENTS

0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

P1

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

P2

00.10.20.30.40.50.6

P3

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

P4

0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

P5

Fig. 4.11 Daily weight gain (Kg) of heifers on different


T1 T2 T3 T4 T5

xcii

Table 4.20 ANOVA of daily weight gain in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on conventional


SOV df S.S. M.S. F. Value Prob.

Treatments 4 76.674 18.669 2.28 0.066

Period 4 172.338 43.084 5.25 0.001

Trt.*Period 16 78.974 4.934 0.60 0.876

Error 100 820.047 8.200

Total 124 1145.996

The buffalo heifer showed a gain of 0.43 kg on simply Berseem alone and 0.24 kg on

Berseem and saltbush combination. The weight gain performance of buffalo heifers as

observed in the present study was supported by Sivaiah and Mudgal (1984) observed a

daily growth rate of 443-569 g and and greatest in the group given 120 % energy and 100

% protein in Murrah buffaloes given feeds based on berseem, sorghum and wheat straw.

Parthasarathy et al. (1983) also reported significantly stimulated daily liveweight gains in

supplementary feeding with forages. Premaratne, (1990) reported that feeding fodder

legumes increased weight gain compared with grazing alone in female buffalo calves.

Liveweight gain in Holstein steers was 0.47, 0.84, 0.80, 0.68, 0.81 and 0.51 kg/d given

Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon) hay and diets supplemented with ground maize,

whole maize, barley, sorghum and wheat, respectively as reported by Galloway et al.

(1993)

The buffalo heifers showed significant gain in body weight on Berseem alone and

combination of Berseem with saltbush and also on T5 having combination of

Mott+Berseem+saltbush during the experiment. The results of study were in line with the

findings of Abu-Zanat (2005) reported significant (P<0.05) effect on live weight changes

of lambs receiving the alfalfa hay diet showed high growth rate compared to those fed the

diets containing different proportions (25, 50 and 75 %) of Atriplex nummularia or

Atriplex halimus mixed with alfalfa hay except for the diet containing 25 % of Atriplex

nummularia browse, all lambs fed diets containing the saltbushes exhibited loss in body

weight.

xciii

Leigh and Wilson (1970) also noticed significant increase in weight of sheep grazing on

Atriplex nummularia due to the volume of extra feed produced compared to Danthonia-

Stipa grassland. Kirillova et al. (1992) also reported that increasing the amounts of

energy and protein in the diet of young cattle by 20 to 25 % above the standard resulted

in increased body weight gain by 12.7 %. The Murrah buffaloes in Ludhiana, India on

elevated rations performed better in terms of liveweight gain than those of the control

(Sharma, et al. 1993). Best daily gain in male buffalo calves on 75 % Elephant grass with

berseem + 25 % concentrate fed on different types of roughage (clover, or Napier grass)

on different roughage to concentrate ratios (El-Shamy and El-Kossy, 1987).

Some worker reported partially in contrast results and found that high concentration of

salt in saltbush (A. vesicaria) diets increase the demand for fresh water and limited water

supply can result in a loss of live weight (Grice and Muir 1988). Sheep on 1 % drinking

salt solution lost weight rapidly when maintained only on saltbush (Wilson, 1975).

Significant (P<0.01) decrease in weight gain with the increase in level of Atriplex and

Teddy goats showed slight decrease of body weight offered 100 % Atriplex amnicola

diets (Riaz et al. 1994).




sheep grazing freely in atriplex plantations as reported by Benjamin et al. (1992).

Rajnish and Singh (1992) also found non significant difference in weight gain and

reported daily body weight gain of 425±39.85, 407±38.89, 379±38.22 and 378±39.53 g

in male Murrah buffalo calves fed on diets containing 100 % of CP and TDN

requirements (NRC, 1981) in a mixed ration or feeds given separately, or 80 % of CP and

100 % of TDN in a mixed ration or feeds given separately.

The findings of the study also indicated significant effect of periods on weight gain in

buffalo heifers and these results were supported by Akram et al. (1991) reported

significant improved body weight gain by Shade and ventilation in male and female Nili-

xciv

Ravi buffalo calves. But Fulsoundar and Radadia, (1993) reported feed conversion

efficiency in lactating Meshana buffaloes and Kankrej cows as 2.45 and 2.48 kg feed/kg

milk, and 1.67 and 1.78 feed/kg milk, respectively provided with shelter alone (control)

or shelter and also splashed with water at 10-min intervals between 12.30 and 14.20 h,

daily (treated) during the month of March (39°C).

Hart, et al. (1990) also reported a daily gain at the intermediate and high level of

supplementation (204 and 213 g, respectively), was higher than at the low level (P<0.05)

in Rambouillet ewe and wether lambs on wheat forage grazing treatments supplemented

with a 72 % concentrate pellet at 0, 0.75 and 1.5 % of body weight per d. Raicu et al.

(1960) also found better weight gains in wethers and rams at medium level than the

lowest and was more economical than the highest.

Langer et al. (1985a) reported contrasting results and found no difference in daily weight

gain in Murrah buffalo calves given diets with wheat straw to appetite, daily 5 kg green

fodder and 1.5 kg concentrate with maize 10 and 10, groundnut cake 25 and 12, rice bran

30.0 and 31.7, wheat 23 and 32, rice 12 and 12 and urea 0 and 2.3 %, respectively.

Average daily body weight gain was observed as 625 and 825 g fed male buffalo calves a

standard feed mixture and an experimental feed mixture, respectively containing 60 %

experimental feed mixture plus 40 % chopped rice straw as reported by Ragheb et al.

(1989). Dien, et al. (1990) reported increasing weight gain in male Murrah buffaloes with

the increasing concentrate level in the diet. Male buffaloes 8 months old produced a daily

gain of 896, 887 and 936 g on diets containing 10.1, 12.8 and 15.1 % protein,

respectively (Aksoy, 1991). Average daily body weight gain as reported by Gupta, et al.

(1994) in male growing buffaloes was about 400 g fed to appetite for 42 ds on a pelleted

feed mixture containing 16 % CP, 17 % CF, 3.5 % EE, 5.5 % total ash and 42 % NFE.

4.3.6 Dgestibility

Dry Matter Digestibility (DMD): DMD of T1 diet having Mott grass during P1, P2, P3,

P4 and P5 was 55.50±.424, 55.75±0.05, 62.00±.424, 62.50±.424 and 64.00±.424 %,

xcv

respectively. DMD on T2 diet having Berseem was highest (66.00±.424 %) during P3

followed by P2 (65.50±.424 %), P1 (63.00±.424 %), P4 (63.00±.424) and P5 (56.50±.424

%), respectively. DMD in buffalo heifers on T3, T4 and T5 ranges from 63.00±.424 to

65.50±.424 %, from 63.00±.424 to 66.00±.424 % and from 61.50±.424 to 66.00±.424 %

during different periods, respectively (Table 4.21).

Table 4.21 Dry Matter Digestibility (%) in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on conventional



(%) (SE ±.424)

T1 55.50 55.75 62.00 62.50 64.00

T2 63.00 65.50 66.00 63.00 56.50

T3 63.50 64.00 65.50 63.00 64.00

T4 66.00 64.00 65.00 63.00 64.50

T5 64.00 64.50 66.00 63.00 61.50



On overall basis dry matter digestibility in heifers fed on T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5

59.90±0.19, 62.80±0.19, 64.00±0.19, 64.50±0.19 and 63.80±0.19 %, respectively. DMD

during the P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 was 62.40±0.19, 62.70±0.19, 64.90±0.19, 62.90±0.19

and 62.10±0.19 %, respectively (Fig. 4.12).

Fig. 4.12 Overall means of DMD (%) of feeds in buffalo heifers on different


59.962.8 64 64.5 63.8

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5%

62.4 62.7 64.9 62.9 62.1

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

P 1 P 2 P 3 P 4 P 5%

xcvi

Statistically significant (P<0.01) difference in dry matter digestibility was observed

between treatments, periods and interaction of both (Table 4.22).

Table 4.22 ANOVA of Dry Matter Digestibility in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on



Treatments 4 135.400 33.850 94.028 .0000

Periods 4 48.800 12.200 33.889 .0000

Trt. * Periods 16 238.800 14.925 41.458 .0000

Error 25 9.000 .360

Total 49 432.000

Organic Matter Digestibility (OMD) in buffalo heifers fed on T1 and T2 diets was

54.50±.479 and 61.50±.479, 55.50±.479 and 61.50±.479, 57.50±.479 and 66.50±.479,

58.50±.479 and 64.60±.479, and 59.00±.479 and 53.50±.479 % during P1, P2, P3, P4 and

P5, respectively (Table 4.23). Highest (62.00±.479 %) organic matter digestibility of T3

diet was reported during P4 followed by P3 (61.50±.479 %), P5 (61.50±.479 %), P2

(60.00±.479 %) and P1 (59.50±.479 %). T4 diet having combination of BS showed OMD

63.50±.479, 63.30±.479, 65.00±.479, 64.50±.479 and 61.50±.479 % during P1, P2, P3,

P4 and P5, respectively. OMD in heifers on T5 diet having MBS combination showed

lowest (58.50±.479 %) value during P5 followed by P2 (60.50±.479 %), P1 (61.50±.479

%), P4 (62.30±.479 %) and P3 (62.50±.479 %). Organic Matter Digestibility was highest

on combination of saltbush and Berseem diets (Table 4.23).

Table 4.23 Organic Matter Digestibility (%) in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on



(%) (SE ±.479)

T1 54.50 55.50 57.50 58.50 59.00

T2 61.50 61.50 66.50 64.60 53.50

T3 59.50 60.00 61.50 62.00 61.50

T4 63.50 63.30 65.00 64.50 61.50

T5 61.50 60.50 62.50 62.30 58.50



xcvii

OMD on overall basis during the P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 was 60.10±0.002, 60.10±0.002,

62.60±0.002, 62.30±0.002 and 58.80±0.002 %, respectively (Fig 4.13). On overall basis

OMD in heifers fed on T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 was 57.00±0.002, 61.50±0.002,


Fig. 4.13 Overall means of Organic Matter Digestibility (%) of feeds in buffalo

heifers on different treatments and during different periods

Highly significant (P<0.01) difference in organic matter digestibility was observed

among treatments, periods and interaction of period and treatments (Table 4.24).

Table 4.24 ANOVA of Organic Matter Digestibility in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on



Treatments 4 .022 .005 121.022 .0000

Periods 4 .010 .002 56.891 .0000

Trt. * Periods 16 .016 .001 22.516 .0000

Error 25 .001 .000

Total 49 .050

Dry Matter digestibility and Organic Matter digestibility data on overall basis indicated

that saltbush inclusion in the diets of Mott and Berseem improved the digestibility

significantly. Abu-Zanat (2005) full supported the present findings and reported that

dietary treatments had significant (P<0.05) effect on DMD (P<0.01) and OMD (P<0.01)

while comparing digestibility of Atriplex halimus and Atriplex nummularia and determine

57

61.560.9

63.5

61

54

56

58

60

62

64

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5%

60.1 60.1

62.662.3

58.8

58

59

60

61

62

63

P 1 P 2 P 3 P 4 P 5%

xcviii

the proper proportion of saltbushes for partial replacement of alfalfa hay in the diets of

Awassi sheep and concluded that it is possible to replace up to 50 % of alfalfa hay by A.

nummularia without negative effects on intake and digestibility of dry matter.

The DMD in the present study ranges from 57 to 63.5 % in different diets and Otsyina

and Benjamin, et al. (1992) also reported 0.59 and 0.56 mean atriplex DM and OM

digestibility values in sheep fed on leaves, fruits and twigs of Atriplex barclayana in a

proportion roughly equivalent to that eaten by sheep grazing freely in Atriplex plantations

alone or with tapioca meal 100, 200 or 300 g/d. Bhattacharya (1989) also reported similar

OM digestibility of 66, 56 and 53 % for M. Sativa, H. Persicum and A. Cynanophylla

diets. The OMD in halophyte species ranged from 50.1 to 87.2 % (70.8±8.5 %) and the

control alfalfa was only 64.3 % and reported that Atriplex species appeared to be far

superior to alfalfa (Moore et al. 1982).

The Digestibility of Berseem fodder alone and in combination with saltbush was

significantly higher than other fodders as bserved in the study and Nandra et al. (1985)

also reported similar findings in adult male bufflaoes given the silage having DMD 66.58

% and OMD 68.29 % and concluded that berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum) makes good

and nutritious silage.

Guevara et al. (2005) reported IVOMD of 47.0 % while assessing some relevant

nutritional parameters for saltbush vs. alfalfa hay. Saltbush proved to be a highly

productive species in areas that are marginal or unsuited for conventional crops such as

alfalfa.

Ueckert et al. (1990) reported partially in agreement results and found that spring A.

Canescens growth having 62 %. Morcombe et al. (1996) reported about 50 % of edible


Masters et al. (2005) reported that increasing sodium in the diet significantly decreased

digestibility (OMD 59.1 to 57.3 %). Abdelhamid (1993) reported no significant

differences among diets although diet having urea 15 g gave the highest nutrient

xcix

digestibility in Rahmani rams. Bhaskar, et al. (1988) reported that buffaloes utilize

nutrients better than cattle. DCP was 5.25, 5.16 and 5.67 %, TDN 67.94, 66.95 and 67.92

% in male buffalo calves given to appetite as sole ration of green fodder PBN-83, -87, -20

and -71 hybrid strains of pearl millet Napier or a standard NB-21 variety, respectively

(Chuhan et al. 1984). The digestibility of animals fed hay decreased with increasing

height of Napier grass hybrid NB-21 (Pennisetum purpureum x P. Americanum) plants

from 45 to 120 cm (Chauhan, 1983).

Chauhan (1986) reported that DMD was was not affected in lactating buffaloes given oat

silage and a concentrate mixture with fresh dried berseem. Costantini et al. (1994)

reported that combination of lucerne hay and fibrous byproducts did not influence OM

CP and GE digestibility and CF digestibility, byproducts showed a negative effect chiefly

on lucerne and to a lesser extent on them selves. Dien, et al. (1990) reported that only

digestibilities were higher in Murrah buffaloes fed on diets with a concentrate to

roughage ratio 32:68 and 34:66 than in 22:78. Digestibility of DM 57.1 % in male

growing buffaloes fed to appetite on a pelleted feed mixture contained 16 % CP, 17 %

CF, 3.5 % EE, 5.5 % ash, 42 % NFE (Gupta, et al. 1994).

Morris and McCormick (1994) concluded that average IVDMD was similar for both

sorghums at 60.2 %, but of sweet sorghum tended to be higher than forage sorghum at the

hard dough stage (61.4 vs. 55.1 %). Mudgal and Sivaiah (1982) concluded that

digestibilities of most major nutrients were unaffected by diet given protein at 80, 100 or

110 % and energy at 100 or 120 % of NRC standards and roughage was wheat straw and

5 kg green bersweem to murrah buffalo calves, though 5 kg green bersweem group

digestibility of CF and NFE tended to increase with increasing protein and energy.

Higher digestibility for CP (P<0.01) with lucerne hay, while EE and TDN were higher

(P<0.01) with the concentrate diet in the sheep consuming lucerne hay in Desert rams fed

on concentrates or lucerne hay in shade or exposed to direct solar radiation (Muna and

Abdelatif, 1992). Digestibility of EE increased significantly in buffaloes given roughage

75 and concentrate 25 % as reported by Naidu and Raghavan (1985).

c

Nandra et al. (1989) reported that DMD was similar and CP digestibility was quite high,

76.7 and 79.6 %, CF digestibility was the same for both 60 % with oat ensiled and

berseem and oat forage in 1:1 ratio were ensiled then given alongwith concentrates to 5

lactating buffaloes, respectively. Reddy, et al. (1992) reported that diet containing

berseem 3 kg compared with the other 2 diets; digestibilities of DM were also

significantly higher in rumen fistulated Murrah buffaloes fed on a diet of ammoniated

wheat straw, molasses, wheat bran and fish meal alone, or with berseem (Trifolium

alexandrinum) 3 or 6 kg. Digestibilities of DM were higher in oat based diets in cattle

and buffaloes given chopped oat hay+clusterbean meal, oat hay+groundnut oilmeal,

chopped wheat straw+clusterbean meal, or wheat straw+groundnut oilmeal providing 8-

10 % dietary CP (Sangwan, et al. 1990).

Verma, et al. (1990) reported digestibility of DM in Murrah buffaloes higher (P<0.01) in

groups fed on wheat straw and concentrate diet were splashed for 15 min and 30 min

before milking to overcome summer heat stress. Bhatia, et al. (1994) reported higher

(P<0.01) digestion of nutrients from low grade roughage in buffaloes than in cattle and

concluded that eating pattern is governed by ruminant species and fibrous components of

the diet. Digestibility of DM and OM in Murrah male buffaloes was 58 and 64 % fed on a

diet of wheat straw and concentrate mix (Chaudhary and Srivastava, 1995).

4.3.7 Blood Hematology

Blood picture analysis of buffalo heifers fed on different feeds regarding RBCs, WBCs,

HB and PCV were conducted. RBCs count indicated a decreasing trend with the

inclusion of saltbush in the diets and showed increasing trend with the increase in

environmental temperature.

Red Blood Cells Count (106 μl): Red Blood Cells count in heifers fed on T1 and T2 was

2.1±0.03 and 2.53±0.03, 4.17±0.03 and 4.67±0.03, 6.48±0.03 and 5.75±0.03, 6.76±0.03

and 7.1±0.03, and 7.11±0.03 and 5.7±0.03 106

μl during P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5,

respectively (Table 4.25). Highest (7.07±0.03106

μl) RBCs in heifers on T3 (MS) was

recorded during P3 followed by P5 (6.46±0.03 106

μl), P4 (5.68±0.03 106

μl), P2

ci

(4.57±0.03 106

μl) and P1 (2.62±0.03 106

μl). T4 diet (BS) heifers showed RBCs of

2.27±0.03, 4.40±0.03, 5.43±0.03, 6.57±0.03 and 6.18±0.03 106

μl and on T5 (MBS) feed

showed count of 2.33±0.03, 4.93±0.03, 6.29±0.03, 6.07±0.03 and 6.43±0.03 106

μl during

P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5, respectively (Table 4.25).

Table 4.25 Red Blood Cells count (106



Treatments P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 (10

6 μl) (SE ±0.03)

T1 2.10 4.17 6.48 6.76 7.11 T2 2.53 4.67 5.75 7.10 5.70 T3 2.62 4.57 7.07 5.68 6.46 T4 2.27 4.40 5.43 6.57 6.18 T5 2.33 4.93 6.29 6.07 6.43



On overall basis RBCs count in heifers on T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 was 5.32±0.05,

5.14±0.05, 5.28±0.05, 4.97±0.05 and 5.21±0.05 106

μl, respectively. Red Blood Cells

count on overall basis during P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 was 2.37±0.75, 4.55±0.75,

6.21±0.75, 6.43±0.75 and 6.38±0.75 106

μl, respectively (Fig 4.14)

Fig 4.14 Overall means of RBCs (10

6 μl) in buffalo heifers on different treatments

and during different periods.

Statistically Significant (P<0.05) difference in RBCs count was observed among

treatments, among periods and interaction of period and treatments (Table 4.26).

5.32

5.14

5.28

4.97

5.21

4.8

4.9

5

5.1

5.2

5.3

5.4

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5106 μl

2.37

4.55

6.216.43 6.38

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

P 1 P 2 P 3 P 4 P 5106 μl

cii

Table 4.26 ANOVA of RBCs (106

μl) in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on conventional


SOV df S.S. M.S. F. Value

Treatments 4 1.158 0.289 2.050

Period 4 184.927 46.232 327.482

Trt.*Period 16 12.034 0.752 5.327

Error 50 7.059 0.114

Total 74 205.177

White Blood Cells Count (103 μl): White Blood Cells count in heifers fed on T1 diet

were 12.37±0.05, 7.70±0.05, 8.33±0.05, 8.57±0.05 and 8.97±0.05 103 μl and on T2 feed

were 13.53±0.05, 8.07±0.05, 9.21±0.05, 8.82±0.05 and 8.52±0.05 103 μl during P1, P2,

P3, P4 and P5, respectively (Table 4.27). Highest (13.6±0.05 103 μl) White Blood cells

count was observed in heifers on T3 (MS) during P1 followed by P3 (8.89±0.05 103 μl),

P4 (8.63±0.05103 μl), P5 (7.84±0.05 10

3 μl) and P2 (7.75±0.05 10

3 μl). T4 (BS

combination) showed WBCs count of 10.47±0.05, 7.89±0.05, 8.57±0.05, 7.88±0.05 and

9.44±0.05 103 μl and on T5 (MBS) feed showed count of 10.65±0.05, 8.08±0.05,

8.05±0.05, 9.51±0.05 and 8.52±0.05 103 μl during P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5, respectively

(Table 4.27).

Table 4.27 WBCs count (103 μl) in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on conventional fodders



(103 μl) (SE ±0.05)

T1 12.37 7.70 8.33 8.57 8.97

T2 13.53 8.07 9.21 8.82 8.52

T3 13.60 7.75 8.89 8.63 7.84

T4 10.47 7.89 8.57 7.88 9.44

T5 10.65 8.08 8.05 9.51 8.52



On overall basis WBCs count in heifers on T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 were 9.19±0.75,

9.63±0.75, 9.34±0.75, 8.85±0.75 and 8.96±0.75, respectively. WBCs count on overall

ciii

basis during P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 was 12.12±0.04, 7.90±0.04, 8.62±0.04, 8.68±0.04

and 8.66±0.04, respectively (Fig 4.15).

Fig 4.15 Overall means of WBCs (10

3 μl) in buffalo heifers on different treatments

and during different periods.

Statistically significant (P<0.05) difference in WBCs count was observed between

treatments, periods and interaction of period and treatments (Table 4.28).

Table 4.28 ANOVA of WBCs (103 μl) in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on conventional



Treatments 4 5745154.320 1436288.580 1.6858

Period 4 167350802.853 41837700.713 49.1051

Trt.*Period 16 32893922.080 2055870.130 2.4130

Error 50 42600174.667 852003.493

Total 74 248590053.920

Hemoglobin (g/dl): Hemoglobin level in heifers fed on T1was 6.23±0.07, 8.33±0.07,

10.07±0.07, 9.0±0.07 and 8.8±0.07, and on T2 diet was 7.57±0.07, 9.33±0.07, 9.87±0.07,

9.07±0.07 and 8.53±0.07 g/dl during P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5, respectively (Table 4.29).

Hemoglobin level was 7.50±0.07, 9.13±0.07, 8.40±0.07, 8.67±0.07 and 9.77±0.07 g/dl in

heifers on T3 (MS) diet during P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5, respectively. The heifers fed on T4

(BS combination) showed hemoglobin values as 6.47±0.07, 8.80±0.07, 8.73±0.07,

9.67±0.07 and 9.53±0.07 g/dl and on T5 (MBS) diet showed a level of 7.3±0.07,

9.19

9.63

9.34

8.85

8.96

8.7

8.9

9.1

9.3

9.5

9.7

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5103 μl

12.12

7.9

8.62 8.68 8.66

7.5

8.5

9.5

10.5

11.5

12.5

P 1 P 2 P 3 P 4 P 5103 μl

civ

9.87±0.07, 8.73±0.07, 9.90±0.07 and 9.27±0.07 g/dl during P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5,

respectively (Table 4.29).

Table 4.29 Hemoglobin (g/dl) in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on conventional fodders


Treatments P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 (g/dl) (SE ±0.07) T1 06.23 08.33 10.07 09.00 08.80 T2 07.57 09.33 09.87 09.07 08.53 T3 07.50 09.13 08.40 08.67 09.77 T4 06.47 08.80 08.73 09.67 09.53 T5 07.30 09.87 08.73 09.90 09.27



On overall basis hemoglobin contents in heifers on T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 were

8.49±0.05, 8.87±0.05, 8.69±0.05, 8.64±0.05, and 9.01±0.05 g/dl, respectively.

Hemoglobin contents on overall basis during the P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 was 7.01±0.25,

9.09±0.25, 9.16±0.25, 9.26±0.25 and 9.18±0.25 g/dl, respectively (Fig 4.16).

Fig. 4.16 Overall means of Hemoglobin (g/dl) in buffalo heifers on different


Hemoglobin values differences were statistically significant (P<0.01) among treatments,

among periods and interaction of period and treatments (Table 4.30).

8.49

8.878.69

8.649.01

0

2

4

6

8

10

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5g/dl

7.01

9.09 9.16 9.26 9.18

0

2

4

6

8

10

P 1 P 2 P 3 P 4 P 5g/dl

cv

Table 4.30 ANOVA of Hemoglobin (g/dl) in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on



Treatments 4 2.534 0.634 1.5550

Period 4 56.178 14.045 34.4681

Treatments*Period 16 19.052 1.191 2.9223

Error 50 20.373 0.407

Total 74 98.138

Packed Cell Volume (%):Packed cell volume in heifers fed on T1was 36.33±1.25,

33.67±1.25, 28.33±1.25, 27.33±1.25 and 22.67±1.25 %, and on T2 feed was 32.67±1.25,

26.00±1.25, 27.68±1.25, 24.67±1.25 and 24.67±1.25 % during P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5,

respectively (Table 4.31). T3 (MS) showed packed cell volume of 35.00±1.25,

28.33±1.25, 26.00±1.25, 23.00±1.25 and 30.00±1.25 % and on T4 (BS) fed heifers

showed PCV of 33.30±1.25, 29.67±1.25, 25.00±1.25, 29.33±1.25 and 25.67±1.25 %

during P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5, respectively. During P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 heifers fed on

T5 (MBS) reported PCV of 34.33±1.25, 39.33±1.25, 24.33±1.25, 26.00±1.25 and

26.33±1.25 %, respectively (Table 4.31).

Table 4.31 PCV count (%) in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on conventional fodders


Treatments P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 (%) (SE ±1.25) T1 36.33 33.67 28.33 27.33 22.67 T2 32.67 26.00 27.68 24.67 24.67 T3 35.00 28.33 26.00 23.00 30.00 T4 33.30 29.67 25.00 29.33 25.67 T5 34.33 39.33 24.33 26.00 26.33



On overall basis PCV contents in heifer blood on T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 were

29.67±0.75, 26.93±0.75, 28.47±0.75, 28.60±0.75 and 30.07±0.75 %, respectively.

Packed cell volume on overall basis during P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 was 34.33±0.05,

31.40±0.05, 26.07±0.05, 26.07±0.05 and 25.87±0.05 %, respectively (Fig 4.17).

cvi

Fig. 4.17 Overall means of PCV (%) in buffalo heifers on different treatments and

during different periods.

Statistically highly significant (P<0.01) difference in Packed Cell Volume was observed

among treatments, periods and interaction of period and treatments (Table 4.32).

Table 4.32 ANOVA of PCV in Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers on conventional fodders



Treatments 4 89.653 22.413 2.3743

Period 4 913.653 228.413 24.1963

Trt.*Period 16 450.880 28.180 2.9852

Error 50 472.00 9.440

Total 74 1926.187

The results of the present study indicated significant difference in blood hematocrit as

type of forage and season changes. The findings were completely in line with the results

reported by Pradhan and Sastry (1989) found significant differences in

haematocrit/packed cell volume (PCV), haemoglobin, betwen crops and climatic periods

and in the cold period, PCV, Hb and free fatty acids were highest and plasma protein and

blood urea nitrogen lowest and buffalles given presoaked straw had higher PCV, Hb, than

the other treatments over 3 climatic periods in Haryana, India given concentrate at 1% of

body weight, fresh forage 1 kg DM/100 kg body weight and wheat straw ad libitum alone

or presoaked 1:1, mixed with concentates 1:1, or mixed with the forage 1:1, fresh forage

was green sorghum, green sorghum (mature) and rape berseem in the hot, hot humid and

cold period, respectively.

29.67

26.93

28.47 28.6

30.07

25

26

27

28

29

30

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5%

34.33

31.4

26.07 26.07 25.87

24

26

28

30

32

34

P 1 P 2 P 3 P 4 P 5%

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Some other workers also supported by observing significantly less erythrocyte count with

80 % maize silage and blood haematocrit significantly higher than with 40 % Napier or

molasses grass hay and blood values were lowest for Holsteins (Ezequiel et al.1989).

Pankaj et al. (1992) also found significant difference in Packed Cell Volume and

haemoglobin content in male buffalo calves given some treatment of combelen

(propiomazine) by i.v. or i.m. injection.

The results of Hill, et al. (1992) partially supported the findings regarding PCV and

hemoglobin level during winter and they reported that packed cell volume, mean

haemoglobin levels were higher in December, while mean cell volume was lower while

studying haematological values both in March and December. Khalil, et al. (1990) also

partially supported the results and indicated that water-deprived ewes had higher values

for Hb and Packed Cell Volume than controls and pure breeds had lower values for Hb

and PCV than the crossbreds, indicating better adaptability of the purebreds.

The findings of Gill, et al. (1994) were not in line with the results and they reported that

mean values for haemoglobin, erythrocyte count and packed cell volume were non

significant statistically among five different feeding regimes of Sudex and Atriplex alone

and with different proportions. Contrasting results were also indicated by Matras, et al.

1992 and found that diet had no influence on haematocrit, haemoglobin in ewes on diets

containing grass hay or hay with grass silage and concentrate 0.60 kg containing 0 or 60

% faba bean meal. Singh, et al. (1993) also reported non significant (P>0.05) differences

in all the treatment groups for total protein in lactating buffaloes provided with feed daily

without galactogogues and galactogogues given daily together with concentrates at

milking time for 20 consecutive days.

4.4 CONCLUSIONS

The Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers showed comparable intake and gain on diets having

inclusion of Saltbush with conventional fodders especially performed better on


cviii

saltbush combination diets having Mott+saltbush and Berseem+Mott+Saltbush

combinations in the diets during suumer season. Therefore, the growth performance of

Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers can be improved by using Saltbush leaves and twigs in fresh

form as part of conventional fodders upto 50 % during different seasons. Saltbush can be

incorporated in the conventional diets of heifers to maintain daily intake and growth

performance during feed gaps. Saltbush can be used as an alternate forage source when

conventional fodders are short and their nutrient contents are less during severe winter

and summer seasons. The continuous supply of better feed to such neglected animals can

be maintained to achieve early growth and sexual maturity raised in saline areas.

cix

CHAPTER 5

EXPERIMENT 2


A SUBSTITUTE OF LUCERNE HAY NITROGEN

WITH DIFFERENT LEVELS OF SALTBUSH

NITROGEN IN COMPARISON WITH UREA

NITROGEN IN KAJLI LAMBS

Abstract

Nitrogen replacement experiment was conducted to substitute the Lucerne hay nitrogen

with different levels of saltbush and urea nitrogen on 30 kajli lambs divided into five

groups of six lambs each using CRD (5x6) fed for ten (10) weeks on 70% Lucerne hay

and 30% wheat straw, urea nitrogen replaced 20% T1 nitrogen, urea nitrogen replaced

30% T1 nitrogen, Saltbush nitrogen replaced 20% T1 nitrogen and saltbush nitrogen

replaced 30% T1 nitrogen designated as T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5, respectively. Dry matter

contents were higher in T4 and T5 (88.50±.376 and 89.50±.376 %) as compared to T1,

T2, and T3 % and Crude protein contents were higher in saltbush diets as compared to T1

(15.50±.214 %) and T2 and T3, respectively. Crude fiber contents were 26.25±0.55,

31.00±0.55, 32.75±0.55, 27.00±0.55 and 27.50±0.55 % on T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5, and

EE contents were 2.75±.194, 3.00±.194, 2.75±.194, 3.00±.194 and 3.25±.194,

respectively. Ash contents in T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 were 8.50±.295, 11.00±.295,

11.75±.295, 11.25±.295 and 14.25±.295 % and NFE contents were 42.00±.438,

43.25±.438, 43.00±.438, 41.75±.438 and 42.00±.438 %, respectively. Differences in dry

matter (P<0.01) Crude fiber (P<0.01) ash (P<0.01) and NFE (P<0.09) contents were

significant and crude protein (P<0.290) and Ether Extract (P<0.364) were non-significant

between treatments. DMI was 0.97±0.05, 0.91±0.05, 0.87±0.05, 1.02±0.05 and 0.92±0.05

kg on T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5, respectively. Statistically significant difference (P<0.05) in

dry matter intake was observed between treatments. Daily water intake was

comparatively higher (2.47±1.07 and 2.60±1.07 liters) on saltbush diets than control and

urea nitrogen diets. Statistically highly (P<0.01) significant difference in water intake

was observed between treatments. Higher (0.049±0.01 kg) daily weight gain on T4 than

T1 (0.044±0.01 kg) was observed. Significant difference (P<0.05) in weight gain was

observed between treatments. DMD in lambs was 58.75±.393, 55.75±.393, 57.25±.393,

58.50±.393 and 59.00±.393 % on T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5, respectively. OMD in Kajli

lambs on T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 was 63.25±.387, 61.75±.387, 61.25±.387, 63.00±.387

and 63.25±.387 %, respectively. Significant difference (P<0.01) in OMD was observed

between treatments. RBCs count of Kajli lambs fed on T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 was

4.87±.079, 4.47±.079, 5.00±.079, 4.80±.079 and 5.07±.079 106

μl, and WBCs count was

4.47± .064, 5.00± .064, 4.37± .064, 4.00± .064 and 3.87± .064 103 μl , respectively.

Hemoglobin values in lambs on T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 were 9.96± .039, 9.93± .039,

cx

10.00± .039, 9.00± .039 and 9.00± .039 g/dl and PCV values were highest (29.00± .219

%) on T1 and T5 (29.03± .219 %). Significant (P<0.01) difference in RBCs, WBCs,

hemoglobin and PCV was observed between treatments. The lambs fed on saltbush

included diets and Urea nitrogen diets showed comparatively better intake, gained more

and also the digestibility values comparable to control fed on Lucerne hay based diets.

Therefore it is concluded that saltbush can be a better substitute for Lucerne based diets

and can produce comparable performance in lambs during crunch periods.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Key Words: Saltbush (Atriplex amnicola), DMI, Water intake, Substitution, Nitrogen,

Urea, Lucerne, Hay, Lambs, Digestibility, RBCs, Hemoglbin, Weight

gain.

5.1 INTRODUCTION

The agricultural sector supports the Pakistani economy and provides food for the 137

million populations which is growing at a rate of 2.2 % per year (Ul-Haq, 1997). Small

ruminants plays an important role in uplifting the economy of Pakistan by catering

mutton, milk, wool, hair and skins for domestic consumption and provide jobs for

thousands of artisans and its net foreign exchange earning was to the tune of Rs. 53

billion, which was almost 8.5 percent of overall export earning of the country. At present

approximately 6.5 million families directly or indirectly are depending on livestock for

their livelihood. The livestock represent an essential element of traditional social systems

and constitute an important means of accumulating and distributing wealth (Economic

Survey, 2007).

Pakistan is the second largest sheep and goat producing country in the near East region

(Husnain 1985).The rearing of goat and sheep provide a significant supply of animal

protein in the form of milk and meat. This is particularly useful for the families of low-

income farmers and landless laborers. Goats provided 20-40 % of the farmer cash income

in some districts of Pakistan (Devendra and Mcleray, 1982).

Meat production is not sufficient in quantitative and qualitative measures for the existing

country population. Other constraints on meat production include inadequate feeding and

poor management of animals. One of the main constraints for increasing livestock

cxi

production in the country is the shortage of economical and balanced rations. The

characters such as good muscle development would be incapable of expression to their

full genetic potential in underfed animals.

The area under fodder production is about 2.7 million hectare in the country which

produces 58 million tones of fodder. In our country, this resource hardly contributed 24%

of the feed requirement. The animals are getting 20-40 % deficient of both dry and green

roughages according to their requirements. The production potential of the country

livestock is not being utilized due to underfeeding. Livestock in Pakistan continue to be

under-nourished and most of them survive on a bare minimum.

Rangelands constitute 60 percent of Pakistan total land area. Most of rangelands are

either marginal or are producing 10 to 50 percent of their potential productivity. In most

places restoration of rangelands is still possible through inputs to assist the regeneration

of vegetation. Although this would increase primary production substantially, it would

not provide support for a larger number of range animals. The present number of range

livestock is larger than ever before, and degradation processes have already started.

Grazing areas are also being denuded day by day due to over grazing, salinity and water

logging and continuously prevailing drought conditions are the major factors in

deteriorating the soil. However, with restoration of the ranges, productivity of the

livestock would increase and socio-economic conditions will be improved.

Fodder trees and shrubs have the ability to accumulate green fodder over several seasons,

providing fodder reserves for times of dearth and thus permitting a switch from

transhumance to sedentary husbandry (Le-Houerou, 2005). Saltbushes (Atriplex species)

are the major salt-tolerant fodder species for productive use of saltlands (Barrett-Lennard

et al. 2004). Salt tolerant trees and shrubs if grown on the salt affected wastelands

provide an economic incentive for vegetation of soils.

In spite of great economic significance of small ruminants in our livestock set up and

recognized as provider of more important items of daily food use, very little attention has

cxii

been given to the importance of scientific investigation on the sheep and goats in

achieving high growth and production. The present study was conducted to explore

potential of Saltbush (Atriplex amnicola) hay as a substitute for lucerne hay based and

compare it with urea treated straw diets in Kajli lambs in the saline areas.


Plan of Experiment: Saltbush and urea nitrogen substitution experiment was conducted

on 30 Kajli male lambs of approximately same age and weight (23±0.75 kg) divided into

five groups of six lambs each using Completely Randomized Design (5x6). The lambs

were fed on 70 % Lucerne hay and 30% wheat straw (T1), Urea nitrogen replaced 20%

T1 nitrogen, Urea nitrogen replaced 30 % T1 nitrogen, Saltbush nitrogen replaced 20 %

T1 nitrogen and Saltbush nitrogen replaced 20 % T1 nitrogen diets designated as T1, T2,

T3, T4 and T5, respectively (Table 5.1). In addition to treatment diets Oat grains were

given daily to each lamb at the rate of 0.75 percent of their body weight on dry matter

basis. The data was collected for ten (10) weeks excluding two weeks for adjustment.

Table 5.1 Distribution of Kajli lambs to treatments in Lucerne hay nitrogen

substitution with Saltbush and urea nitrogen trial.

Treatments Lambs Diets

T1 6 Lucerne hay 70% + Wheat Straw 30%

T2 6 Urea Nitrogen replaced 20 % T1 Nitrogen

T3 6 Urea Nitrogen replaced 30 % T1 Nitrogen

T4 6 Saltbush Nitrogen replaced 20 % T1 Nitrogen

T5 6 Saltbush Nitrogen replaced 30 % T1 Nitrogen

Farm produced Lucerne and Saltbush (Atriplex amnicola) forages were cut, chopped and

sun dried to convert it into hay (Pic 5.1).

cxiii

Pic 5.1 Lucerne and Saltbush hay making under shade for feeding to Kajli Lambs

To replace Lucerne hay nitrogen with urea nitrogen wheat straw treated with fertilizer

grade urea. To replace 20 % feed nitrogen 1.20 kg of fertilizer grade urea was dissolved

in 40 litre water and sprinkled over 100 kg wheat straw spread in thick layer. The process

was repeated for each 100 kg wheat straw and total 1000 kg was treated, stacked and

covered with polyethelene sheet for three weeks to complete ammoniation process. To

replace 30 % feed nitrogen 1.75 kg of fertilizer grade urea was used for 100 kg wheat

straw by dissolving in 40 litre water and treated 1000 kg accordingly.The detailed

procedure is given in Chapter 3. Lambs were ear tagged and kept in wooden metabolic

cages having provision for separate buckets for feed and water (Pic 5.2).

Pic 5.2 Metabolic cages for lambs with separate feed and water for each lamb

Feed Analyses: Feed samples were collected at the start of experiment and subsequently

at fortnightly basis or whenever required. The samples were dried as per procedure given

in the Chapter 3 for determination of dry matter and retained for further analyses. Four

representative samples from each treatment (5x4) diets were taken from the retained bulk

cxiv

and analysed for crude protein, crude fiber, ether extract, NFE and ash using laboratory

procedure (AOAC, 1990).

The data on daily DMI, water intake and weekly weight changes were recorded. For data

analyses DMI, water intake and weight gain were averaged on weekly basis (5x6x10).

Digestibility: Dry Matter and Organic Matter Digestibility was determined by collecting

data on daily feed intake and total feces voided by each lamb during the last week (7

days). Four representative samples of diets and faeces from each treatment (5x4) were

taken from the procured samples and analyzed to calculate dry matter and organic matter

digestibility according to procedure described in Chapter 3.

Blood Hematology: The blood samples were collected on fortnightly bases (5x6x5) and

analysed to determine RBCs, WBCs, Hemoglobin and Packed Cell Volume by

hematological analyzer according to procedure described in Chapter 3.

Data Analyses: The data thus collected on feed composition (5x4) DMI, water intake and

weight gain were averaged on weekly basis (5x6x10), digestibility (5x4) and blood

analyses (5x6x5) entered in the Excel Computer software and and analyzed using Mixed

Model Least-Squares and Maximum Likelihood Computer Program (Harvey, 1990) to

calculate analysis of variance (ANOVA) and means were separated by Duncans Multiple

Range test (Duncan, 1955)

5.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION


Dry matter contents of diet T1, T2 T3, T4 and T5 were 85.25±.376, 75.25±.376,

75.00±.376, 88.50±.376 and 89.50±.376 %, respectively (Table 5.2). On overall basis dry

matter contents were highest in the T5 and T4 having saltbush included diets and lower

dry matter on urea treated wheat straw diets (T2 and T3) may be due to use of water at

cxv

the time of straw treatment. Statistically dry matter contents were significantly (P<0.01)

different between treatments (Table 5.2).

Table 5.2 Dry Matter contents (%) and ANOVA of Lucerne hay nitrogen


Particulars T1 T2 T3 T4 T5

DM (%) 85.25±.376 75.25±.376 75.00±.376 88.50±.376 89.50±.376

ANOVA

SOV df S.S M.S. F.Value Prob.

Treatment 4 782.300 195.575 345.132 .000

Error 15 8.500 .566

Total 19 790.800

The findings of Pichard et al. (1988) were partially supportive to the results of higher dry

matter contents in the saltbush included diets and they reported high (35-55 %) dry matter

content of green leaves of 13 species of trees and shrubs and CP conent was lower than

expected (<12 %). Correal et al. (1986) averaged over spring, summer, autumn and

winter for all 4 species of Atriplex and DM, OM and protein contents were 31.7, 72.6 and

16.7 %, respectively were comparatively higher as found in the results and indicated that

with an energy content of 3.567 Cal/g and protein content was only slightly reduced in

the summer (14.5 %), consistent protein and energy levels make these atriplex species a

useful alternative forage source in arid zones.

Crude protein level was highest (16.00±.214 %) in diet T4 and T2 (16.00±.214 %)

followed by T5 (15.75±.214 %), T3 and T1 (15.50±.214 %). Crude Proten contents were

higher on saltbush included diets (T4 and T5) as compared to T1 (control) diet (Table

5.3). Statistically non significant (P>0.290) difference in crude protein contents was

observed between treatments (Table 5.3).

cxvi

Table 5.3 Crude Protein contents (%) and ANOVA in Lucerne hay nitrogen



CP (%) 15.50±.214 16.00±.214 15.50±.214 16.00±.214 15.75±.214

ANOVA


Treatment 4 1.000 .250 1.364 .290

Error 15 2.750 .183

Total 19 3.750

The findings of the result were partially supported by Pichard, et al. (1988) reported

lower CP conents (<12 %) than expected in green leaves of 13 species of trees and

shrubs. Another worker also reported lower and found that CP contents of whole dried

plants ranged from 6.6 % in A. Amnicola to 9.2 % in A. Vesicaria (Malcolm, et al. 1988)

sown 5 Atriplex species in saline soil in Western Australia. Otsyina and Mckell, (1986)

also reported lower CP contents in different Atriplex species and reported that diets with

shrub pasture containd more CP than those on grass pastures. A canescens (10 % CP), K.

Prostrata (12 % CP) and C. Lanata (12 % CP). Bhattacharya (1989) also found slightly

higher CP levels as observed on treatments having saltbush and found CP and CF 15 and

31 % for M. Sativa, 13 and 30 % for Acacia Cyanophylla and, 10 and 37 % for

Haloxylon persicum and A. Halimus cuttings contained 18 % CP and 24 % CF on DM

basis. Correal et al. (1986) averaged over spring, summer, autumn and winter for all 4

species of atriplex, DM and protein contents were 31.7 and 16.7 %, respectively and also

indicated that CP contents were slightly reduced in the summer (14.5 %).

The findings of the study indicated similar or higher CP in the saltbush substituted diets

and was comparable to Lucerne was also in agement with Karnezos, et al. (1994)

reported that herbage CP were highest for lucerne (253 g/kg) and lowest for wheatgrass

(159 g/kg). Guevara et al. (2005) also reported similar findings while comparing the

saltbush and alfalfa hay and reported mean values of ash 25.3 %; CP 13.6 % and found

that saltbush proved to be a highly productive species in areas that are marginal or

unsuited for conventional crops such as alfalfa. Grice and Muir (1988) also reported that

cxvii

CP content of saltbush leaf is either comparable to or higher than other annual and

perennial grasses.

Similar levels of CP as observed in the present results were also reported by Ueckert et

al. (1990) found that spring Atriplex canescens growth (16 % CP) was readily eaten by

yearling Angora goats.

Higher protein (18.2 %) levels were reported by James (1978) on feeding soft twigs of

Leucaena to goats.

Some wokers (Nandra et al. 1985) also observed lower levels of feed composition in

conventional fodder, Berseem silage (DM 27.43 %, CP 11.5 %, EE 3.83 %, CF 34.70 %

and ash 9.00 %).

Some workers also found increased crude peotein level in the diets with urea treatment as

compared to control diets and reported increased CP with urea treatment from 8.14 % in

untreated silage to 11.10 and 13.05 % in maize silage without or with 1 or 1.5 % urea,

respectively and concluded that nutritive value of maize silage can be greatly improved

with urea treatment (Chauhan and Dahiya, 1993). Khan, et al. (1992) also found DM, CP

and ammonia content of the silage mixture (50 % sugarcane bagasse supplemented with 5

% urea, 10 % fresh cattle manure and 35 % water) were increased (47.6 to 54.4 %, 18.4

to 22.2 % and 0 to 2.2 %, respectively) after 60 ds.

Virk et al. (1993) also supported the findings and reported that CP content improved

(P<0.05) by treatment when wheat straw was impregnated with animal urine (nitrogen

4.3 g/litre, 0.7 litre/kg straw) or treated with urea solution (65 litre/100 kg straw, urea 4

kg) and stacked for 3 weeks.

Crude Fiber contents were 26.25±0.555, 31.00±0.555, 32.75±0.555, 27.00±0.555and

27.50±0.555 % on diet T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5, respectively (Table 5.4). Crude fibre

contents were higher on T3 and T2 having urea treated wheat straw replacing Lucerne

cxviii

nitrogen. Saltbush included diets (T4 and T5) showed comparable crude fibre contents as

in T1 diet having Lucerne hay and wheat straw. Crude fibre contents were statistically

significantly (P<0.01) different between treatments (Table 5.4).

Table 5.4 Crude Fiber contents (%) and ANOVA in Lucerne hay nitrogen



CF (%) 26.25±.555 31.00±.555 32.75±.555 27.00±.555 27.50±.555

ANOVA


Treatment 4 127.300 31.825 25.804 .000

Error 15 18.500 1.233

Total 19 145.800

The findings of the study regarding CF contents were partially in line with the results of

Bhattacharya (1989) reported 31 % for M. Sativa, 30 % for Acacia Cyanophylla and 37

% for Haloxylon persicum and A. Halimus cuttings contained 24 % CF on DM basis,

respectively.

Ether Extract values in T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 diets were 2.75±.194, 3.00±.194,

2.75±.194, 3.00±.194 and 3.25±.194, respectively (Table 5.5). Statistically non

significant (P<0.364) difference was recorded in Ether Extract contents between

treatments (Table 5.5).

Table 5.5 Ether Extract contents (%) and ANOVA in Lucerne hay nitrogen



EE (%) 2.75±.194 3.00±.194 2.75±.194 3.00±.194 3.25±.194

ANOVA


Treatment 4 .700 .1750 1.167 .364

Error 15 2.250 .1500

Total 19 2.950

cxix

Ash contents in T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 diets were 8.50±.295, 11.00±.295, 11.75±.295,

11.25±.295 and 14.25±.295 %, respectively. Ash contents were highest in E feed having

30 % saltbush (Table 5.6). Differences between treatments in ash contents were

significant (P<0.01) statistically (Table 5.6).

Table 5.6 Ash contents (%) and ANOVA in Lucerne hay nitrogen substitution with

saltbush and urea nitrogen diets.


ASH (%) 8.50±.295 11.00±.295 11.75±.295 11.25±.295 14.25±.295

ANOVA


Treatment 4 67.300 16.825 48.071 .000

Error 15 5.250 .350

Total 19 72.550

The diets having inclusion of saltbush showed higher Ash or salt contents as compared to

control diet as observed in the present study have been observed by Wilson (1966)

reported in line findings and concluded that the high ash content of saltbush (20 to 38 %),

which is principally NaC1, may nutritionally be a disadvantage to animals. Gihad (1993)

also reported up to 10 % NaCl in saltbush. Guevara, et al. (2005) compared saltbush and

alfalfa hay and reported mean values of OM 74.7 %; ash 25.3 %; CP 13.6 % and found

that saltbush proved to be a highly productive species in areas that are marginal or

unsuited for conventional crops such as alfalfa.

NFE contents were highest (43.25±.438 %) in T2 diet followed by T3 (43.00±.438 %),

T5 (42.00±.438 %), T4 (41.75±.438 %) and T1 (42.00±.438 %). Statistically significant

(P<0.09) difference was recorded in NFE contents between treatments (Table 5.7).


Daily DMI in Kajli lamb was 0.97±0.05, 0.91±0.05, 0.87±0.05, 1.02±0.05 and 0.92±0.05

kg on T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5, respectively. Highest (1.02±0.05) intake was observed on

T4 fed on Saltbush Nitrogen replaced 20% T1 followed by T1, T5, T2 and T3,

respectively (Table 5.8). Highly significant difference in dry matter intake was observed

between treatments (Table 5.8).

cxx

Table 5.7 NFE contents (%) and ANOVA in Lucerne hay nitrogen substitution with

saltbush and urea nitrogen diets.


NFE (%) 42.00±.438 43.25±.438 43.00±.438 41.75±.438 42.00±.438

ANOVA


Treatment 4 7.300 1.825 2.380 .0981

Error 15 11.500 .766

Total 19 18.800

Table 5.8 DMI (kg) and ANOVA in Kajli lambs fed on Lucerne hay nitrogen



DMI (kg) 0.97± 0.05 0.91± 0.05 0.87± 0.05 1.02± 0.05 0.92± 0.05

ANOVA

SOV df S.S M.S. F.Value

Treatment 4 0.9978 0.2494 8.00

Error 295 9.2000 0.312

Total 299 10.1978

The present study also indicated that intake of saltbush combination diet was increased

when conventional fodder was of higher dry matter and decreased with the increase in the

structure of saltbush dry matter. Some researchers also revealed that Atriplex vesicaria

provides maintenance rather than production requirements in sheep and may make up 25

% of the diet in summer and 90 % during drought (Leigh, 1972).

DMI was significantly increased in lambs when they have a choice to take Saltbush

combination diets and and Abu-Zanat (2005) also indicated that forage type had a

significant (P<0.001) effect on DMI in Awassi lambs given chopped alfalfa hay, dried

foliage of Atriplex nummularia or foliage of Atriplex halimus, lambs receiving the alfalfa

hay diet showed high DMI compared to those fed the diets containing saltbush and found

that inclusion of Atriplex nummularia in the diet up to 50 % had no significant effect on

DMI, whereas the inclusion of Atriplex halimus above 25 % reduced DMI and it is

cxxi

possible to replace up to 50 % of alfalfa hay by A. nummularia without negative effects

on intake of dry matter.

In Pakistan researchers also found that dwarf goats can be maintained on 100 % Atriplex


for growth (Nawaz, et al. 1994). Many researchers found fourwing saltbush useful plant

for rangeland in Balochistan province and could serve as a forage reserve species to

supplement natural vegetation (Rehman, et al. 1988). Benjamin, et al. (1992) also

recorded similar DMI as found in the results and they observed a daily intake of Atriplex

up to 1200 g DM and tapioca up to 300 g on diets of atriplex alone or with tapioca meal

100, 200 or 300 g/d in sheep.

Some researchers (Waghorn, et al. 1994) found in contrasting observations and reported

that addition of salt to the sheep diet had no effect on DMI, but they found increased DMI

in the diet with bentonite plus salt compared with controls (P<0.01). Masters, et al.

(2005) reported that increasing sodium in the diet significantly decreased feed intake

weaner wethers. In another study Masters, et al., (2006) reported depressed feed intake

and production at high salt intakes by grazing ruminants. Feed intake was erratic and

decreased by about 20 to 30 % at high intakes of salt (Gihad, 1993).

Other workers also found significant differences in DMI and concluded that saltbush can

be compared favorably with that from normal pastures while examining grazing trial on

the saltbushes, in terms of the number of grazing days possible (Clarke, 1982). Ahmed

and Abdelatif (1994) also reported decreased DMI (g/kg0.75) in adult desert rams with

water restriction. Grice and Muir (1988) reported that high concentration of salt in

saltbush diets decreased feed intake Wilson (1975) reported that wethers halved their feed

intake when maintained only on saltbush. Riaz et al. (1994) also reported significant

decreased feed intake with the increase in level of Atriplex in the rations as a result of

Atriplex amnicola feeding alone or in combination with the conventional forage (Sudex)

in Teddy goats.

cxxii

Lower dry matter intake was observed in lambs on urea treated straw diets in the trial was

also indicated by Coskun et al. (1992) noted decreased straw intake in Merino rams with

aqueous ammonia (25 % NH3) treatment. Sajjan and Yadav (1992) reported slightly

increasing daily DMI as 5.30, 5.33 and 5.44 kg in growing buffalo calves given cattle

litter treated with 5 % urea included at 20 and 30 % in the diets. DMI in buffaloes was

not different between silages with urea treatment fed maize silage harvested at milk stage

without or with 1 or 1.5 % urea for 40 days (Chauhan and Dahiya, 1993).

Some workers reported non-significant effect of DMI found similar DMI in growing

buffalo calves on diets containing concentrate and wheat straw (control), or urea treated

waste litter replacing 20 and 30 % of diet (Sajjan and Yadav, 1994). Similarly no

difference in feed intake between growing buffalo groups was reported by Shah, et al.

(1990) on diets containing wheat straw untreated or treated with 10 % calcium hydroxide

solution and concentrate.

The findings of some workers were not in line with the results and they found increased

DMI in animals fed treated straw (Virk et al.1993) used impregnated wheat straw with

animal urine (N 4.3 g/litre, 0.7 litre/kg) or treated with urea solution (65 litre/100 kg, urea

4 kg) and found increased DMI with straw treatment. Urea supplements also increased

intake of Rhodes grass by 12 % in buffaloes and 22 % in cattle, and of spear grass by 34

% in buffaloes and 41 % in cattle fed on mature Rhodes grass hay (Chloris gayana) with

a mineral supplement or with a supplement of minerals and urea (17.6 g N/d) and on

mature spear grass hay (Heteropogon contortus) with mineral supplementation at

intervals of 3 h and urea (0, 5, 21 and 97 g/d) and it was also observed that Rhodes grass

was eaten in greater amounts by cattle, whereas buffaloes ate more spear grass (Kennedy,

et al. 1992a).

Ammonia and urea treatment (3 %) increased intake in Barbari lambs by 60 and 30 %,

respectively as studied by Rokbani and Nefzaoui (1993) and intake of ammonia treated

and chopped straw was twice that for untreated straw. Garg, et al. (1990) reported also

found similar results and showed higher (P<0.01) straw intake (g/kg0.75) in UMMB

cxxiii

group (94±2.04) than straw group (83±2.87). UMMB intake was higher (P<0.05) in straw

group (246±17.32) than on UMMB group (185±18.22 g/d).

5.3.3 Water Intake

Water intake per lamb per day was 2.14±1.07, 2.31±1.07, 2.27±1.07, 2.47±1.07 and

2.60±1.07 on T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5, respectively. Lowest (2.14±1.07) water intake was

observed in T1 fed only Basal feed and highest ranging from 2.47±1.07 to 2.60±1.07 was

on T4 and T5 fed on saltbush substitution (20 and 30%) diets. Water intake of lambs fed

on urea nitrogen substitution diets (T2 and T3) was also higher (2.31±1.07 and

2.27±1.07) than the control (T1) and was lower than the lambs fed on saltbush

substitution diets (Table 5.9). Statistically highly (P<0.01) significant difference was

observed between treatments (Table 5.9).

Table 5.9 Daily water Intake (Lit) and ANOVA in Kajli lambs fed on Lucerne hay nitrogen



Water Intake (Lit) 2.14±1.07 2.31±1.07 2.27±1.07 2.47±1.07 2.60±1.07

ANOVA


Treatment 4 7.284 1.846 4.08

Error 295 133.356 0.452

Total 299 140.740

On overall basis the lambs fed on saltbush substituted diets showed increased daily water

intake as compared to control (T1) and urea treated diets (T2 and T3). Some workers also

produced supportive findings and reported increased water intake in Awassi wethers

showed 2.9 times higher water intake given diets containing saltbush (Atriplex

barclayana) 477 g, 347 g of pellets containing barley grains and NaCl (3:1) or a control

diet fed the high salt diets (Arieli et al.1989). Significant (P<0.01) difference in water

intake in Teddy goats was reported on Atriplex amnicola alone and in combination with

the sudex diets (Riaz et al. 1994). Gihad (1993) confirmed the results by reporting that

the general reaction of sheep to increasing salt concentration was to increase the volume

cxxiv

of drinking water and at high intakes of salt and concluded that concentrated

supplementary feeds should be offered to livestock given atriplex together with a reliable

water source to maintain a balanced nutritional state.



based pelleted diets (Waghorn, et al. 1994). Water intake increased with the increase of

concentration of sodium chloride in the water and further reported that animals receiving

2.0 % NaCl became very emaciated and even two died (Peirce, 1957). He in another

study (Peirce, 1959) sheep showed increased intake of water with increasing level of salt

mixtures in drinking water. Peirce (1960) concluded that intake of water increases with

the increasing level of mixtures in water in sheep fed on chaffed lucerne and wheaten

hays and offered rain water to drink.

5.3.4 Daily Weight gain

Daily weight gain of Kajli lambs on different treatments ranged from 0.02±0.01 to

0.049±0.01 Kg per head. Highest (0.049±0.01 Kg) weight gain was recorded in lambs on

T2 fed on 20% urea nitrogen followed by T4, T1, T5 and T3, respectively. Weight gains

changes in the lambs fed on saltbush substitution diets (20 and 30%) was comparable

with in lambs fed on control diet (Table 5.10). Statistically significant difference

(P<0.05) in weight gain was observed between treatments (Table 5.10).

Table 5.10 Weight gain (Kg) and ANOVA in Kajli lambs fed on Lucerne hay



Weight gain (Kg) 0.044±0.01 0.059±0.01 0.02±0.01 0.049±0.01 0.033±0.01

ANOVA


Treatment 4 2.641 0.660 1.54

Error 295 126.141 0.428

Total 299 128.781

cxxv

The lambs on 20 % saltbush substituted diets showed comparatively better weight gain

than control but on 30 % saltbush included diets weight gain was decreased and some

researchers also indicated a significant (P<0.01) decrease in weight gain with the increase

in level of Atriplex in the rations and Teddy goats showed slight decrease of body weight

offered 100 % Atriplex amnicola diets but they may be in a more normal situation by

reducing the mineral contents of saltbush by mixing of some other fodders locally

available such as Sudex (Riaz et al. 1994).

Abu-Zanat (2005) reported partially in agreement findings in Awassi lambs receiving the

alfalfa hay diet showed high growth rate compared to those fed the diets containing

different proportions (25, 50 and 75 %) of Atriplex nummularia or Atriplex halimus

mixed with alfalfa hay, treatments had significant (P<0.05) effect on live weight changes

of lambs, except for the diet containing 25 % of Atriplex nummularia browse, all lambs

fed diets containing the saltbushes exhibited loss in body weight.

Some workers partially supported the findings and indicated that sheep only maintained

liveweight, despite daily intakes of Atriplex barclayana upto 1200 g DM and tapioca upto

300 g fed atriplex alone or with tapioca meal 100, 200 or 300 g/d (Benjamin et al. 1992).

Sheep will remain healthy on an exclusive Atriplex vesicaria diet although it may be

difficult to fatten sheep on it (Knowles and Candon, 1951). Harnai lambs in highland

Balochistan can be maintained on fourwing saltbush during winter with a little of extra

protein supplementation of cottonseed cake (Rehman et al. 1989, 1990) and maintained

lambs on fourwing saltbush as winter maintenance browse in comparison with native

range grazing with or without protein and energy supplementation and reported a gain of

0.95 kg in 10 weeks period.

Some researchers reported results in contrast with the finding in the present study and

they found loss of live weight with the high concentration of salt in saltbush (A.

vesicaria) in the diets (Grice and Muir 1988) and sheep on 1 % drinking salt solution lost

weight rapidly when maintained only on saltbush (Wilson, 1975). Leigh and Wilson

(1970) noticed significant increase in weight of sheep grazing on Atriplex nummularia

cxxvi

due to the volume of extra feed produced compared to Danthonia-Stipa grassland and the

bushes were able to sustain stock an extra one to two months into a drought compared to

the grassland.

An adverse effect on sheep health was also observed (Gihad 1993) due to high intake of

salts. At 1.0 % NaCl in water they suffered no ill effects, 1.5 % was detrimental to some

and 2 % was detrimental to all sheep. But Peirce (1957) reported a decline in body weight

of the affected animals and at 2.0 % NaCl became very emaciated and even two died.

Masters et al. (2005) observed significantly decreased liveweight gain with increasing

sodium in the diet.

Higher weight gain was also observed in lambs on urea treated straw diets than control

and this was reported in Barbari lambs showed significantly increased daily gain by

ammonia and urea treatment (3 % ammonia or urea) and daily gain was increased by 60

% with ammonia treated chopped straw given straw ad libitum and barley grain 400 g

was offered to 20 lambs for 100 ds and Rokbani and Nefzaoui (1993) suggested that diets

based on treated or untreated straw were more suitable for feeding to sheep with a low

performance potential or fed at maintenance level.

Urea treatment and fish meal supplementation increased (P<0.001) average daily gain in

growing dairy goats from 3.3±1.5 (urea sprayed rice straw) to 36.9±1.5 g/d (urea treated

rice straw) and from 13.0±1.5 (urea sprayed rice straw + fish meal) to 49.1±1.5 g/d (urea

treated rice straw + fish meal) fed on diets containing urea treated rice straw or urea

sprayed rice straw supplemented with rice bran without or with fish meal and Mgheni et

al. (1993) concluded that urea treatment increased growth due to increased rate and

extent of degradation of urea treated rice straw compared with urea sprayed rice straw

and when a small amount of fish meal was supplemented weight gain and feed

conversion efficiency improved for straws.

Virk et al. (1993) found no difference and reported similar daily body weight gain in all

groups by straw treatment when wheat straw was impregnated with animal urine

cxxvii

(nitrogen 4.3 g/litre, 0.7 litre/kg straw) or treated with urea solution (65 litre/100 kg

straw, urea 4 kg) and stacked for 3 weeks. Kowalczyk (1994) reported that animals fed

untreated and urea treated straw, offered to appetite or rationed ammoniated straw lost

weight at about 100 g/d. Barbary lambs given to appetite diets of whole or chopped

triticale straw untreated or treated with 3 % ammonia or urea and supplemented with

barley 400 g daily and mean daily gain which was 50 and 52 g for untreated whole and

chopped straw, was increased significantly by ammonia treatment to 80 and 78 g and by

urea treatment to 56 and 69 g (Rokbani and Nefzaoui, 1994).

The daily body weight gain (g/d) buffalo calves was greater (P<0.01) in urea treated

straw plus germinated barley 24 % (640.15) followed by urea treated straw plus acid

(556.80), urea (7.5 %) treated straw (499.99) and untreated wheat straw plus concentrate

mixture, 20 % CP (458.32) and Yadav and Virk (1994).

5.3.5 Dry Matter and Organic Matter Digestibility

Dry Matter Digestibility (DMD) in Kajli lambs were 58.75±.393, 55.75±.393,

57.25±.393, 58.50±.393 and 59.00±.393 % fed on T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5, respectively

(Table 5.11). DMD level was highest on T5 having 30 % saltbush in the diet. Statistically

highly (P<0.01) significant difference DMD was observed between treatments (Table

5.11).

Table 5.11 DMD (%) and ANOVA in Kajli lambs fed on Lucerne hay nitrogen



DMD (%) 58.75± .393 55.75± .393 57.25± .393 58.50± .393 59.00± .393

ANOVA

SOV df S.S M.S. F.Value PROB.

Treatment 4 29.300 7.325 11.878 .000

Error 15 9.250 .616

Total 19 38.550

cxxviii

Organic Matter Digestibility (OMD) in Kajli lambs on T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 was

63.25±.387, 61.75±.387, 61.25±.387, 63.00±.387 and 63.25±.387 % fed, respectively

(Table 5.12). Statistically highly (P<0.01) significant difference OMD was observed


Table 5.12 OMD (%) and ANOVA in Kajli lambs fed on Lucerne hay nitrogen



OMD (%) 63.25±.387 61.75±.387 61.25± .387 63.00± .387 63.25± .387

ANOVA


Treatment 4 14.000 3.500 5.833 .005

Error 15 9.000 .600

Total 19 23.000

DMD and OMD showed significant differences between treatments and were also higher

in lambs on saltbush substituted diets. Some workers also reported similar DM and OM

digestibilities (0.59 and 0.56) in sheep fed on leaves, fruits and twigs of Atriplex

barclayana (Benjamin, et al. 1992). Bhattacharya (1989) reported OM digestibility of 66,

56 and 53 %, for M. Sativa, H. Persicum and A. Cynanophylla diets 3 commonly browsed

range plants by the desert sheep in Saudi Arabia and and he also reported that A. Halimus

cuttings contained digestibility values being 61, 79 and 39 %, even though the

digestibility of A. Halimus groups was markedly higher than those in M. Sativa group.

The results of the present study were also in line and fall under the same range (50.1 to

87.2 %) reported in halophyte species and the control alfalfa IVOMD was only 64.3 %

and also indicated that halophytes as a group compared favorably to alfalfa and ten

Atriplex species appeared to be far superior to alfalfa in IVOMD (Moore et al. 1982).

Some other researchers reported lowere digestibility values these may be due to varying

species and stage of shrubs (Otsyina and Mckell, 1986) and found 51 % IVDMD in diets

containing shrubs compared with 44 % for diets without shrubs. Abu-Zanat (2005) also

cxxix

reported that dietary treatments had significant (P<0.05) effect on DMD (P<0.01) and

OMD (P<0.01) while comparing digestibility of Atriplex halimus and Atriplex

nummularia and reported that inclusion of Atriplex nummularia in the diet up to 50 %

had no significant effect on DMD, whereas the inclusion of A. halimus above 25 %

reduced DMD and OMD and it is possible to replace up to 50 % of alfalfa hay by A.

nummularia without negative effects on intake and digestibility of dry matter. Guevara, et

al. (2005) reported lower IVOMD of 47.0 % while assessing some relevant nutritional

parameters for saltbush vs. alfalfa hay.

Acceptable OMD make these Atriplex species a useful alternative forage source in arid

zones as reported by Correal, et al. (1986). Ueckert, et al. (1990) reported that spring A.

Canescens growth having 62 % DMD was readily eaten by yearling Angora goats, fed. A.

Cnescens. Gade and Provenza (1986) reported similar IVOMD in sheep on diets of (a)

Agropyron desertorum and (b) A. Desertorum, Kochia prostrata, Atriplex canescens,

purshia tridentata, artemisia tridentata, Chrysothamnus nauseousus and Ceratoides

(Krascheninnikovia) lanata pastures during the Ist period after which they were higher

for sheep grazing (a). Morcombe et al. (1996) grazed Merino wethers on saltbush forage

and reported about 50 % of edible material was leaf having 70 % DDM and 50 % was

small stems having 40 % DDM.

Some findings were not in line with the results observed in the study and Masters et al.

(2005) reported in contrast results and found decreased digestibility (OMD 59.1 to 57.3

%) in weaner wethers given 3 levels of added potassium and 4 levels of added sodium as

the chloride salts. Abdelhamid (1993) reported no significant differences among diets

although diet having urea 15 g gave the highest nutrient digestibility in Rahmani rams

given dried Egyptian sugarbeet pulp 350 + molasses 250 g; that diet+urea 15 g; dried

sugarbeet pulp 250+berseem hay 350 g and berseem hay 600 g.

Costantini, et al. (1994) also reported in line results that combination of lucerne hay and

fibrous byproducts did not influence OM digestibility. Khan, et al. (1992) reported mean

cxxx

digestibility values for DM, 58.7±4.4, %, respectively in adult wethers fed on diets

containing 90 % silage mixture, 5 % molasses and 5 % rice polishings.

Chauhan and Dahiya (1993) also reported increased digestion coefficients with urea

treatment in buffaloes fed maize silage without or with 1 or 1.5 % urea for 40 ds and

concluded that digestibility and nutritive value of maize silage can be greatly improved

with urea treatment. Coskun et al. (1992) reported that digestibility in Merino rams for

DM and OM was 47.74, and 49.22 % for untreated straw and 49.59, and 52.92 % for

aqueous ammonia (25 % NH3) treated straw, respectively.

The findings regarding decreasing trend in digestibility value on urea treated straw

substituted diets were not supported by Ghosh and Amitava (1993) and they reported that

digestibility of DM and OM was higher (P<0.01) in female Black Bengal goats fed urea

and molasses (88:2:10) diets as compared to dried rumen contents, molasses, berseem

hay and dried poultry droppings diets. Sarwar, et al. (1994) also found higher digestibility

and reported DMD of 65.74, 69.30, 68.13 and 67.40 % in buffalo calves fed on

isoenergetic and isonitrogenous diets containing wheat straw treated with water at 100

litres/100 kg or treated with urea solution at 4 % without or with 1 % crushed cowpeas or

crushed soyabeans. Virk, et al. (1993) also reported that digestibility of DM was

improved by treatment of wheat straw in buffaloes. Ben-Salem, et al (2002) reported that

urea treatment of straw increased content of digestible DM, OM, by 100 and 100, g/kg

diet, respectively and further increased when Atriplex nummularia was provided instead

of urea treated straw for sheep in arid and semi-arid zones.


RBCs count of Kajli lambs fed in group T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 was 4.87±.079,

4.47±.079, 5.00±.079, 4.80±.079 and 5.07±.079 106

μl, respectively. Increased RBCs

count was observed in the saltbush substituted groups (Table 5.13). There was significant

(P< 0.01) difference in RBCs was noticed (Table 5.13).

cxxxi

Table 5.13 RBCs (106

μl) and ANOVA in Kajli lambs fed on Lucerne hay nitrogen



RBCs (106

μl) 4.87± .079 4.47± .079 5.00± .079 4.80± .079 5.07± .079

ANOVA


Treatment 4 6.560 1.640 8.616 .000

Error 145 27.600 .190

Total 149 34.160

WBCs count was highest (5.00±.064103 μl) T2 followed by T1, T3, T4 and T5,

respectively. WBCs count was reduced (4.00± .064 and 3.87± .064 103 μl) in the groups

fed on T4 and T5 having saltbush (20% and 30% SN) substituted diets (Table 5.14).

Significant difference (P< 0.01) was observed between treatments (Table 5.14).

Table 5.14 WBCs (103 μl) and ANOVA in Kajli lambs on Lucerne hay nitrogen



WBCs (103 μl) 4.47± .064 5.00± .064 4.37± .064 4.00± .064 3.87± .064

ANOVA


Treatment 4 23.760 5.940 48.117 .000

Error 145 17.900 .123

Total 149 41.660

Hemoglobin values were 9.96± .039, 9.93± .039, 10.00± .039, 9.00± .039 and 9.00± .039

in lambs on T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 g/dl, respectively. Hemoglobin level decreased with

the addition of saltbush nitrogen in the diets and in the groups fed urea nitrogen

substituted diets hemoglobin level was also decreased but was comparable to group A fed

on basal feed (Table 5.15). Significant (P< 0.01) difference in hemoglobin was observed


cxxxii

Table 5.15 Hemoglobin (g/dl) and ANOVA in Kajli lambs fed on Lucerne hay



Hb (g/dl) 9.96± .039 9.93± .039 10.00± .039 9.00± .039 9.00± .039

ANOVA


Treatment 4 33.706 8.426 178.810 .000

Error 145 6.833 .047

Total 149 40.540

Packed Cell Volume (PCV) was highest (29.03± .219 and 29.00± .219 %) on T5 and T1

and lowest (27.03± .219) on T2. PCV values were equal in the group E fed on 30% SN to

group A fed on basal feed (Table 5.16). There was significant difference (P<0.01) in PCV


Table 5.16 PCV (%) and ANOVA in Kajli lambs fed on Lucerne hay nitrogen



PCV (%) 29.00± .219 27.03± .219 28.17± .219 27.87± .219 29.03± .219

ANOVA


Treatment 4 84.173 21.043 14.560 .000

Error 145 209.566 1.445

Total 149 293.740

The findings as observed in the study showed significant diet effect on blood hematology

and these results were supported by Pradhan and Sastry (1989) and they found significant

differences in haematocrit/packed cell volume (PCV), haemoglobin betwen crops, PCV

and Hb were highest and buffalles given presoaked straw had higher PCV, Hb and

protein than the other treatments over 3 climatic periods in Haryana, India given

concentrate at 1% of body weight, fresh forage 1 kg DM/100 kg body weight and wheat

straw ad libitum alone or presoaked 1:1, mixed with concentates 1:1, or mixed with the

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forage 1:1, fresh forage was green sorghum, green sorghum (mature) and rape Berseem,

respectively.

Some other observations on water-deprived ewes also had higher values for Hb, packed

cell volume and skin temp than controls and pure breeds had lower values Hb and PCV

than the crossbreds, indicating better adaptability of the purebreds (Khalil, et al. 1990).

Abdelhamid, et al. (1993) reported that vitamin A levels positively affected haemoglobin

content, packed cell volume in Rahmani ram lambs fed on a mixture of concentrates:rice

straw+urea 1:2 plus vitamin A. Meintjes and Pearce, et al. (2005) also reported that

plasma α-tocopherol concentrations in sheep fed saltbush increased up to Week 8 and

then decreased until the end of the experiment as availability of saltbush declined

(P<0.05).

Some findings reported (Matras, et al. 1992) were not in line with the study and they

observed that diet had no influence on haematocrit, haemoglobin, or in ewes on diets

containing grass hay or hay with grass silage and concentrate 0.60 kg containing 0 or 60

% faba bean meal. Blood profiles showed no significant diet effects on packed cell

volume, haemoglobin (Abdelhamid, 1993) in mature Rahmani rams given daily (1) dried

Egyptian sugarbeet pulp 350+molasses 250 g; (2) that diet+urea 15 g; (3) dried sugarbeet

pulp 250 + berseem hay (Trifolium alexandrinum) 350 g; (4) berseem hay 600 g. Gill, et

al. (1994) also reported that mean values for haemoglobin, erythrocyte count and packed

cell volume were non significant statistically among five different feeding regimes of

Sudex and Atriplex alone and with different proportions. Mathur et al. (1994) reported no

treatment effects on Hb, PCV, RBC and WBC counts at both stages in male Magra lambs

fed protein (T1), by-pass protein (T2), by-pass protein supplemented with urea (T3) and

protein supplemented with urea (T4) for a period of 360 ds.

5.4 CONCLUSIONS

The findings of the experiment indicated that the lambs fed on saltbush included diets and

urea nitrogen diets showed comparatively better intake, gained more and also the

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digestibility values were comparable to control fed on Lucerne hay based diets. The

blood hematology values also indicated significant differences between treatments.

Therefore it is concluded that the saltbush can be a better substitute for Lucerne based

diets with comparable performance, better digestibility and improved growth. The dried

saltbush leaves and twigs can suitably incorporated upto 30 % in the conventional hay

based diets to increase the nutrient level of the diet especially during drought and feed

shortage periods when no alternate feeds are available in the saline areas.

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CHAPTER 6

EXPERIMENT 3

EVALUATION OF SALTBUSH (Atriplex amnicola) IN

KAJLI LAMBS AS A SUBSTITUTE OF LUCERNE

HAY BASED TOTAL MIXED RATION

Abstract

Kajli lambs experiment was conducted to substitute the Lucerne hay based TMR with

different levels of saltbush (Atriplex amnicola) on 12 Kajli lambs (25±0.1 kg) divided

into three groups of four lambs each using CRD (3x4). The lambs were fed for 35 days

on TMR diet designated as T1 (CGM 20.5, Lucerne hay 60 %, Molasses 18 % and

mineral mixture 1.5 %), T2 (Saltbush hay replaced 30 % Lucerne hay of T1) and T3

(Saltbush hay replaced 45 % Lucerne hay of T1), respectively. DM contents in T1, T2

and T3 were 78.50±.263, 78.75±.263 and 79.75±.263 %, and Crude protein contents were

16.25±.144, 16.00±.144 and 15.00±.144 %, respectively. Crude Fiber level was highest

(16.75±.417 %) in T3 diet having 45 % saltbush included ration followed by T2

(15.25±.417 %) and T1 (14.25±.417 %). Ether Extract contents were 4.75±.250,

4.25±.250 and 4.75±.250 % in T1, T2 and T3 diets, respectively. Ash contents were

highest (13.75±.264 %) in T3 followed by T2 (12.75±.264 %) and T1 (10.50±.264 %).

NFE contents were 35.00±.546, 35.75±.546 and 36.00±.546 % in T1, T2 and T3,

respectively. Statistically in DM (P<0.019), CP (P<0.01), CF (P<0.01), EE (P< 0.311),

Ash (P<0.01) and NFE (P<0.43) differences were observed among treatments. Daily

DMI in Kajli lambs was 0.930±0.025, 0.842±.025 and 0.902±.025 kg in T1, T2 and T3,

respectively. Water intake per lamb per day was 3.434±0.148, 3.135±0.148, 4.009±0.148

on T1, T2 and T3, respectively. Mean weekly weight changes in Kajli lambs was

0.325±0.13, 0.254±0.13 and 0.508±0.13 kg on T1, T2 and T3, respectively. Highest

(72.6±18.2 g) daily weight gain was recorded on T3 followed by T1 (46.4±18.2 g) and

T2 (36.3±18.2 g), respectively. Significant DMI (P<0.045), water intake (P<0.01) and

non-significant weight gain (P<0.34) differences were observed between treatments.

DMD in lambs on T1, T2 and T3was 66.00± .391, 65.25±.391and 65.25±.391 %,

respectively OMD in lambs on T1, T2 and T3was 65.50±.323, 65.00±.323 and 64.25±

.323 %, respectively Non significant DMD (P<0.34) and significant OMD (P<0.06)

difference was noticed among treatments. RBCs count in Kajli lambs was higher on 45 %

saltbush diet (5.082±0.145 106

μl) than control and WBCs count was also higher on 45 %

saltbush diet (4.250 ±0.177 103 μl). Hemoglobin values were 9.063 ±0.244, 8.944 ±0.244,

and 9.150 ±0.244 g/dl on T1, T2 and T3, respectively. PCV was lower on saltbush diets

(26.937±0.64%). Differences between treatments in RBCs (P<0.88), WBCs (P<0.11),

cxxxvi

Hemoglobin (P<0.83) and PCV (P<0.63) were non significant. The lambs on TMR diets

performed in a equally good on saltbush substituted diets and they can be fed on TMR in

the form of pellets or mash having upto 45 % saltbush on dry matter basis inclusion as

leaf meal protein.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Key Words: Saltbush (Atriplex amnicola), DMI, Water intake, Substitution, Lucerne,

TMR, Lambs, Digestibility, RBCs, Hemoglbin, Weight gain,

Composition.

6.1 INTRODUCTION

The livestock sector is an integral part of agriculture in Pakistan. The rearing of goat and

sheep provide a significant supply of animal protein in the form of milk and meat

particularly useful for the families of low-income farmers and landless laborers. Pakistan

is earning billions of rupees by exporting leather, leather products, wool and carpets. This

component has earned a worth of Rs. 53 billion in the form of foreign exchange by export

of leather and leather garments. Nearly 50 % of this earning came from small ruminants

(Economic Survey, 2007).

In spite of its great economic significance in our livestock set up and recognized as

provider of more important items of daily food use. Sheep and goat production is badly

affected due to several reasons, out of which mortality and slow growth is mainly due to

inadequate feeding and poor management, health problems, lack of skilled manpower,

lack of financial resources and marketing organization.

Pakistan has great climatic diversity due to variation in topography, altitude, and season.

The country has a total area of 79.6 M. ha with 22.0 M. ha cultivated and rangelands

constitute 60 percent of Pakistan total land area. Most of rangelands are in arid and semi-

arid zones either marginal or are producing 10 to 50 percent of their potential

productivity and characterized by low precipitation and extremes of temperature and low

humidity. Grazing areas are also being denuded day by day due to over grazing, salinity

cxxxvii

and water logging and continuously prevailing drought conditions are the major factors in

deteriorating the soil

There is ample evidence that under-feeding animals results in retardation of growth and

alters the subsequent development of body. Nutritional stress affects the carcass yield and

quality. It has been shown that fasting of lambs for a long period resulted in lower grade

of the carcass. All cuts with the exception of neck were significantly reduced in weight

due to fasting. Such conditions cause a considerable loss in meat production.

Green forage is the most important feed required by the ruminants. In our country, this

resource hardly contributed 24 % of the feed requirement. Feed resource situation is

further aggravated as about 6.28 M ha are affected by salt (Rafiq, 1990), between 2 and 3

M ha are categorised as wasteland due to high salinity and sodicity (Qureshi, et al. 1993),

but could be brought under cultivation by harnessing available water resources, improved

water management, additional surface storage and introduction of better-adapted crops

and livestock. Waterlogging and salinity have devastating social and economic effects on

farming communities in Pakistan (Ijaz and Davidson, 1997), leading to lower standards

of living, migration, health problems, the crumbling of houses, and damage to

communications and transport. These barren soils are bigger source to be developed as

forage resource for feeding to animals.

Mostly pastures, cereal straws, crop residues and other wastes are the major part of

animal diet and these cereal straws are an integral part of animal feed. Cereal straws can

vary greatly but in general these are poor quality feeds because of high ligno-cellulose

and low nitrogen contents (Pearce, et al., 1988). Improvement in the utilization of

fibrous feed resources primarily the natural vegetation might be a solution.

Livestock in Pakistan continue to be under-nourished and most of them survive on a bare

minimum. One of the main constraints for increasing livestock production in the country

is the shortage of economical and balanced rations. A high plan of nutrition hastens the

normal age changes, while a low plan of nutrition and show growth delay these changes.

cxxxviii

Promising results of bio-mass production experiments clearly indicated the future use of

these waste and stress lands as an alternate for the fodder by growing salt tolerant trees

and shrubs. Saltbush (Atriplex amnicola) has the ability to flourish on a wide range of soil

types and climatic conditions. Saltbush, on the other hand, has been found to be best

suited to moderately saline areas which are summer moist, but only occasionally

waterlogged and receiving 300 mm to 600 mm of rain annually (Malcolm, 1986).

Providing stocks have access to fresh water, saltbush may provide maintenance feed for

sheep during the autumn feed gap. It also provides useful vegetative cover on erosion-

prone sites.

For making the livestock industry efficient, there is a need of good pastures and

nutritionally balanced and economical feeding arrangements that should meat the

nutritional requirement of animals all year round. All these aspects need detailed

investigations for the efficient utilization of available non-conventional feed resources in

the country to improve the production of small reuminants in the problem soil areas.

There is no doubt about the variations are existing in feed resources and feeding systems

specifically during droughts and severe seasons in farm animals located in different agro-

ecological regions. It is fact that mostly feeding practices are governed by the farmer's

land holdings, socio-economic status and marketing of livestock and their products. So

there is need to conduct intensive studies to determine the area specific feeding

management systems for the landless and small land owners raising small ruminants for

their livelihood in the saline areas. Saltbush and other non conventional feed resources

can be exploited as a part of complete diet designed for small ruminants in the saline

regions. Therefore, studies were conducted to evaluate saltbush (Atriplex amnicola) as a

substitute of lucerne hay based Total Mixed Ration (TMR) in Kajli lambs.


Plan of Experiment: Feeding management study was conducted to test the hypothesis

that the Saltbush (Atriplex amnicola) can be used as a substitute in the diets of small

ruminants to improve their performance in salt affected areas. The study was conducted

on 12 kajli lambs of approximately same age and weight (25±0.1) divided into three

cxxxix

groups of four lambs each (3x4) according to Completely Randomized Design. Lambs

were ear tagged/ and kept in individual stalls having provision for separate trough for

feed and buckets for water (Fig 6.1).

Pic 6.1 Distribution of lambs to different treatments with individual feed and water

arrangements

The lambs were fed for 35 days excluding two weeks for adjustment on TMR diets

designated as T1 (CGM 20.5, Lucerne hay 60 %, Molasses 18 % and mineral mixture 1.5

%), T2 (Saltbush hay replaced 30 % Lucerne hay of T1) and T3 (Saltbush hay replaced

45 % Lucerne hay of T1), respectively (Table 6.1).

Table 6.1 Distribution of Kajli lambs to different treatments of Lucerne hay based

Total Mixed Ration substituted with Saltbush.

Particulars T1 T2 T3 No. of lambs 4 4 4 Feed Ad-libitum Ad-libitum Ad-libitum % Corn Glutten Meal (30 %) 20.5 20.5 20.5 Lucerne Hay 60.0 30.0 15.0 Saltbush (Atriplex amnicola) Hay 0.0 30.0 45.0

Molasses 18.0 18.0 18.0

Mineral Mix 1.5 1.5 1.5

Total 100 100 100

The data on daily feed and water intake was recorded for 35 days (3x4x35) and weight

gain was recorded on weekly basis for 6 weeks (3x4x6). The lambs belonging to different

treatments were fed on T1, T2 and T3 diets (Pic 6.2).

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Pic 6.2 Prepared TMR diet having Lucerne hay substituted with different levels of

Saltbush designated as T1, T2, T3 for feeding to Lambs.

Feed Analyses: Four representative feed samples were taken from the dried compsite

for each treatment collected during the experiment for further analysis (3x4). These

samples were grinded and used for determination of Crude Protein, Crude Fiber, Ether

Extract, ash and NFE using laboratory procedure produced in detail in Chapter 3.

Digestibility: For the determination of dry matter and organic matter digestibility the data

on daily feed intake and total feces voided by each animal during last week (7 days) of

experiment were collected (Pic 6.3). The samples of feed and feces voided were

chemically analyzed to calculate digestibility. Four dried samples from the composite

samples for each treatment were used for further analyses to calculate the dry matter and

organic matter digestibility by Dry matter and Organic Matter difference according to

procedure given in Chapter 3.

Pic 6.3 Fecal collection bags adjustment for digestibility estimations

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Blood Hematology: Four times blood samples were collected during the trial and tested

for RBCs, WBCs, Hemoglobin, and Packed Cell Volume according to procedure given in

Chapter 3.

Data Analyses: The data collected was entered in the Excel Computer soft ware and was

analyzed on Harvey Software using Mixed Model Least Squares and Maximum

Likelihood Computer Program to calculate analysis of variance (ANOVA) for feed

composition (3x4), DMI (3x4x35), water intake (3x4x35), weight gain (3x4x6),

digestibility (3x4) and blood analysis (3x4x4) and means were separated by least

significant difference (LSD) test according to Steel et al. (1997).

6.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS


Grice and Muir (1988) observed that some saltbush species show variation in chemical

composition as a result of change in season and the soil on which the shrubs are growing.

Dry matter content of ration T1, T2 and T3 were 78.50±.263, 78.75±.263 and

79.75±.263 %, respectively (Table 6.2). Dry matter content were slightly higher in T3 fed

45 % saltbush included feed than T1 and T2. On overall basis mean dry matter of rations

was 79.00±.152 %. Statistically there was non significant (P<0.019) difference between


Table 6.2 DM contents (%) and ANOVA in Lucerne hay based Total Mixed Ration

substituted with different levels of saltbush.

Particulars T1 T2 T3 OVERALL

DM (%) 78.50±.263 78.75±.263 79.75±.263 79.00±.152

ANOVA


Treatment 2 3.500 1.750 6.300 .019

Error 9 2.500 .278

Total 11 6.000

Higher DM contents were found in T3 diet, this may be due higher DM contents of

Saltbush and similarly high (35-55 %) dry matter content of green leaves of 13 species of

trees and shrubs were also reported by Pichard et al. (1988).

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Crude protein contents were highest (16.25±.144%) in T1 fed on 60 % Lucerne hay

ration followed by T2 (16.00±.144%) fed on 30 % saltbush included ration and T3

(15.00±.144%) fed on 45 % saltbush included ration (Table 6.3). On overall basis crude

protein was 15.75±.0833 %. Significant difference (P<0.01) was observed between


Table 6.3 CP contents (%) and ANOVA in Lucerne hay based Total Mixed Ration



CP (%) 16.25±.144 16.00±.144 15.00±.144 15.75±.0833

ANOVA


Treatment 2 3.500 1.750 21.000 .0004

Error 9 .750 .083

Total 11 4.250

Pichard et al. (1988) also reported lower CP contents than expected (<12 %) in green

leaves of 13 species of trees and shrubs and these findings were partially in line with the

results of study indicsted variation in CP levels.

Crude Fiber level was highest (16.75±.417 %) in T3 diet having 45 % saltbush included

ration followed by T2 (15.25±.417 %) and T1 (14.25±.417 %). On overall basis Crude

Fiber contents were 15.41±.241 % in all the rations. Highly significant (P<0.01)

difference was noticed statistically among treatments (Table 6.4).

Table 6.4 Crude Fiber (%) and ANOVA in Lucerne hay based Total Mixed Ration



CF (%) 14.25±.417 15.25±.417 16.75±.417 15.41±.241

ANOVA


Treatment 2 12.667 6.333 9.120 .0068

Error 9 6.250 .694

Total 11 18.917

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Ether Extract Contents: Ether Extract contents were 4.75±.250, 4.25±.250 and

4.75±.250 in T1, T2 and T3 diets, respectively. On overall basis mean EE contents were

4.58±.144 %. Statistically non significant (P<0.311) difference was noted between


Table 6.5 Ether Extract (%) and ANOVA of Lucerne hay based Total Mixed Ration



EE (%) 4.75±.250 4.25±.250 4.75±.250 4.58±.144

ANOVA


Treatment 2 .666 .333 1.333 .3111

Error 9 2.250 .250

Total 11 2.916

Ash contents were varying among treatments and were highest (13.75±.264 %) in T3 fed

on 45 % saltbush substituted ration followed by T2 (12.75±.264 %) having 30 % saltbush

ration and T1 (10.50±.264 %) having 60 % Lucerne hay in the ration. On overall basis

12.33±.152 % ash was noted in all rations (Table 6.6). Highly significant (P<0.01)

difference in ash contents was noticed statistically among treatments (Table 6.6).

Table 6.6 ASH contents (%) and ANOVA of Lucerne hay based Total Mixed Ration



ASH (%) 10.50±.264 12.75±.264 13.75±.264 12.33±.152

ANOVA


Treatment 2 22.167 11.083 39.900 .0000

Error 9 2.500 .278

Total 11 24.667

Nitrogen Free Extract contents were highest (36.00±.546 %) in T3 followed by T2

(35.75±.546 %) and T1 (35.00±.546 %). On overall basis NFE was 35.58±.315 % in all

the rations. Statistically non significant (P<0.43) difference was observed among


cxliv

Table 6.7 NFE (%) and ANOVA of Lucerne hay based Total Mixed Ration



NFE (%) 35.00±.546 35.75±.546 36.00±.546 35.58±.315

ANOVA


Treatment 2 2.167 1.083 .907 .4377

Error 9 10.750 1.194

Total 11 12.917

Crude Protein contents of the diets T3 reduced as compared to the diet T2, this may be

due to lower CP level in the saltbush which reduced the contents when 45 % saltbush

was substituted The CP content of whole dried plants ranged from 6.6 % in A. Amnicola

to 9.2 % in A. Vesicaria as reported by Malcolm et al. (1988) sown 5 Atriplex species in

saline soil in Western Australia. Guevara et al. (2005) compared saltbush and alfalfa hay

and reported mean values of OM 74.7 %; ash 25.3 %; CP 13.6 %; Na 5.6 %; and Cl 7.7

%. Bhattacharya (1989) reported OM, CP and CF contents on a DM basis were,

respectively, 90, 15 and 31 % for M. Sativa, 90, 13 and 30 % for Acacia Cyanophylla and

87, 10 and 37 % for Haloxylon persicum. A. Halimus cuttings contained 73 % OM, 18 %

CP and 24 % CF on DM basis.

The low OM content of 760 g/kg together with its digestibility of 0.56 % resulted in

Atriplex having a low metabolizable energy of 6.28 MJ/kg DM and mean nitrogen

concentration of atriplex DM was 16.6 g/kg when offered leaves, fruits and twigs of

Atriplex barclayana alone or with tapioca meal 100, 200 or 300 g/d. (Benjamin, et al.

1992). Wilson (1966) concluded that the high ash content of saltbush (20 to 38 %), which

is principally NaC1. Gihad (1993) reported up to 10 % NaCl in saltbush. A.vesicaria

contains around 6 % sodium (Grice and Muir, 1988).

Correal, et al. (1986) for all 4 species of atriplex, DM, OM and protein contents were

31.7, 72.6 and 16.7 %, respectively, consistent protein and energy levels make these

atriplex species a useful alternative forage source in arid zones. Grice and Muir (1988)

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reported that CP content of saltbush leaf is either comparable to or higher than other

annual and perennial grasses. Morcombe, et al. (1996) reported leaf (8.9 % CP) and

small stems (4.5 % CP) on saltbush forage grazed Merino wethers. Ueckert, et al. (1990)

reported that spring Atriplex canescens growth (16 % CP) was readily eaten by yearling

Angora goats.

James (1978) reported 18.2 % crude protein and 2.2 % calcium in soft twigs of Leucaena

given to goats. Karnezos, et al. (1994) reported that herbage CP were highest for lucerne

(253 g/kg) and lowest for wheatgrass (159 g/kg) and concluded that lucerne or sainfoin

offer greater opportunities for spring lamb production than wheatgrass or wheatgrass

sainfoin pastures.

6.3.2 Dry Matter Intake

Daily Dry matter intake (DMI) in Kajli lambs was 0.930±0.025, 0.842±.025 and

0.902±.025 kg in T1, T2 and T3, respectively (Table 6.8). On overall basis DMI of 0.891

±.015 kg per day was observed. Highest (0.930±0.025) intake was observed in T1 fed on

control diet having 60 % lucerne hay followed by T3 (0.902±.025) and T2 (0.842±.025),

respectively. Generally, decreased DMI was observed with the inclusion of saltbush in

the diets (Table 6.8).

Reduced DMI was observed in the group B having 30 % saltbush diet but there was

increase in the daily intake in group C added 45 % saltbush in the diet, this may be due to

change in the preference of lambs for saltbush leaves. Statistically significant difference

(P<0.045) in DMI was observed between treatments (Table 6.8). While applying Least

Significant Difference it was noticed that there was no difference between the control diet

(T1) and the group fed on 45 % Lucerne hay replaced with saltbush. But intake on T2

having 30 % saltbush diet was less and differed from T1 and T3.

Forage type had a significant (P<0.001) effect on DMI in Awassi lambs given chopped

alfalfa hay, dried foliage of Atriplex nummularia or foliage of Atriplex halimus, lambs

receiving the alfalfa hay diet showed high DMI compared to those fed the diets

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containing saltbush and found that inclusion of Atriplex nummularia in the diet up to 50

% had no significant effect on DMI, whereas the inclusion of Atriplex halimus above 25

% reduced DMI as reported by Abu-Zanat (2005) and found that the nutritive value of

Atriplex nummularia foliage is better than that of A. halimus and it is possible to replace

up to 50 % of alfalfa hay by A. nummularia without negative effects on intake of dry

matter. Pasternak, et al. (1985) while testing the value of Atriplex nummularia as protein

supplement for sheep grazing on wheat aftermath found that the low feed intake is at

present the main limiting factor in the development of sea water irrigated fodder and

reported 400 g per head daily intake which was effective only with the daily addition of

400 g corn meal per head. Feed intake was unaffected in sheep by salt loading (Meintjes

and Olivier, 1992). Benjamin, et al. (1992) observed that sheep only maintained

liveweight, despite daily intakes of Atriplex up to 1200 g DM and tapioca up to 300 g on

diets of atriplex alone or with tapioca meal 100, 200 or 300 g/d.

Table 6.8 DMI (kg) and ANOVA in Kajli lambs on Lucerne hay based Total Mixed

Ration substituted with different levels of saltbush.


DMI (kg) 0.930±0.025 a 0.842±.025 b 0.902±.025 a 0.891 ±.015

ANOVA


Treatment 2 0.555 0.279 3.124 .0450

Error 417 37.093 0.089

Total 419 37.649

Some researchers (Waghorn, et al. 1994) reported that addition of salt to the sheep diet

had no effect on DMI, but they found increased DMI in the diet with bentonite plus salt

compared with controls (P<0.01). Masters, et al. (2005) reported that increasing sodium

in the diet significantly decreased feed intake weaner wethers. In another study Masters,

et al., (2006) reported depressed feed intake at high salt intakes by grazing ruminants.

Feed intake decreased by about 20 to 30 % at high intakes of salt (Gihad, 1993). Sheep

reduced feed intake on 2 % NaCl (Peirce, 1957).

Clarke (1982) concluded that saltbush can be compared favorably with that from normal

pastures while examining grazing trial on the saltbushes, in terms of the number of

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grazing ds possible. Ahmed and Abdelatif (1994) also reported decreased DMI

(g/kg0.75) in adult desert rams with water restriction. Wilson (1975) reported that

wethers halved their feed intake when maintained only on saltbush. Riaz, et al. (1994)

also reported significant decrease in feed intake with the increase in level of Atriplex in

the rations as a result of Atriplex amnicola feeding alone or in combination with the

conventional forage (Sudex) in Teddy goats.

6.3.3 Water Intake

Water intake per lamb per day was 3.434±0.148, 3.135±0.148, 4.009±0.148 in T1, T2

and T3, respectively. Lowest (3.135±0.148) water intake was observed in T2 having

saltbush 30 % replaced lucerne hay and highest in T3 having 45 % saltbush replaced

lucerne hay. On overall basis daily intake of 3.526±1.781 litre was recorded in lambs

during winter period (Table 6.9). Statistically highly significant difference (P<0.01) in

daily water intake was noted between treatments as depicted in Table 6.9.

Table 6.9 Water intake (Lit) and ANOVA in Kajli lambs on Lucerne hay based

TMR substituted with different levels of saltbush.


Water Intake

(Lit)

3.434±0.148 3.135±0.148 4.009±0.148 3.526±1.781

ANOVA


Treatment 2 55.202 27.601 9.038 .0001

Error 417 1273.460 3.054

Total 419 1328.662



based pelleted diets (Waghorn, et al. 1994). Peirce (1957) reported that sheep maintained

weight on saline drinking water and there was a decline in feed consumption, intake of

water increased with the increase of concentration of sodium chloride in the water and

further reported that animals receiving 2.0 % NaCl became very emaciated and even two

died. Peirce (1960) concluded that intake of water increases with the increasing level of

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mixtures in water, respectively fed sheep on chaffed lucerne and wheaten hays and

offered rain water to drink; other groups were offered different levels of mixture of

sodium chloride and sodium sulphate in drinking water. He conducted further experiment

(Peirce, 1966) and reported that a concentration of solution having 0.2 % salts had higher

water intake than that of rain water. Hemsley (1975) reported increased water intake by

two litres per d while studying the effects of the ingestion of large amounts of sodium

chloride (150 g/d) on digestion and absorption in sheep offered a diet consisting of 89 %

linseed meal.

Garg and Nangia (1993) reported increased voluntary water intake in Salt-fed (200 g/d)

buffaloes. Riaz, et al. (1994) also observed significant (P<0.01) difference in water intake

in Teddy goats on Atriplex amnicola alone and in combination with the sudex. Gihad

(1993) reported that the general reaction of sheep to increasing salt concentration was to

increase the volume of drinking water when sheep drank water containing 1.0 % NaCl

they suffered no ill effects, 1.5 % was detrimental to some and 2 % was detrimental to all

sheep. Sheep having high concentration of salt in saltbush diets increase the demand for

fresh water for drinking, particularly in summer sheep on a diet of A. vesicaria would

consume up to 240 g salt per d (Grice and Muir, 1988).

Water intake of Awassi wethers was 2.9 times higher as investigated by Arieli, et al.


barclayana) 477 g, 347 g of pellets containing barley grains and NaCl (3:1). Benjamin, et

al. (1992) reported apparent water intake of 14 litre/d for an atriplex DMI of about 1300

g/d in sheep fed on leaves, fruits and twigs of Atriplex barclayana and diets offered were

Atriplex alone or with tapioca meal 100, 200 or 300 g/d.

6.3.4 Weight Gain

Mean weekly weight changes in Kajli lambs was 0.325±0.13, 0.254±0.13 and 0.508±0.13

kg on T1, T2 and T3, respectively (Table 6.10). T3 having 45 % saltbush inclusion diet

achieved highest (0.508±0.13 kg) weekly gain. Daily weight gain of Kajli lambs ranges

from 36.3±18.2 to 72.6±18.2 g per lamb. Highest (72.6±18.2 g) daily weight gain was

cxlix

recorded on T3 diet having 45 % saltbush replaced Lucerne hay followed by T1

(46.4±18.2 g) and T2 (36.3±18.2 g), respectively. Weight gains changes in T3 having 45

% saltbush substitution diet were higher and 30 % saltbush (T2) was comparable to T1

having 60 % Lucerne hay based total mixed ration (Table 6.10). There was non-

significant difference (P<0.34) in weight gain between treatments (Table 6.10).

Table 6.10 Weight gain and ANOVA in Kajli lambs on Lucerne hay based TMR


Particulars T1 T2 T3 OVERAL

L

Weekly Weight Gain

(kg)

0.325±0.13 0.254±0.13 0.508±0.13 0.363±0.07

Daily Weight Gain (g) 46.4±18.2 36.3±18.2 72.6±18.2 51.8±11.0

WEEKLY WEIGHT GAIN ANOVA


Treatment 2 .826 .413 1.066 .3499

Error 69 26.722 .387

Total 71 27.549

DAILY WEIGHT GAIN ANOVA


Treatment 2 0.017 0.008 1.066 .3499

Error 69 0.545 0.007

Total 71 0.562

The high concentration of salt in saltbush (A. vesicaria) diets increase the demand for

fresh water for drinking and limited water supply can result in a loss of live weight (Grice

and Muir, 1988). Sheep on 1 % drinking salt solution lost weight rapidly when

maintained only on saltbush (Wilson, 1975). Significant (P<0.01) decrease in weight gain

with the increase in level of Atriplex in the rations and Teddy goats showed slight

decrease of body weight offered 100 % Atriplex amnicola diets (Riaz, et al. 1994).




sheep grazing freely in atriplex plantations as reported by Benjamin, et al. (1992). Sheep

will remain healthy, produce wool and even lamb on an exclusive Atriplex vesicaria diet

as reported by Knowles and Candon (1951). Harnai lambs in highland Balochistan can be

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maintained on fourwing saltbush during winter with a little of extra protein

supplementation of cottonseed cake (Rehman et al. 1989, 1990).

Abu-Zanat (2005) also reported significant (P<0.001) effect on growth rate of Awassi

lambs, receiving the alfalfa hay diet showed high growth rate compared to those fed the

diets containing different proportions (25, 50 and 75 %) of Atriplex nummularia or

Atriplex halimus mixed with alfalfa hay, treatments had significant (P<0.05) effect on

live weight changes of lambs, except for the diet containing 25 % of Atriplex nummularia

browse, all lambs fed diets containing the saltbushes exhibited loss in body weight. Leigh

and Wilson (1970) noticed significant increase in weight of sheep grazing on Atriplex

nummularia due to the volume of extra feed produced compared to Danthonia-Stipa

grassland.

Daily weight gain of 178.9, 179.3, 168.5 and 181.4 g in 3 months old precocious lambs

was reported (Kozyr, 1980) on diet containing 60 % concentrate without or with 10, 20 or

30 % hay and with 40, 30, 20 or 10 % silage, respectivley. Parthasarathy, et al. (1983)

reported significantly stimulated daily liveweight gains in supplementary feeding with

forages.

Leucaena supplementation increased weight gain in Blackhead Persian lambs fed on

Chloris gayana hay only ad libitum, hay plus leucaena 100 g, hay plus leucaena 200 g

and hay plus leucaena ad libitum and showed a gain of 13.70, 15.92 and 20.00 g/d more

than on Chloris gayana hay only (Mtenga and Shoo, 1990). Hossain, et al. (1995)

reported average daily liveweight gain in indigenous sheep as 41 g fed on wheat bran,

167 g Leucaena leucocephala leaves and rice straw ad libitum and 70 g on wheat bran,

167 g Leucaena leucocephala leaves and rice straw ad libitum plus free access to lick

blocks and found that supplementation of straw with lick blocks thus facilitates much

faster meat production.

6.3.5 Digestibility

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Dry Matter Digestibility (DMD) in lambs on T1, T2 and T3was 66.00± .391,

65.25±.391and 65.25±.391 %, respectively. On overall basis DMD was 65.50±.226 %

(Table 6.11). Digestibility was comparatively higher in lambs on T1having 60 % Lucerne

hay than T2 and T3 included 30 and 45 % saltbush in the diet. Statistically non

significant difference (P<0.34) was noted between treatments (Table 6.11).

Table 6.11 DMD (%) and ANOVA in Kajli lambs on Lucerne hay based TMR


T1 T2 T3 OVERALL

DMD (%) 66.00± .391 65.25±.391 65.25±.391 65.50±.226

ANOVA


Treatment 2 1.500 .750 1.227 .3378

Error 9 5.500 .611

Total 11 7.000

Organic Matter Digestibility (OMD) on overall basis was 64.92±.186 % and highest

(65.50±.323 %) OMD was observed in lambs on T1 having control diet followed by T2

(65.00±.323 %) and T3 (64.25± .323%). OMD was lower in saltbush included diets (T2

and T3) and showed decreasing trend with the increased saltbush level in the diet (Table

6.12). Statistically significant (P<0.06) difference was noticed among treatments. Least

significant difference test found differences in all treatments (Table 6.12).

Table 6.12 Organic Matter Digestibility (%) and ANOVA in Kajli lambs fed on

Lucerne hay based Total Mixed Ration substituted with different levels of

saltbush.

T1 T2 T3 OVERALL

OMD (%) 65.50±.323 65.00±.323 64.25± .323 64.92±.186

ANOVA


Treatment 2 3.167 1.583 3.800 .0636

Error 9 3.750 .417

Total 11 6.917

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Mean apparent digestibilities of the Atriplex DM and OM consumed were 0.59 and 0.56,

respectively fed sheep on leaves, fruits and twigs of Atriplex barclayana in a proportion

roughly equivalent to that eaten by sheep grazing freely in Atriplex plantations alone or

with tapioca meal 100, 200 or 300 g/d and reported that addition of tapioca to Atriplex

did not improve there digestibility (Benjamin, et al. 1992). Bhattacharya (1989) reported

OM digestibility of 66, 56 and 53 %, for M. Sativa, H. Persicum and A. Cynanophylla

diets and he also reported that A. Halimus cuttings respective digestibility values being

61, 79 and 39 %.

The halophyte species IVOMD ranged from 50.1 to 87.2 % (70.8±8.5 %) and the control

alfalfa IVOMD was only 64.3 %, reported that halophytes as a group compared favorably

to alfalfa, and ten Atriplex species appeared to be far superior to alfalfa in IVOMD

(Moore, et al. 1982). Otsyina and Mckell (1986) reported 51 % IVDMD in diets

containing shrubs compared with 44 % for diets without shrubs. Abu-Zanat (2005)

reported that dietary treatments had significant (P<0.05) effect on DMD (P<0.01) and

OMD (P<0.01) while comparing digestibility of Atriplex halimus and Atriplex

nummularia and determine the proper proportion of saltbushes for partial replacement of

alfalfa hay in the diets of Awassi sheep and reported that inclusion of Atriplex

nummularia in the diet up to 50 % had no significant effect on DMD, whereas the

inclusion of A. halimus above 25 % reduced DMD and OMD and it is possible to replace

up to 50 % of alfalfa hay by A. nummularia without negative effects on intake and

digestibility of dry matter. Guevara, et al. (2005) reported reduced OMD of 47.0 % while

assessing some relevant nutritional parameters for saltbush vs. alfalfa hay.

Acceptable OMD make these Atriplex species a useful alternative forage source in arid

zones as reported by Correal, et al. (1986). Ueckert, et al. (1990) reported that spring A.

Canescens growth having 62 % DMD Angora goats, fed. A. Cnescens alone compared

with those given a 35 % CP concentrate in addition to A. Canescens. Gade and Provenza

(1986) reported similar IVOMD in sheep on diets of (a) Agropyron desertorum and (b)

A. Desertorum, Kochia prostrata, Atriplex canescens, purshia tridentata, lanata pastures

during the Ist period after which they were higher for sheep grazing (a). Morcombe, et al.

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(1996) grazed Merino wethers on saltbush forage and reported about 50 % of edible


Masters, et al. (2005) reported that increasing sodium in the diet significantly decreased

digestibility (OMD 59.1 to 57.3 %). Ramirez, et al. (1995a) reported highest IVOMD

(58.6 %) in male Pelibuey x Rambouillet lambs grazed on a Buffelgrass (Cenchrus

ciliaris) dominated pasture.

Abdelhamid (1993) reported no significant differences among diets although diet having

urea 15 g gave the highest nutrient digestibility in Rahmani rams. Muna and Abdelatif

(1992) reported higher digestibility for TDN (P<0.01) with the concentrate diet, however,

CF digestibility was improved with exposure to solar heat load in the sheep consuming

lucerne hay in Desert rams fed on concentrates or lucerne hay in shade or exposed to

direct solar radiation (in July-August).


RBCs count in Kajli lambs fed on T1, T2 and T3 diets was 4.979±0.145, 5.033±0.145

and 5.082±0.145 106

μl, respectively (Table 6.13). Increased RBCs count was observed in

the lambs fed on saltbush substituted diets. On overall basis RBCs count in lambs was

5.032±0.084 106

μl. Non significant difference (P<0.88) in RBCs was noticed between


Table 6.13 Red Blood Cells (106

μl) count and ANOVA in Kajli lambs on Lucerne

hay based Total Mixed Ration substituted with different levels of

saltbush.

T1 T2 T3 OVERALL

RBCs (106

μl) 4.979±0.145 5.033±0.145 5.082±0.145 5.032±0.084

ANOVA


Treatment 2 0.085 0.042 0.126 .8823

Error 45 15.152 0.336

Total 47 15.236

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WBCs count was highest (4.250 ±0.177 103 μl) in lambs on T3 diet having 45 % saltbush

diet followed by T2 (3.969±0.177 103 μl) and T1 (3.716 ±0.177 10

3 μl), respectively

(Table 6.14). WBCs count was reduced (3.716 ±0.177 103 μl) in the lambs fed on control

diet (T1). On overall basis WBCs count in lambs was 3.978±0.102 103 μl. Statistically

non significant difference (P<0.11) was observed in WBCs count between treatments

(Table 6.14).

Table 6.14 White Blood Cells (103 μl) count and ANOVA in Kajli lambs fed on

Lucerne hay based Total Mixed Ration substituted with different levels of

saltbush.


WBCs (103 μl) 3.716 ±0.177 3.969±0.177 4.250 ±0.177 3.978±0.102

ANOVA


Treatment 2 2.281 1.141 2.268 .1152

Error 45 22.633 0.503

Total 47 24.914

Hemoglobin values in lamb blood were 9.063 ±0.244, 8.944 ±0.244 and 9.150 ±0.244

g/dl on T1, T2 and T3, respectively. On overall basis Hemoglobin level in lambs was

3.978±0.102 g/dl (Table 6.15). Hemoglobin level was slightly higher on 45 % saltbush

diet and decreased in the 30 % saltbush and in the lambs on control diet. Non significant

(P<0.83) difference in Hemoglobin level was recorded between treatments (Table 6.15).

Table 6.15 Hemoglobin (g/dl) values and ANOVA in Kajli lambs fed on Lucerne

hay based Total Mixed Ration substituted with different levels of

saltbush.


Hb. (g/dl) 9.063 ±0.244 8.944 ±0.244 9.150 ±0.244 9.052 ±0.141

ANOVA


Treatment 2 0.343 0.171 0.179 .8364

Error 45 43.017 0.955

Total 47 43.359

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Packed Cell Volume was highest (27.750 ±0.64 %) in lambs on T1 and lowest (26.937

±0.64 %) on T3 diet having 45 % saltbush. On overall basis PCV value was 27.250±0.37

%. Non significant (P<0.63) difference in PCV was recorded between treatments (Table

6.16).

Table 6.16 Packed Cell Volume (%) and ANOVA in Kajli lambs fed on Lucerne hay

based Total Mixed Ration substituted with different levels of saltbush.


PCV (%) 27.750 ±0.64 27.063 ±0.64 26.937 ±0.64 27.250±0.37

ANOVA


Treatment 2 6.125 3.063 0.471 .63

Error 45 292.875 6.508

Total 47 299.000

The lambs fed on different levels of saltbush substitution in Lucerne hay based TMR

showed little higher levels of RBCs and WBCS on saltbush included diets but the

findings of the study regarding blood hematicrits were non-significant statistically

between treatments. The findings of another researcher were also completely in

agreement reported in goats on five different feeding regimes of Sudex and Atriplex

alone and with different proportions that mean values for haemoglobin, erythrocyte count

and packed cell volume were non significant statistically (Gill, et al.1994). Abdelhamid

(1993) also supported the study by reporting that blood profiles showed no significant

diet effects on packed cell volume and haemoglobin in mature Rahmani rams given daily

(1) dried Egyptian sugarbeet pulp 350+molasses 250 g; (2) that diet+urea 15 g; (3) dried

sugarbeet pulp 250 + berseem hay 350 g; (4) berseem hay 600 g.

Mathur, et al. (1994) also reported similar findings and reported no treatment effects on

Hb, PCV, RBC and WBC counts in male Magra lambs fed protein (T1), by-pass protein

(T2), by-pass protein supplemented with urea (T3) and protein supplemented with urea

(T4) for a period of 360 ds. Diet had no influence on haematocrit, haemoglobin, in ewes

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on diets containing grass hay or hay with grass silage and concentrate 0.60 kg containing

0 or 60 % faba bean meal (Matras, et al. 1992).

Pradhan and Sastry (1989) reported in contrast results and found significant differences in

haematocrit/packed cell volume (PCV), haemoglobin, betwen crops and climatic periods

in buffaloes in Haryana, India given concentrate at 1% of body weight, fresh forage 1 kg

DM/100 kg body weight and wheat straw ad libitum alone or presoaked 1:1, mixed with

concentates 1:1, or mixed with the forage 1:1, fresh forage was green sorghum, green

sorghum (mature) and rape berseem in the hot, hot humid and cold period, respectively.

6.4 CONCLUSIONS

The results indicated that the dry matter contents and crude protein contents were similar

in saltbush diets and Lucerne hay based TMR. The inspite of taking less dry matter

showed quite better weight gain or at least performed in similar pattern as the lambs on

Lucerne hay based TMR. The lambs on saltbush included diets also showed similar dry

matter digestibility and organic matter digestibility and there were non-significant

differences in DMD and significant differences between treatments in OMD. It is

concluded that Kajli lambs on TMR diets performed in a equally good on saltbush

substituted diets and they can be fed on TMR in the form of complete diet pellets or mash

having upto 45 % saltbush inclusion as leaf meal protein.

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CHAPTER 7

SUMMARY

To achieve the objective of exploring new feed resources for appropriate feeding of farm

animals to fill the feed scarcity periods, it was assumed that Saltbush can be used as an

alternate feed for large and small ruminants in the salinity affected areas. To exploit the

potential feeding value of Saltbush, three experiments were conducted to use Saltbush

(Atriplex amnicola) as dietary forage for Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers and Kajli lambs at

Livestock Experiment Station, University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Pakistan.

Nili-Ravi Buffalo Heifers feeding management study (Experiment 1) was conducted

to see the effect of conventional fodder substitution with saltbush during different seasons

on their performance. Fifteen buffalo heifers of approximately same weight (120±2 kg)

allotted to five treatments (T) according to Latin Square Design (5x5x5) designated as

T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 having Mott, Berseem, Mott+Saltbush, Berseem+Saltbush and

Mott+Berseem+Saltbush, respectively. Mean maximum temperature during different

periods (P) designated as P1, P2, P3, P4 and P5 was 20.76±1.75, 22.62±1.75, 24.51±1.75,

37.67±1.75 and 40.98±1.75˚C, respectively.

Mean DM contents were higher in saltbush combination diets than conventional fodder

alone and were higher during high temperature periods. Crude protein contents were

highest in Berseem fodder followed by saltbush combination diets and lower in Mott

grass. Crude protein contents were comparatively higher during mild season than during

severe winter and summer. Crude fibre contents were higher on saltbush included diets

and in Mott fodder. On overall basis during severe winter and summer, crude fibre

contents were also higher. EE contents showed increasing trend during mild seasons and

were higher in Berseem fodder and saltbush combination with Berseem diets. Ash

contents were higher during summer than winter and mild seasons. Diets showed higher

ash contents in saltbush included diets.

clviii

DMI was higher during mild seasons and heifers showed comparatively higher intake on

Berseem and saltbush combination diets. Daily water intake increased during summer

and also on saltbush included diets. Heifers showed higher gain on Berseem fodder and

saltbush combination diets and also higher during mild seasons. DMD was higher on

saltbush included diets and during mild seasons. OMD was better during mild season and

lower during severe seasons. OMD was comparatively higher on Berseem alone and

Berseem with saltbush diets than on other diets. Heifers showed significant difference

(P<0.05) in RBCs, WBCs, Hemoglobin and PCV between treatments and period.

The Nili-Ravi buffalo heifers showed comparable intake and gain on diets having

inclusion of Saltbush with conventional fodders especially performed better on


saltbush combination diets having Mott+Saltbush and Berseem+Mott+Saltbush

combinations in the diets during suumer season. The growth performance of Nili-Ravi

buffalo heifers can be improved by using Saltbush leaves and twigs in fresh form as part

of conventional fodders upto 50 % during different seasons. Saltbush can be used as an

alternate forage source when conventional fodders are short and their nutrient contents

are less during severe winter and summer seasons. The continuous supply of better feed

to such neglected heifers raised in saline areas can be maintained to achieve early growth

and sexual maturity.

Lucerne hay based Kajli lambs trial (Experiment 2) was conducted to substitute the

Lucerne hay nitrogen with different levels of urea treated straw and saltbush nitrogen on

30 Kajli lambs divided into five groups of six lambs each using CRD (5x6) fed for ten

(10) weeks on 70% Lucerne hay and 30% wheat straw (T1), urea nitrogen replaced 20%

T1 nitrogen, urea nitrogen replaced 30% T1 nitrogen, Saltbush nitrogen replaced 20% T1

nitrogen and saltbush nitrogen replaced 30% T1 nitrogen designated as T1, T2, T3, T4

and T5, respectively.

Dry matter and CP contents were higher on Saltbush included diets as compared to

control and urea nitrogen diets. Crude fiber contents were higher in urea substituted diets

clix

followed by saltbush and Lucerne based diets. Higher EE contents in T4 and T5 having

saltbush (20 and 30 %) in the diets. Saltbush included diets showed higher Ash contents

as compared to urea nitrogen and Lucerne based control diet. Statistically differences in

DM, CF, Ash and NFE were significant (P<0.01) and CP and EE were non significant

between treatments.

Daily DMI was slightly higher on saltbush included diets than urea included and control

diets. DMI in lambs on urea substituted diets was lower than control. DMI was

significant (P<0.05). Daily water intake was increased on saltbush substituted diets and

lambs on urea diets also showed higher intake than control. Significant (P<0.01)

difference in water intake was observed between treatments. Daily weight gain on T1,

T2, T3, T4 and T5 was 0.044±0.01, 0.059±0.01, 0.02±0.01, 0.049±0.01 and 0.033±0.01

kg, respectively. Significant difference (P<0.05) in weight gain was observed between

treatments. DMD and OMD were similar in saltbush substituted and control diets but

higher than urea treated diets. Significant difference (P<0.01) in OMD was observed

between treatments. RBCs count of Kajli lambs fed on T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 was

4.87±.079, 4.47±.079, 5.00±.079, 4.80±.079 and 5.07±.079 106

μl, and WBCs count and

hemoglobin values were higher on control and urea substituted diets than saltbush

included diets. PCV values in lambs were similar in control and saltbush included diets

but higher than urea treated diets. Significant (P<0.01) difference in RBCs, WBCs,

hemoglobin and PCV was observed between treatments.

The findings of the experiment indicated that the lambs fed on saltbush included diets and

urea nitrogen diets showed comparatively better intake, gained more and also the

digestibility values were comparable to control fed on Lucerne hay based diets. The

blood hematology also indicated significant differences between treatments. Therefore it

is concluded that the saltbush can be a better substitute for Lucerne based diets with

comparable performance, better digestibility and improved growth. The dried saltbush

leaves and twigs can suitably be incorporated upto 30 % of feed nitrogen in the

conventional hay based diets to increase the nutrient level of the diet especially during

drought and feed shortage periods in the saline areas.

clx

Lucerne hay based TMR in Kajli lambs trial (Experiment 3) was conducted to

substitute the Lucerne hay based TMR with different levels of saltbush on 12 Kajli lambs

divided into three groups of four lambs each using CRD (3x4). The lambs were fed for 35

days on TMR diet designated as T1 (CGM 20.5, Lucerne hay 60, Molasses 18 and

mineral mixture 1.5 %), T2 (Saltbush hay replaced 30 % Lucerne hay of T1) and T3

(Saltbush hay replaced 45 % Lucerne hay of T1), respectively.

Dry matter contents were non significant (P<0.019) and significant difference (P<0.01) in

CP was observed between treatments. Crude Fiber level was highest (16.75±.417 %) in

T3 diet having 45 % saltbush included ration followed by T2 and T1. Highly significant

(P<0.01) difference was noticed statistically in crude fiber among treatments. Ether

Extract contents were similar in Lucerne hay based and 45 % saltbush included diets but

difference was non significant (P<0.311) between treatments. Ash contents were highest

in T3 having 45 % saltbush in the diet followed by T2 and T1 and found significant

(P<0.01) difference in ash contents among treatments. NFE contents were higher in 45 %

saltbush substituted diet but differences were non significant (P<0.43).

Daily DMI in Kajli lambs was higher (0.930±0.025 kg) on T1 followed by T3 and T2,

respectively and difference was significant (P<0.045). Daily water intake was higher on

45 % saltbush as compared to T1 and T2 and differences were significant difference

(P<0.01). Highest (72.6±18.2 g) daily weight gain was recorded on T3 followed by T1

and T2, respectively. Non-significant difference (P<0.34) in weight gain between

treatments was observed. DMD and OMD were higher (66.00± .391 and 65.50±.323 %)

in lambs on T1 and same on T2 and T3. Differences in DMD were non significant

(P<0.34) and OMD was significant (P<0.06). Differences between treatments in RBCs

(P<0.88), WBCs (P<0.11), Hemoglobin (P<0.83) and PCV (P<0.63) were non

significant.

The results indicated that the dry matter contents and crude protein contents were similar

in saltbush diets and Lucerne hay based TMR. Kajli lambs gained better weight or at least

performed in similar pattern as on Lucerne hay based TMR. The lambs on saltbush

clxi

included diets also showed comparable DMD and OMD. It is concluded that Kajli lambs

on TMR diets performed equally good on saltbush substituted diets and can be fed on

TMR in the form of complete pelleted diet or mash having upto 45 % saltbush inclusion

as leaf meal protein.

It is further suggested that growing animals especially the heifers and small ruminants in

the saline areas needs special attention concerning the feeding management during

drought spells to maintain their performance. This is only possible if alternate feed

resources like saltbush (commonly available in these areas) is given due importance

while propagation, harvesting/lopping, procurement and utilization in different

combinations and forms with conventional feeds and forages. The best proposed way to

use this potential shrub (saltbush) is only to dry the leaves and soft twigs and use upto 45

% in the conventional diets on dry matter basis. It will be more appropriate to have

complete formulated diets (TMR) in the form of pellet or thoroughly mixed mash diets.

clxii

CHAPTER 8

RECOMMENDATIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

The findings of the three studies clearly indicated that the conventional feeds can be

substituted with saltbush. The heifers and growing lambs also showed performance

comparable on saltbush substituted diets in fresh, dried and TMR forms to conventional

forages and Lucerne hay based diets. It was also found that saltbush in the green form can

be added in the conventional fresh fodders upto 50 % to maintain production in Nili-Ravi

heifers and dried saltbush leaves and twigs upto 45 % in Kajli Lambs. Saltbush was

found to be a better choice especially during drought conditions in saline areas and its

availability can be improved through cultivation of saline patches with improved type

saltbush (Atriplex amnicola).

It was also observed that saltbush value can be further improved if some soaking or

processing is devised to minimize the salt contents from the leaves and twigs before

feeding to the animals, this will improve the nutrients and palatability. So the dried

saltbush leaves are having greater scope to be used as part of conventional browse, stall

diets and Total Mixed Rations in the saline areas especially alongwith other grain or

energy sources. It can also be produced and used as an emergency feed to be used during

severe seasons and drought spells to maintain the livestock condition score.

It was further observed that more precise investigations are needed to be conducted in

future for the development and management of feed resource in these problem areas.

1. Strategies need to be devised to minimize the salt contents in the saltbush

through soaking and other techniques.

2. Improved agronomic practices be studied and introduced to increase the

quality and production of forage bio-mass per unit area.

clxiii

3. Possibility of involving commercial enterpreneures be investigated and

encouraged for feasible leaf meal added formula feed production and

utilization

4. Studies on economic feasibility of saltbush feed production through

farmer cooperatives.

5. Studies on production and feeding management economics under different

farming conditions.

6. Research investigations should be further conducted to screen the blood

metabolites including mineral profile in different species of animals and

on different feeding levels.

7. Farmer awareness and encouragement possibilities may also be studied.

8. Socio-economic problem oriented case studies may also be considered for

further investigations.

clxiv

Feb 1, 2009

Heading Detail

FIRST Caps,

Bold,

Center

CHAPTER 4

EXPERIMENT 1

EVALUATION OF SALTBUSH (Atriplex

amnicola) AS A SUBSTITUTE OF

CONVENTIONAL FODDERS DURING

VARIOUS SEASONS IN NILI-RAVI

BUFFALO HEIFERS

SECOND Caps,

Bold,

L justified

Numbered

4.1 INTRODUCTION


Third Sen Case

Bold

Left J

Numbered


Fourth Sen Case

Bold,

Italics

Left J

Un #

Feed Analyses:

Digestibility:

Blood Hematology

Fifth Un-Bold,

Italics

Left Just

No #

Wth P

Feed Analyses:

Digestibility:

Blood Hematology:

clxv

CHAPTER 9

LITERATURE CITED

Abdelhamid, A.M. 1993. Feeding value of dried sugar beet pulp from Egyptian

production. Archives Anim. Nutr. 42: 365-370.

Abdelhamid, A.M., A.A. Gabr and M.M. El-Shinnawy. 1993. Effect of partially

substituting concentrate feed mixture by either fresh or waste oil in sheep

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A BRIEF CV

Mr Jalees Ahmad Bhatti was born to Mr Abdul Ghani Bhatti at Changa Manga, Distt

Kasur on April 4, 1962 making his brothers and sister to nine. He passed his

Matriculation examination in 1979 from Government High School, Chunian. He did his

F.Sc. from Government Faridia College, Pak Pattan. Later he joined the University of

Agriculture, Faisalabad (UAF) in Dec 1981 to earn his B.Sc. (Hons.) Animal Husbandry

degree in 1984 from the Faculty of Animal Husbandry, UAF. He qualified his M.Sc.

(Hons.) Livestock Management under the supervision of Prof Dr Raza Ali Gill in 1988.

He joined as Lecturer in the Dept of Livestock Management, Faculty of Animal

Husbandry, and also started his doctoral program in the same year. He taught under- and

post-graduate classes at this Campus till 1998 and earned a lot of academic distinctions

and awards. He joined as Research Fellow in 1988 in the Dept and worked in different

capacities in FSR/MART Program (USAID), ACIAR Australian Project, Fodder and

Seed Production (FAO/PARC) focusing improvement of livestock productivity through

selection and transfer of technology (PARB) and as Principal Investigator in Utilization

of Forage Shrubs by Animals (ACIAR) project till he moved to Lahore in 1998.

Having moved to the then College of Veterinary Sciences (CVS) Lahore, he continued

his teaching and research with the same zeal and devotion. The College was raised to a

status of University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences (UVAS), Lahore in 2002, he was

elevated to the post of Assistant Professor in 2003 in the Dept of Livestock Production

where he is working till today in the same capacity. Due to his protracted illness, his

doctoral program was delayed. Soon after his recovery, he has done extremely well to

expedite his PhD program. Despite his ailing health and weakness, he retuned back to

UAF to complete his PhD in 2007-08 under the supervision of Prof Dr Muhammad

Younas. Since then he tried his best to complete his dissertation to earn his PhD degree

for which he is a candidate now.

February 3, 2009

Documents

prr.hec.gov.pkprr.hec.gov.pk/jspui/bitstream/123456789/489/1/103S.pdfv LIST OF CONTENTS CHAPTER # T I T L E PAGE # Title i Subtitle ii Dedications iii Supervisory Committee iv List