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LEMBAGA ADMINISTRASI NEGARA
REPUBLIK INDONESIA
International Conference on Building Capacity and Policy Networking
for Effective Welfare Development
PROSIDING KONFERENSI
GRAN MELIA HOTEL, KUNINGAN
Jakarta, 17‐19 November 2009
ii
KATALOG DALAM TERBITAN Lembaga Administrasi Negara, Pusat Kajian Administrasi Internasional International Conference on Building Capacity and Policy Networking for Effective Welface Development
Cetakan I, Jakarta, LAN Press 169 hlm : 15 x 23 ISBN : 978-979-17939-5-7
1. International Conference on Building Capacity and Policy Networking for Effective Welface Development
1. Judul PKAI
International Conference on Building Capacity and Policy
Networking for Effective Welface Development Pusat Kajian Administrasi Internasional, Lembaga Administrasi Negara
Copyright @ 2009 pada LAN Press
Pengarah Desi Fernanda PM. Marpaung
Tim Editor
Yogi Suwarno A Rina Herawati Widhi Novianto
Desain Cover dan Tata Letak
Teguh Suprayitno
Diterbitkan oleh : LAN Press Jl. Veteran No. 10, Jakarta Pusat
Dilarang keras memperbanyak sebagian atau seluruh
isi buku ini tanpa izin tertulis dari penerbit
iii
DAFTAR ISI Hal
Daftar Isi iii
Sambutan Deputi III LAN v
Keynote Speech Kepala LAN vii
Conference Agenda xi
Terms of Reference xiii
Rekapitulasi Daftar Undangan xviii
Biodata xix
Sekilas mengenai LAN xxvi
Sekilas mengenai PKAI xxxiii
Prosiding
Building Capacity and Policy Networking for Effective Welfare
Development – Desi Fernanda 1
Development of Social Welfare in Indonesia: Situation Analysis and
General Issues – Edi Suharto, Ph.D. 21
Growth Constraints and Welfare Development
– Jorn Brommelhorster 40
Human System and The Complexities of Policy Network
– Prof. Bambang Shergi Laksmono, M.Sc.
46
Millenium Development Goals: A Framework for Welfare
Development – Abdurrahman Syebubakar 65
Understanding Welfare: From Phillosophy to Implementation
– Dr. Lowell K. Anderson 76
Capacity Building For Promoting Policy Networking – H Sujono 101
Pengembangan Kapasitas dalam Jejaring Kebijakan
– Dr. H. Sarimun Hadisaputra, M.Si 111
iv
v
Deputi Bidang Penelitian dan Pengembangan Administrasi Pembangunan & otomasi Administrasi Negara
Sambutan
Teriring salam sejahtera bagi semuanya, kami keluarga besar Kedeputian III Bidang Penelitian dan Pengembangan Administrasi Pembangunan dan Otomasi Administrasi Negara, khususnya Pusat Kajian Administrasi Internasional – Lembaga Administrasi Negara dengan ini mengucap rasa syukur kepada Ilahi Robbi yang telah menganugrahkan kesempatan kepada kita semua untuk berkumpul dan berbagi ilmu dalam forum konferensi ini. Pembangunan kesejahteraan melalui proses kebijakan yang berkualitas merupakan perhatian dan kepentingan setiap pihak di negara ini, baik individu warga negara, maupun institusi dan entitas sosial, ekonomi dan politik, juga kelembagaan formal negara, sekaligus setiap komponen masyarakat lainnya. Dengan mengoptimalkan peran dan kapasitas yang dimiliki oleh masing‐masing kelembagaan, maka diharapkan bahwa proses kebijakan akan menghasilkan produk kebijakan yang lebih adil dan mendekati kebutuhan dari masyarakat itu sendiri. Peran dan kapasitas negara dan pemerintah dalam hal ini diarahkan pada upaya menyerap dan menerjemahkan aspirasi yang tumbuh di warga masyarakat, sedangkan peran dan kapasitas kelembagan di luar negara adalah sebagai penyeimbang sekaligus pendukung proses kebijakan itu sendiri. Namun demikian, tidak dipungkiri bahwa proses kebijakan ini belum berjalan secara sinergis, karena masing‐masing kelembagaan tidak membangun harmoni dan komunikasi yang cukup kuat. Sehingga pada akhirnya kebijakan yang dihasilkan tidak atau kurang mencerminkan kebutuhan masyarakat itu sendiri. Sehingga dipandang perlu untuk membangun kesadaran di antara para pelaku kebijakan untuk bersatu dan bersinergi.
vi
Dalam upaya menjaga kesadaran atau awareness inilah, kami menggagas ide untuk menyelenggarakan konferensi yang mampu mempertemukan dan membangun komunikasi bagi seluruh pemangku kepentingan ini dalam sebuah sinergi yang memberi nilai manfaat dan keuntungan bagi terciptanya kebijakan yang lebih berkualitas dan mendukung pembangunan kesejahteraan yang lebih efektif. Tiada gading yang tak retak. Akhirnya kami mengucapkan selamat ber‐konferensi, berkarya nyata dan berkontribusi, khususnya bagi perbaikan dunia kebijakan kita.
Jakarta, 17 November 2009 Deputi Bidang Penelitian dan Pengembangan Administrasi Pembangunan dan Otomasi
Administrasi Negara
Drs. Desi Fernanda, M.Soc.Sc.
vii
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE on Building Capacity and Policy Networking for
Effective Welfare Development
By: Chairman of NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
THE REPUBLIC OF INDONESIA
Distinguished Guests and Hosts,
Ladies and Gentlemen,
First of all, let us say a prayer to The Almighty God for thy blessings that enable us to convene in this prestigious conference today.
In line with the dynamics of globalization, the approach conception of the management of the state is shifting from time to time. Initially the management of the state adopted a state‐led development paradigm where the state acted as the actor concomitantly as the main locomotive of the nation development. The emergence of the approach was one of the ways to deal with the weak market by then. In this approach the state was truly organized like that of a machine. The structural, procedural, and bureaucratic approach became the core characteristics of this approach. Power was considered as the domain of the state monopoly. Therefore the state was the hegemonic entity in a state. The state in this perception was bureaucracy, military, the police, legislative and judicative institutions. In this case, the state had not accommodated the wide participation of social and community organizations.
In practice the approach was considered failed in ensuring a government that was able to deliver excellent services to the society. The government tended to work in a slow motion in responding to the society’s needs, the procedures and bureaucracy tended to slow down the government actions, the government organizations tended to have fat structures. In other words the state tended to think selfish. Even worse the state was, in fact, exploited by certain self and group interests.
viii
This condition encouraged the change of approach from the state‐led (Weberian) to market‐led. A number of models of market‐led approach were New Public Management, decentralization, privatization, and good governance. In principle, such models greatly accommodated the roles of private sectors and society in development or the management of the state. The involvement of those three actors in the management of the state was institutionalized in Governance.
In the context of governance, the interaction process of the management of the state was more complex because it involved more stakeholders including the society and interest groups. The complexity of this process in immature society could lead to horizontal conflict. The nation development could be slowing down because the decision‐making had to be in consensus. However, the system allowed the presence of checks and balances among actors so that various possibilities of power abuse could be minimized. Even in the case of several countries, the roles of society were very big in the management of the development activities.
In the management of the state each actor either, the government, the private sectors, and the society played some roles. The government had the main roles to ensure conducive environment to the progress of the life of the nation and the state. The private sectors could participate in the creation of job opportunities. The society and the non‐government institutions could participate in political and social interactions as well as in mobilizing society human resources to participate in the development of politics, social, and economy. Particularly the roles of the society not only conducted checks and balances towards the powers of the state and the private sectors, but it also strengthened the roles of those two sectors. The society could do some control towards the power abuse, exploitation of natural resources, equal distribution of fairness and opportunities to increase the quality of the society’s life.
By institutionalizing the concept of governance it did not necessarily mean to eliminate the structure of the state hierarchy. Instead, the structure was equipped with the strengthening of the roles of the society and the private sectors through market, network and community structures. Through market system, the society as consumers also had some roles. Through network, policy formulation was conducted in participatory manner. Through community, the society at the level of community could play active roles in development.
ix
In other words, governance was a method of management of resources in a participatory, effective, and efficient manner in responding to the needs of the society. Governance was not a model of the management of the state where the focus was the state itself. When the state merely focused on self management and it did not relate with the sub‐systems of other management of the state that included the management of resources and the utilization of the results of development by the society as the primary stakeholders, then the governance became meaningless. For instance, when the new state was focused on the issues of structural changes, the governance remained meaningless.
The state goals were the results of shared consensus that could become an integrating factor concomitantly synergizing the roles of government, private sectors and society. Both non‐government institutions and private sectors were part of governance. Both could become the agent of public service that was supposed to be done by the state. Such role was meant to cover the state limitation in achieving the state goals. With the consensus and synergy of the tripartite roles among the state, society and private sectors in achieving the state goals, the arenas of democracy and freedom to align, to assemble and to express opinions for non government institutions should not be manipulated for the interests of the non‐government institutions themselves. So did the relations among the three actors, it could not be used to do mutual destruction or to fight against each other to obtain greater share of resources.
In Indonesian context, there was a progress of paradigm change from all state roles (statism) or government domination to governance that reflects socio‐political interactions among the state functionaries with general public and private sectors in various activities in manifesting the state goals and the state governmental goals based on the 1945 constitution.
In the framework of increasing effectiveness of welfare development it is decent to apply participatory policy through dialogue building. This means that in conducting development it is necessary to be based on network of partnership by considering locality in a frame of multiparty communication process, instead of bureaucratic instruction approach. This process is necessary to find shared interest that will, later, become a consensus and build multiparty commitment in improving people’s welfare.
In relation to that, we happily welcome ideas and initiatives from the National Institute of Public Administration to hold international conference in the framework of building commitment and capacity of policy entity through sharing of information, knowledge and network expansion with local and
x
foreign policy entity. In this forum it is expected that it is able to create new ideas in developing capacity of policy formulation and networking among all concerned parties.
Ladies and Gentlemen, finally, I would like to say: happy attending this conference, hopefully the objectives and the benefits of this conference can be achieved as expected.
Thank You. Jakarta, 18 November 2009, Chairman The National Institute of Public Administration The Republic of Indonesia DR. Asmawi Rewansyah, M.Sc.
xi
CONFERENCE AGENDA D A Y 1 : TUESDAY, 17 NOVEMBER 2009 10.00 – 12.00 Persiapan Panitia Konferensi 13.00 – 15.00 Registrasi Peserta D A Y 2 : WEDNESDAY, 18 NOVEMBER 2009 08.00 – 08.30 Registration 08.30 – 08.40 Opening Remark ‐ Dr. Asmawi Rewansyah, M.Sc.
(Chairman of NIPA) 08.40 – 08.50 Keynote Speech – EE. Mangindaan (Menpan dan RB) 08.50 – 09.00 Coffee break 09.00 – 12.00 Plenary Session 1: Isu‐isu pembangunan kesejahteraan
(General issues on welfare development) 1. Drs. Desi Fernanda, M.Soc.Sc. (Deputi III ‐ LAN RI) 2. Abdurrahman Syebubakar (UNDP Representative) 3. Jorn Brommelhorster (ADB – Indonesia Resident
Mission) 4. Edi Suharto, Ph.D. (STKS Bandung) 5. Moderator: DR. P.M. Marpaung MSc.
12.00 – 13.30 Break session 13.30 – 16.00 Plenary Session 2: Jejaring kebijakan pembangunan
kesejahteraan di level lokal, regional, dan global (Policy networking on welfare development at local, regional & global context) 1. Prof. Dr. Bambang Shergi Laksmono (FISIP Universitas
Indonesia) 2. Sofyan Wanandi (APINDO) 3. DR. Lowell K. Anderson (LDS Asia Area Public Affairs,
Singapore) 4. Moderator: Drs. Awang Anwaruddin, MEd.
16.00 – 16.15 16.15 – 16.30
Break session Wrap‐up DR. P.M. Marpaung MSc. (Kepala Pusat Kajian Adm.Internasional LAN RI)
xii
D A Y 3 : THURSDAY, 19 NOVEMBER 2009 08.30 – 09.00 Registration & Coffee Morning 09.00 – 11.00 Plenary Session 3: Pengembangan kapasitas untuk
mendorong jejaring kebijakan (Capacity building for promoting policy networking) 1. Dr. H. Sarimun Hadi Saputra (Direktur Eksekutif
APEKSI) 2. H. Sujono (Ketua Umum APKASI) 3. Moderator: Drs. Machdum Prijatno, MA
11.00 – 11.30 Wrap‐up Drs. Desi Fernanda, M.Soc.Sc. (Deputi III Lembaga Administrasi Negara RI)
11.30 – 12.00 Closing Session Dr. Asmawi Rewansyah, M.Sc. (Chairman of NIPA)
12‐00 – 13.00 Lunch
xiii
TERMS OF REFERENCE
Nama Kegiatan:
Konferensi Internasional Membangun Kapasitas dan Jejaring Kerja Kebijakan
untuk Pembangunan Kesejahteraan yang Efektif
Latar Belakang:
Saat ini Good Governance (GG) sebagai konsep maupun panduan sudah
banyak dikaji dan diadvokasikan ke seluruh komponen governance. Sebagai
sebuah konsep, GG relatif matang dan diterima (acceptable), namun
sayangnya masih belum secara utuh terlembagakan, terinternalisaikan dan
teraktualisasikan pada dimensi kebijakan dan pelayanan.
Selain itu juga para pelaku kebijakan (eksekutif dan legislatif), pelaku dunia
usaha (swasta) dan komponen masyarakat sipil belum solid dan bersinergi
dalam pencapaian tujuan negara. Padahal penyelenggaraan negara oleh
seluruh komponen pemerintahan (governance) mempunyai salah satu tujuan
utama (ultimate goal) untuk mencapai kesejahteraan masyarakat melalui
kegiatan pembangunan. Kesejahteraan masyarakat ini hanya dapat tercapai
dengan efektif apabila penyelenggaraan pembangunan didukung oleh
kebijakan yang berpihak pada peningkatan kesejahteraan masyarakat.
Kebutuhan dan aspirasi masyarakat yang dapat diterjemahkan dengan baik
dalam berbagai dokumen kebijakan akan dapat menuntun pembangunan
secara terarah.
Ini berarti bahwa pembangunan hanya dapat diselenggarakan apabila seluruh
komponen governance dapat memahami karakter pembangunan yang
dinamis, bukan statis. Tentunya ini hanya dapat dimengerti melalui perspektif
ekologi. Tidak seperti kebanyakan pembangunan yang dipahami dalam bentuk
xiv
konsekuensi (hasil) pembangunan, bukan pada “proses” yang memunculkan
hasil tersebut. Tujuan dari pembangunan adalah selain meningkatnya
konsumsi dan produksi ekonomi, juga kebebasan, keadilan, keamanan dan
integritas dasar manusia. Oleh karenanya pembangunan juga meliputi aspek
nilai.
Dalam perspektif ekologis yang memperhatikan dinamika internal maupun
eksternal, administrasi pembangunan memiliki dua sisi. Pertama yang
melibatkan transformasi pembangunan infrastruktur fisik dan non fisik seperti
kondisi lingkungan, peningkatan standar pendidikan, perbaikan kesehatan
masyarakat, ekspansi produksi ekonomi, konstruksi jalan, bendungani
pembangkit tenaga, dan irigasi, konservasi sumber daya alam, dan
pemanfaatannya secara lebih efektif. Di sisi lain kegiatan pembangunan oleh
pemerintah hanya mungkin dilakukan pada tahap dimana efektifitas
administrasi pemerintah dapat ditingkatkan melalui kebijakan yang berpihak
kepada masyarakat.
Oleh karena itu, perlu adanya kompetensi dan komitmen dari para elit
perumus kebijakan untuk bersama‐sama dengan komponen governance
lainnya untuk membangun sinergi dan kesepahaman.
Di sisi lain, perumusan kebijakan dalam rangka pembangunan suatu negara
juga tidak bisa lagi dilepaskan dari pengaruh lingkungan strategis di tingkat
kawasan (regional) maupun konstelasi internasional. Dimensi kebijakan yang
dominan menjadi ciri kedaulatan sebuah negara harus bisa membuka diri
terhadap dinamika lingkungan luar. Sehingga pembelajaran antar negara
menjadi penting untuk dilakukan.
Selama ini beberapa forum internasional banyak digagas dan sudah
berlangsung adalah forum yang hanya mempertemukan pelaku kebijakan
secara sektoral, seperti forum antar parlemen sedunia, forum perdagangan
internasional dan sebagainya. Hanya sedikit forum yang mempertemukan
seluruh pelaku yang mewakili seluruh komponen governance.
xv
Memperhatikan kondisi demikian, Lembaga Administrasi Negara (LAN) c.q.
Pusat Kajian Administrasi Internasional (PKAI) menilai adanya urgensi serta
kebutuhan akan pentingnya penyelenggaraan sebuah forum internasional
yang bisa memfasilitasi pertemuan sekaligus pembelajaran antar seluruh
pelaku / praktisi kebijakan, akademisi, pelaku dunia usaha dan komponen
masyarakat sipil lainnya. LAN menggagas dan berinisiatif untuk
menyelenggarakan konferensi internasional ini dalam rangka membangun
komitmen serta meningkatkan kapasitas entitas kebijakan ini melalui sharing
informasi, pengetahuan dan perluasan jejaring kerja dengan entitas kebijakan
lokal maupun asing.
Tujuan Konferensi
Secara umum penyelenggaraan konferensi internasional ini bertujuan untuk
mengembangkan kapasitas dan jejaring kerja kebijakan pembangunan
kesejahteraan yang efektif. Tujuan khusus dari kegiatan konferensi ini adalah :
1. mempertemukan para pelaku kebijakan di tingkat nasional dan daerah
dengan, para akademisi, para pelaku di sektor bisnis maupun komponen
masyarakat sipil dari berbagai negara terutama kawasan regional Asia.
2. membangun kesepahaman dan sinergitas di antara para praktisi
kebijakan dengan stakeholder lainnya yang berkepentingan langsung
maupun tidak langsung terhadap kebijakan publik
3. mengembangkan kapasitas praktisi kebijakan melalui sharing informasi
dan pengetahuan di antara entitas kebijakan nasional maupun asing.
4. memperluas jejaring kerja kebijakan di tingkat internasional
Manfaat
1. terfasilitasinya forum yang mempertemukan para pelaku kebijakan di
tingkat nasional dan daerah dengan, para akademisi, para pelaku di
xvi
sektor bisnis maupun komponen masyarakat sipil dari berbagai negara
terutama kawasan regional Asia.
2. terbangunnya kesepahaman dan sinergitas di antara para praktisi
kebijakan dengan stakeholder lainnya yang berkepentingan langsung
maupun tidak langsung terhadap kebijakan publik
3. terfasiliasinya pengembangan kapasitas praktisi kebijakan melalui sharing
informasi dan pengetahuan di antara entitas kebijakan nasional maupun
asing.
4. terfasilitasinya perluasan jejaring kerja kebijakan di tingkat internasional
Tema:
Tema besar yang diusung pada kegiatan konferensi ini adalah Membangun
Kapasitas dan Jejaring Kerja Kebijakan untuk Pembangunan Kesejahteraan
yang Efektif.
Sedangkan sub tema yang menjadi fokus pada konferensi ini adalah :
1. General Issues on Welfare Development
2. Policy Networking on Welfare Development at Local, Regional, dan
Global
3. Capacity Building for for Promoting Policy Networking
Target yang Diharapkan
Adapun target yang diharapkan dalam penyelenggaraan konferensi ini adalah
terselenggaranya konferensi internasional mengenai pengembangan
kapasitas dan jejaring kerja kebijakan dengan mempertemukan para
pelaku/praktisi kebijakan (eksekutif dan legislatif), akademisi, pelaku dunia
usaha, komponen masyarakat sipil baik dari dalam maupun luar negeri.
Forum konferensi ini diharapkan mampu menggagas ide‐ide baru dalam
pengembangan kapasitas perumusan kebijakan dan jejaring kerja di antara
seluruh pihak yang berkepentingan.
xvii
Target lainnya adalah terbukanya kesempatan untuk menyelenggarakan
forum lanjutan atau bahkan forum berkala yang bermanfaat dalam menjaga
harmoni dan sinergitas yang sudah terbangun,
Peserta Konferensi
Peserta konferensi pada umumnya adalah stakeholder kebijakan dari berbagai
latar belakang profesi dan institusi sebagai berikut:
1. Pelaku kebijakan tingkat nasional maupun lokal (eksekutif dan legislatif)
2. Akademisi/Perguruan Tinggi
3. Pelaku bisnis/kalangan dunia usaha
4. Masyarakat, kelompok kepentingan serta LSM
5. Undangan lainnya
xviii
Rekapitulasi Daftar Undangan
Jumlah peserta konferensi diperkirakan sebanyak 250 orang yang terkait
dengan formulasi dan implementasi kebijakan pembangunan kesejahteraan
yang meliputi:
1. Para pejabat struktural dan fungsional dari Lembaga Administrasi Negara
2. Para pejabat struktural dan fungsional dari Departemen, Kementrian
Negara, dan Lembaga Pemerintah Non Departemen (LPND)
3. LSM (Dari Jakarta, Jabar, Jateng, DIY, Jatim)
4. Kelompok Masyarakat (Civil Society)
5. BUMN / Perusahaan Swasta
6. Perguruan Tinggi (Negeri & Swasta)
7. Kedutaan Besar & Lembaga Asing di Jakarta
8. Pemerintah Daerah Provinsi, Kabupaten, dan Kota
xix
BIODATA PEMBICARA
Drs. Desi Fernanda, M.Soc.Sc
I. Data pribadi
Nama Lengkap : Desi Fernanda
Jabatan Saat Ini : Deputi Bidang Litbang Administrasi
Pembangunan dan otomasi Administrasi
Negara
Instansi : Lembaga Administrasi Negara
Alamat : Jl. Veteran No. 10, Jakarta Pusat
Tempat, Tgl Lahir : Cimahi, 4 Desember 1958
Mobile/HP : ‐‐‐
E‐mail : ‐‐‐
II. Pengalaman Kerja
2007 – sekarang : Deputi Bidang Litbang APOAN LAN RI
2005 – 2007 : Kepala PKP2A LAN Bandung
2001 – 2005 : Kepala Pusat Kajian Otonomi Daerah LAN
1992 – 2001 : Beberapa Jabatan Eselon III A di LAN Jawa
Barat
III. Latar Belakang Pendidikan
1992 : Master of Social Science, ILGS‐University of
Birmingham, UK
1990 : Dipl Development Administration, ILGS –
University of Birmingham, UK
1984 : Sarjana Ekonomi, Jurusan Manajemen, FE‐
UNPAD
xx
BIODATA PEMBICARA
Jorn Brommelhorster
I. Personal Data
FullName : Jorn Brommelhorster
Current Position : Senior Country Economist
Employer : ADB – Indonesia Resident Mission
Address : BRI II, 7th Floor,
Jl. Jend Sudirman Kav. 44‐46 Jakarta
Place & Date of Birth : ‐
Mobile : Office : 021‐2512721
E‐mail : [email protected]
II. Working Experience
Senior Country Economist, ADB – IRM, since 2008 – present
Since 2002 as ADB staff in different departments such as RSDD, SARD, and
CWRD
III. Education
Ruht – University Bochum, Ph.D in Economics
xxi
BIODATA PEMBICARA
Edi Suharto, Ph.D.
I. Data pribadi Nama Lengkap : Edi Suharto Jabatan Saat Ini : Pembantu Ketua I Bidang Akademk
STKS Instansi : STKS Bandung Alamat : Jl. Rahayu III No.1, Cipaganti Rahayu
Regency, Cipamokolan, Bandung Indonesia 40287
Tempat, Tgl Lahir : Majalengka, Indonesia 6 November 1965 Mobile/HP : 081324156999 E‐mail : [email protected]
II. Pengalaman Kerja July 2008 – the present: Vice Chairperson for Academic Affairs, Bandung School of Social Welfare, Indonesia November 2008 – November 2009: Policy Fellow at Local Government and Public Service Reform Initiative (LGI), Budapest Hungary. October 2005 – July 2008: Director, Postgraduate School of Specialist Social Work, Bandung School of Social Welfare, Indonesia.. January – December 2007: Special Expert (consultant) for Ministry of Social Affairs in developing and implementing PKH (Program Keluarga Harapan), a conditional cash transfer scheme developed by Bappenas in cooperation with the World Bank.
III. Latar Belakang Pendidikan
1999 – 2002 : PhD in Development Studies, Massey University, New Zealand
1993 – 1994 : Master of Science in Rural and Regional Development Planning, Asian Institute of Technology (AIT), Bangkok, Thailand
1985 – 1990 : Bachelor in Social Work, Bandung School of Social Welfare
BIODATA PEMBICARA
xxii
Prof. Dr. Bambang Shergi Laksmono, M.Sc
I. Data pribadi / Personal Data
Nama Lengkap : Prof.Dr. Bambang Shergi Laksmono, M.Sc
Jabatan Saat Ini : Dekan FISIP ‐ UI
Instansi : FISIP Universitas Indonesia
Alamat : Kampus UI ‐ Depok
Tempat, Tgl Lahir : Rabat (Morocco), 29 Agustus 1961
Mobile/HP : ‐
E‐mail : [email protected]
II. Pengalaman Kerja/Working Experience
2008 – sekarang : Dekan Fakultas Ilmu Sosial & Ilmu Politik UI
2007 – 2008 : Pejabat Dekan Fakultas Ilmu Sosial & Ilmu Politik UI
2005 – 2007 : Anggota Senat Akademik UI
2006 – sekarang : Anggota Kelompok Kerja Pakar
1987 – sekarang : Pengajar tetap Dep. Ilmu Kesejahteraan Sosial FISIP
UI
2005 – sekarang : Pengajar tidak tetap UIN DIY
2003 : Political Sceninces for National Election Grants
Assesment Jakarta
III. Latar Belakang Pendidikan/Education
1999 Doktor Sosiologi FISIP UI
1987 MSc in Economy, London School of Economy,
University of London
1986 S1 Ilmu Kesejahteraan Sosial FISIP UI
xxiii
BIODATA PEMBICARA
Sofjan Wanandi
I. Data pribadi / Personal Data
Nama Lengkap : Sofjan Wanandi
Jabatan Saat Ini : Ketua Umum
Instansi : APINDO
Alamat : Plaza GRI Lt. 15, Kuningan, Jakarta Selatan
Tempat, Tgl Lahir : Sawah Lunto, 3 Maret 1941
Mobile/HP : 0818767677
E‐mail : ‐
II. Pengalaman Kerja/Working Experience
1999 – present : Chairman Gemala Group
1974 – 1996 : Managing Director Pakarti Yoga Group
1996 – 1999 : President Director Pakarti Yoga Group
III. Latar Belakang Pendidikan/Education
1960 – 1961 Fakultas Ekonomi Universitas Padjajaran
1962 – 1967 Fakultas Ekonomi Universitas Indonesia
xxiv
BIODATA PEMBICARA
H. Sujono
I. Data pribadi / Personal Data
Nama Lengkap : H. Sujono
Jabatan Saat Ini : Ketua Umum APKASI (Asosiasi Pemerintah
Kabupaten Seluruh indonesia/ Bupati Pacitan)
Instansi/Employer : ‐‐‐
Alamat/Address : Jl. Jaksa Agung Suprapto No. 8 Pacitan
Tempat, Tgl Lahir : Pacitan, 1 Januari 1946
Mobile/HP : ‐‐‐
E‐mail : ‐‐‐
II. Pengalaman Kerja/Working Experience
2009 – 2013 : Ketua Umum APKASI
2006 – 2011 : Bupati Pacitan
1985 – 2005 : Direktur PT. Intra Caraka Bidang
Kontraktor dan PJTKI
1988 – 2002 : Direktur Utama PT Kresna Sumi Fujindo
III. Latar Belakang Pendidikan/Education
2000 – 2004 : Universitas Wiraswasta Indonesia
1971 – 1973 : Kanagawa Advance Vocational Training
Centre di Yokohama Jepang
1968 – 1970 : Sekolah Bahasa Jepang Tingkat Advance di
Tokyo Jepang
1964 – 1966 : Akademi Pendidikan Teknologi Negeri
(APTN)
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BIODATA PEMBICARA
Dr. H. Sarimun Hadisaputra, M.Si
I. Data pribadi
Nama Lengkap : Dr. H. Sarimun Hadisaputra, M.Si
Jabatan Saat Ini : Direktur Eksekutif APEKSI
Instansi : APEKSI
Alamat : Jl. Jagakarsa II No. 36, Jakarta Selatan
Tempat, Tgl Lahir : Kebumen, 18 Desember 1948
Mobile/HP : ‐
E‐mail : ‐
II. Pengalaman Kerja/Working Experience
2008 – sekarang : Direktur Eksekutif APEKSI
2007 – 2011 : Sekretaris Citynet Indonesia
2007 : Direktur Pusat Studi dan Kajian Pemerintah Daerah,
Universitas Satyagama
2004 – 2009 : Ketua Harian DPP Perhimpunan Anak Transmigran
RI (PATRI)
2006 – 2011 : Ketua Kehormatan Paguyuban Sosial Marga
Tionghoa Indonesia
III. Latar Belakang Pendidikan/Education
199 S1 : STIA‐LAN Jakarta
1998 S2 : Magister Manajemen IPWI
1999 S2 : Magister Manajemen Ilmu Pemerintahan Universitas
2000 Satyagama
2001 Doktor (S3) : Ilmu Manajemen Pemerintahan
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SEKILAS MENGENAI LAN
VISI DAN MISI Visi : Institusi berkualitas internasional dalam kajian kebijakan, pembangunan sistem administrasi negara, dan penyelenggaraan pendidikan dan pelatihan aparatur negara, dalam rangka mewujudkan kepemerintahan yang baik.
VISION AND MISSION
Vision :Becoming an internationally standard institution in policy studies, public administration system development, and education and training for the government apparatus in order to create good governance.
Misi : Memberikan kontribusi nyata dalam pembangunan aparatur negara melalui pengembangan penelitian, pelayanan informasi, kajian kebijakan, konsultasi serta pendidikan dan pelatihan, dalam bidang ilmu pengetahuan dan sistem administrasi negara yang dilakukan secara interdisipliner sesuai posisi, tantangan nasional, internasional, peran, dan tanggung jawab aparatur dalam sistem penyelenggaraan pemerintahan negara.
Mission :Providing a significant contribution for enhancing competence and productivity of the government apparatus through research and development, information services, policy studies, consultancy, as well as education and training in public administration with interdisciplinary approach in line with the position, national challenges, international, roles and responsibilities of the government apparatus in the governance system.
KEDUDUKAN (SK Kepala LAN No.4/2004)
1. Lembaga Administrasi Negara, selanjutnya disebut LAN, adalah Lembaga Pemerintah Pusat yang dibentuk untuk melaksanakan tugas pemerintahan tertentu dari Presiden;
2. LAN berada di bawah dan
STATUS
1. The National Institute of Public Administration, here‐in‐after is called LAN, is a Central Government Agency established to carry out certain government tasks assigned by the President;
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bertanggungjawab kepada Presiden;
3. Dalam melaksanakan tugasnya, LAN dikoordinasikan oleh Menteri yang bertanggung jawab di bidang pendayagunaan aparatur negara;
4. LAN dipimpin oleh Kepala.
2. LAN serves immediately under and directly responsible to the President;
3. In performing its duty, LAN is under the coordination of the Ministry who is responsible for Government Apparatus Empowerment;
4. LAN is led by a Chairman.
SEJARAH SINGKAT LAN Lembaga Administrasi Negara didirikan dengan Peraturan Pemerintah No. 30 Tahun 1957 tertanggal 6 Agustus 1957 dan selanjutnya susunan organisasi serta lapangan tugasnya diatur dalam Surat Keputusan Perdana Menteri No. 283/P.M./1957. Pendirian Lembaga Administrasi Negara pada waktu itu terutama didorong oleh kebutuhan Pemerintah yang sangat mendesak akan pegawai negeri, lebih‐lebih yang menduduki jabatan‐jabatan pimpinan dalam aparatur pemerintah, akan kecakapan dan ketrampilan dalam bidang administrasi dan manajemen yang akan mendukung kemampuannya dalam melaksanakan tugasnya. Disamping itu sistem administrasi pemerintah yang pada saat itu masih berpangkal pada sistem administrasi peninggalan Hindia Belanda dan pemerintah bala
BRIEF HISTORY OF NIPA The National Institute of Public Administration (LAN) was established through Government Regulation No. 30, 1957 dated August 6, 1957, and then its organization structure and field of duties were stipulated in the Prime Ministerial Decree No. 283/P.M./1957. The establishment of LAN was especially driven by the very urgent need for government employees, particularly for those occupying leadership positions in the government apparatus, who require competence and skills in the fields of administration and management to support them in performing their duties. In addition, the system of government administration, which was still based on the administration system left by both the Dutch and Japanese Military government, was felt unsuitable to the needs of the government
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tentara Jepang, kondisi seperti itu dirasakan tidak sesuai dengan kebutuhan administrasi pemerintah dalam negara Republik Indonesia yang merdeka. Oleh karena itu diperlukan adanya usaha penelitian dan pengembangan administrasi pemerintah yang lebih sesuai dengan keadaan di Indonesia sebagai suatu negara yang merdeka.
administration in the independent state of the Republic of Indonesia. It was therefore necessary to carry out research and development of government administration, which was more suitable to conditions in Indonesia as an independent state.
Walaupun pendirian dan kedudukan Lembaga Administrasi Negara secara yuridis telah ditetapkan dengan dikeluarkannya Peraturan Pemerintah Nomor 30 Tahun 1957, tetapi baru benar‐benar direalisasikan dan mulai melakukan kegiatannya sejak tanggal 5 Mei 1958 dengan diangkatnya Prof. Dr. Prajudi Atmosudirdjo, SH sebagai Direktur Lembaga Administrasi Negara yang pertama.
Eventhough the establishment and status of LAN had been legally stipulated by the issuance of Government Regulation No. 30, 1957, it was only truly realized and began to perform its activities on May 5, 1958 with the appointment of Prof. Dr. Prajudi Atmosudirdjo, SH as the first Director of LAN.
Dalam masa‐masa selanjutnya, dipandang perlu untuk menyesuaikan tugas pokok, fungsi dan susunan organisasi Lembaga Administrasi Negara dengan tuntutan perkembangan jaman. Oleh karena itu dengan Peraturan Pemerintah Nomor 5 Tahun 1971, dicabutlah Peraturan Pemerintah Nomor 30 Tahun 1957 dan sejak saat itu organisasi Lembaga Administrasi Negara diatur dengan
In the following periods, it was then considered necessary to adjust the duty, function and the structure of the organization of LAN demanded by the national development. Therefore, by Government Regulation No. 5 Year 1971, Government Regulation No. 30 Year 1957 was revoked. Since then the organization of LAN has been stipulated by Presidential Decree. The first Presidential
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Keputusan Presiden (Keppres). Keppres pertama adalah Keppres No. 5 Tahun 1971.
Decree was Presidential Decree No. 5 Year 1971.
Di samping itu dalam rangka menghadapi era globalisasi Pemerintah telah mengeluarkan kebijakan restrukturisasi organisasi LPND, sebagaimana terakhir ditetapkan dalam Keppres No. 103 Tahun 2001 tentang Kedudukan, Tugas, Fungsi, Kewenangan, Susunan Organisasi dan Tata Kerja LPND, selanjutnya pemerintah mengeluarkan kembali Keppres Nomor 110 Tahun 2001 tentang Unit Organisasi dan Tugas Eselon I LPND sebagaimana telah beberapa kali diubah, terakhir dengan Peraturan Presiden Nomor 64 Tahun 2005 tentang Perubahan keenam atas Keppres Nomor 103 tahun 2001. Dengan adanya restrukturisasi LPND tersebut, LAN melakukan penyesuaian ke dalam dengan melakukan perubahan terhadap tugas pokok, fungsi, susunan organisasi dan tata kerja yang diatur berdasarkan Keputusan Kepala LAN Nomor 4 Tahun 2004 tentang Organisasi dan Tata Kerja Lembaga Administrasi Negara yang telah diubah dengan Keputusan Kepala LAN Nomor 10 Tahun 2004.
Furthermore, in bracing itself to the globalisation era, the Government has issued a policy on the organizational restructurisation of Non‐Department Agencies through Presidential Decree No. 103 Year 2001 on the Status, Duty, Functions, Authority, Organi‐zation and Management of Non‐Department Agencies. After that, Presidential Decree No 110 Year 2001 on Organisation and Tasks of Echelon I of Non‐Department Agencies was issued, which after several changes has been renewed with Presidential Regulation No. 64 Year 2005 concerning the Sixth Revision of Presidential Decree No 103 Year 2001. In line with this development, LAN has also made some adjustment to its duties, functions, structure of organization and management. The organization and management of LAN is further stipulated in LAN Chairman Decree No. 4 Year 2004 on Orgazation and Management of NIPA which has been renewed with Chairman Decree No. 10 Year 2004.
DASAR HUKUM (SK Kepala LAN No.4/2004)
LEGAL BASIS
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Lembaga Administrasi Negara didirikan pada tahun 1957 berdasarkan Peraturan Pemerintah Nomor 30 Tahun 1957. Pada saat ini LAN diatur oleh: 1. Keppres Nomor 103 Tahun 2001
tentang Kedudukan, Tugas, Fungsi, Kewenangan, Susunan Organisasi dan Tata Kerja LPND, sebagaimana telah beberapa kali diubah, terakhir dengan Perpres Nomor 64 Tahun 2005, dan
2. Keppres Nomor 110 Tahun 2001 tentang Unit Organisasi dan Tugas Eselon I LPND sebagaimana telah beberapa kali diubah, terakhir dengan Perpres Nomor 52 Tahun 2005.
TUGAS (SK Kepala LAN No.4/2004) LAN mempunyai tugas melaksanakan tugas pemerintahan di bidang administrasi negara sesuai dengan ketentuan peraturan perundang‐undangan yang berlaku. FUNGSI DAN KEWENANGAN (SK Kepala LAN No.4/2004) Dalam melaksanakan tugas, LAN menyelenggarakan fungsi : a. pengkajian dan penyusunan
kebijakan nasional tertentu di
The National Institute of Public Administration was established in 1957 based on the Government Regulation No. 30 Year 1957. At present the management of LAN is stipulated in: 1. Presidential Decree No. 103
Year 2001 on the Status, Duty, Functions, Authority, Structure of Organization and Management of Non‐Department Agencies which after several changes, has been renewed finally with Presidential Regulation Nomor 64 Year 2005; and
2. Presidential Decree No 110 Year 2001 on Organization and Tasks of Echelon I Non‐Government Agencies which after several changes, has been renewed finally with Presidential Regulation No 52 Year 2005.
MAIN DUTY LAN’s duty is carrying out a series of government tasks in the field of public administration as stipulated in respective laws and regulations. FUNCTIONS AND AUTHORITY
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bidang administrasi negara;
b. pengkajian kinerja kelembagaan dan sumber daya apa‐ratur dalam rangka pembangunan administrasi negara dan peningkatan kualitas sumber daya aparatur;
c. pengkajian dan pengembangan manajemen kebijakan dan pelayanan di bidang pembangunan administrasi negara;
d. penelitian dan pengembangan
administrasi pembangunan dan otomasi administrasi negara;
e. pembinaan dan penyeleng‐garaan pendidikan dan pelatihan aparatur negara;
f. koordinasi kegiatan fungsional dalam pelaksanaan tugas LAN;
g. fasilitasi dan pembinaan terhadap kegiatan instansi pemerintah di bidang administrasi negara;
h. penyelenggaraan pembinaan dan pelayanan administrasi umum di bidang perencanaan umum, ketatausahaan, organisasi dan tata laksana, kepegawaian, keuangan, kearsipan, hukum, persandian, perlengkapan dan rumah tangga.
In performing its duty, LAN has the functions of :
a. conducting research and development and formulating a set of national policies in the field of public administration;
b. studying the performance of the government apparatus and institutions in the frame of public administration development and improving the quality of the government apparatus;
c. conducting research and development on policy and public service management in the field of public administration development;
d. conducting research and development in development administration and automation of public administration;
e. fostering and organizing education and training for the government apparatus;
f. coordinating functional activities in carrying out the duties of LAN.
g. facilitating and fostering the activities of government institutions in the field of public administration;
h. fostering and carrying out general administration services in the field of general planning, administrative matters, organization and management, personnel, finance, archive
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Dalam menyelenggarakan fungsinya, LAN mempunyai kewenangan: a. penyusunan rencana nasional
secara makro dibidangnya;
b. perumusan kebijakan di bidangnya untuk mendukung pembangunan secara makro;
c. penetapan sistem informasi di bidangnya;
d. kewenangan lain sesuai dengan ketentuan per‐aturan perundang‐undangan yang berlaku yaitu: 1) perumusan dan pelaksanaan
kebijakan tertentu di bidang administrasi negara;
2) penyusunan standar dan pedoman penyeleng‐garaan dan pelaksanaan pendidikan dan pelatihan fungsional dan penjenjangan tertentu serta pemberian akreditasi dan sertifikasi di bidangnya.
laws, coding, households and logistics.
In performing its functions, LAN has the authority in : a. designing macro national plan
in the field of public administration;
b. formulating policies in its respective field to support the macro national development;
c. stipulating information system in its respective field;
d. other authority in line with the respective laws and regulations such as: 1) certain policy formulation
and implementation in the field of public administration;
2) designing standardization and a handbook for organizing and implementing functional and certain structural education and training as well as providing accreditation and certification in its respective field.
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PUSAT KAJIAN ADMINISTRASI INTERNASIONAL Center for International Administration Studies
“Serving the knowledge and wisdom in International Administration”
SEKILAS PKAI Pusat Kajian Administrasi Internasional (PKAI) ditetapkan berdasarkan Keputusan Presiden Nomor 8/1999. PKAI berkedudukan di bawah Kedeputian III Bidang Penelitian dan Pengembangan Administrasi Pembangunan dan Otomasi Administrasi Negara, LAN. Tugas Pokok dan Fungsi PKAI adalah pengkajian perbandingan administrasi pembangunan untuk mengidentifikasi dan meningkatkan posisi daya saing nasional dan perekonomian Regional dan global, serta kerjasama regional dan internasional. MITRA KERJA Organisasi Publik : Instansi Pemerintah Pusat dan Daerah, dan lainnya Eksternal Stakeholders : Sekretariat ASEAN, CIFOR, UNDP, berbagai Negara mitra kerjasama dan organisasi internasional, dan lainnya.
CIAS IN BRIEF
Center for International Administration Studies (CIAS) was stipulated based on the Presidential Decree No.8/1999. CIAS is under Deputy III in the field of Research and Development Administration and Public Administration Automation of NIPA. The main task and functions of CIAS is to conduct comparative studies on development administration in order to identify and improve the national competitiveness in the regional and global economy, as well as to evaluate regional and international cooperation.
OUR PARTNERS Public Organizations: Departments, Non‐ Department Institutions, Local Government (Pemprov, Pemkab/Pemkot) and Other Related Organizations. External Stakeholders: Various Partners from other Countries and International Organizations.
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PRODUK KAJIAN (OUR PRODUCT S): 1. Kemanfaatan (Values)
Kemanfaatan Organisasi Internasional ‐ Values of International Organization
2. Manajemen (Management) a. Manajemen Pengeluaran Publik di Berbagai Negara &
Perbandingannya dengan Indonesia ‐ Public Expenditure Management in Several Countries & Its Comparison with Indonesia
b. Pengelolaan Aset Daerah di Berbagai Negara ‐ Local Asset Management in Several Countries
c. Manajemen Wilayah Perbatasan Negara‐ Border Management d. Implementasi Penataan Kewenangan Pemerintah Pusat & Daerah di
Berbagai Negara ‐ Central & Local Government Authority Arrangement e. Evaluasi Pengelolaan Sister City antara Kota‐Kota di Indonesia dengan
Kota‐Kota di Luar Negeri ‐ Evaluation on Sister‐City Management f. Pengembangan Check & Balances System dalam Berbagai Tataran
Penyelenggaraan Pemerintahan Negara ‐ Development of Check & Balances System
3. Ekonomi & Investasi (Economy & Investment) a. Foreign Direct Investment dalam Perekonomian Daerah di Berbagai
Negara ‐ Foreign Direct Investment in Regional Economy b. Model Vitalisasi UKM ‐ Vitalization Model of SME’s c. Kebijakan Pengelolaan Sektor Informal Perkotaan di beberapa Negara
Asia ‐ Policy on Urban‐Informal Sector Management d. Strategi Kebijakan Sistem Insentif Penanaman Modal dalam dan Luar
Negeri di Daerah Dalam Perspektif Daya Saing Global ‐ Policy Strategy on Investment Incentive Systems
4. Analisis Kebijakan (Policy Analysis)
a. Analisis Kebijakan Pengembangan Sistem Keterjaminan Sosial (Social Security) menuju Masyarakat Madani ‐ Policy Analysis on Development of Social Security System
b. Revitalisasi Kebijakan Sektor Primer dalam Rangka Pemberdayaan Masyarakat & Peningkatan Daya Saing ‐ Revitalizing Policy on Primary Sector to Empowering Society & Enhancing Competitiveness
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5. Strategi (Strategy) a. Strategi Kebijakan Penempatan & Perlindungan Pekerja Migran di
Beberapa Negara ‐ Policy Strategy on Placement & Protection of Migrant Workers
b. Strategi Negara‐Negara ASEAN dalam Menghadapi AFTA ‐ ASEAN Strategies on Facing AFTA
c. Advokasi dan Pelembagaan Norma Keswadayaan Masyarakat (Good Societal Governance) dalam Rangka Pengelolaan Good Governance ‐ Advocation and Institutionalization of Good Societal Governance towards Good Governance
6. Kerjasama (Cooperation) a. Kerjasama Bidang Perlindungan Tenaga Kerja ‐ Cooperation in Labour
Protection b. Kerjasama dalam Penanganan Migran ‐ Cooperation in Handling
Migrants c. Kerjasama dalam Penanganan Pencemaran Udara Akibat Kebakaran
Hutan ‐ Cooperation in Handling Air Polution d. Kerjasama Antar Negara ASEAN dalam Pelaksanaan Open Sky Policy ‐
ASEAN Cooperation in Implementing Open Sky Policy e. Kerjasama Penangananan Masalah Keamanan Selat Malaka ‐
Cooperation in Handling Malacca Security f. Kerjasama dalam menangani Pelintas Batas di Kepulauan Riau ‐
Cooperation in Handling Cross‐Border in Riau Islands g. Kerjasama dalam Pembangunan Kawasan Perbatasan di Sulawesi
Utara dalam Rangka Mencegah Kerawanan Sosial ‐ Cooperation in Developing Border Area in North Sulawesi
7. Perbandingan (Comparison) a. Perbandingan Model Pembangunan Masyarakat Daerah di Berbagai
Negara dalam Rangka Pelaksanaan Otonomi Daerah ‐ Comparison of Local Community Development Model
b. Perbandingan Pengelolaan Badan Usaha Milik Negara di Negara‐Negara ASEAN ‐ Comparison on Management of State‐owned Companies in ASEAN
c. Kajian & Perbandingan Model Pengelolaan Infrastruktur di Beberapa Negara ‐ Comparative Study on Infrastructure Management
d. Komparasi Implementasi Kebijakan Manajemen Otonomi Pendidikan ‐ Comparison on Policy Implementation of Education Autonomy Management
e. Strategi Pemberantasan Korupsi di Negara‐Negara Asia Pasifik ‐
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Corruption Eradication Strategy in Asia‐Pacific Countries f. Model Partisipasi Masyarakat dalam rangka Meningkatkan Kualitas
Pelayanan Dasar di Negara‐Negara Asia Pasifik ‐ Citizens Participation Model in order to Enhance the Quality of Basic Service in Asia‐Pacific Countries
SUMBER DAYA MANUSIA (HUMAN RESOURCES)
1. Pakar (Experts) a. Desi Fernanda (Development Administration) b. PM. Marpaung (Human Resources Management, Education Training) c. A. Rina Herawati (Strategic Management, Development Organization) d. Widhi Novianto (Service Management, Organizational Performance) e. Yogi Suwarno (Innovation in the Public Sector, Public Administration)
2. Staf Pendukung (Administrative Staff)
a. Reniwati b. Tri Murwaningsih c. Suhartati
KAJIAN/KEGIATAN SAAT INI (CURRENT STUDIES/ACTIVITIES) a. Kajian Efektivitas Kemitraan pemerintah dan Swasta (Public Private
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Partnership) dalam Rangka Meningkatkan Kesejahteraan Rakyat – Study on Public Private Partnership Effectiveness in order to Increase Welfare
b. Survey Efektivitas Kebijakan Perekonomian Daerah dalam Rangka Percepatan Pembangunan Ekonomi Daerah – Survey on Local Economic Policy in order to Accelerate Local Economy Development
c. International Conference on Building Capacity and Policy Networking for Effective welfare Development
KAJIAN/KEGIATAN MENDATANG (FUTURE STUDIES/ACTIVITIES) a. Pengembangan Kapasitas Pengelolaan Ekonomi Daerah dalam rangka
Percepatan Pembangunan Ekonomi Daerah – Capacity Building in Managing Local Economy in order to Accelerate Local Economy Development
b. Kajian Membangun Pendekatan Global Governance dan Efektivitasnya dalam Sinergi Penanganan Isu‐isu Global – Study on Global Governance Approach and Its Effectiveness in Synergic Managing Global Issues
JASA / LAYANAN (OUR SERVICES) a. Kajian – Research Studies b. Seminar & Lokakarya – Seminars / Workshops c. Konsultansi Manajemen – Management Consultancy d. Asistensi – Technical Assistance e. Pertukaran Pakar – Experts Exchange Further Inquiry: LEMBAGA ADMINISTRASI NEGARA RI Pusat Kajian Administrasi Internasional Jl. Veteran 10 Jakarta 10110 Tel (021) 3455021‐5 ext 133, 135, 138 Facs (021) 3504658 www.lan.go.id www.pkai.org
1
Building Capacity and Policy Networking
for Effective Welfare Development
Background Paper
Desi Fernanda
Deputy of P2APOAN
I. Background
or more than six decades of its independence, Indonesia has been
going through various up and down periods, particularly in terms of
political sense and the dynamic of economic life. As the most densely
inhabited country in the region, even the fourth largest of the world, with
quite large natural resources, Indonesia has surely lots of strengths and
opportunities to optimalize in developing its economy and prosperity.
Hence, natural resources would not be enough as the only basic capital for
the development.
Achieving welfare for the people thoughout nation is principally the
ultimate goal of government’s work in running development. It has been
clearly mandated in basic constitution of UUD 1945. As the constitution
gives official mandate to any person or regime in power to utilize its all
resources to generate economy in order to achieve high welfare nationwide,
it is apparently quite difficult to say what has been achieved so far is
satisfactory, particularly when compared with neighbouring countries’s
achievements. Some successful stories which come along with some of
failures has been a dynamic picture of the development of Indonesia. Some
influencing factors seemingly support the process, while unfortunately
some other harmful factors are inevitable. Therefore this welfare
achievement is seemingly a long way to go.
Clearly this is not an unsatisfied expression without any reasons.
Some worldwide well‐recognized indicators have shown this condition, e.g.
F
2
HDI released annually by UNDP, including Human Poverty Index, Global
competitiveness index, e‐readiness index, Economic Freedom Index by
Heritage Foundation, not to mention annual GNP per capita released by
many institution, as well as many other related indicators.
One of the most recognized indicator is HDI. In 20071 Indonesia’s
index has achieved 0,734 which is ranked 111 out of 182 surveyed countries.
Compared to neighbouring countries, Indonesia is relatively belonged to
below rank. Singapura, for instance, ranked 23 (HDI 0,944), while Brunei
Darussalam ranked 30 (HDI 0,920), and Malaysia rank 66 (HDI 0,829).
Meanwhile Thailand stays at 86 (HDI 0,783), and the Philippines ranked 105
(HDI 0,751). In this regard, HDI of Indonesia is fortunately still better than
what Vietnam and Laos have, which ranked 116 and 133.
This HDI index achievement is also actually below on average among
East Asian countries. Nevertheless this achievement is pretty much better
above average in Asia‐Pacific region. Tha’s why it is categorized as medium
position.
The other popular indicator would be a global competitiveness index
(GCI) which is annually published by World Economic Forum (WEF).
According to the last report, in 2009‐2010 Indonesia is ranked 54 out of 133
surveyed nations. This is a slight improvement in terms of rank from the last
year, but actually the score remains the same at 4,32.
Surely there must be several reasons for this such disappointing
achievement. Not only the huge numbers of population, and the large size
of scattered‐thousand islands, but also some other factors contributing
onto this condition. In this regard, blaming this miserable condition on such
endowment is definitely not smart. We need to be more honest, and
looking at the root of the problems, and finding out what causes these, and
then trying to figure out the right approach to overcome such condition.
Although it wouldn’t be an easy things to do.
Looking at this condition as a complicated one, our hypothesis lead
to the belief that the root of all of this might be the policy problem. This
policy problem could be related to either the content or the context. That’s
1 Human Development Index (HDI) Report, 2009. 2 World Economic Forum (WEF) Report, 2009.
3
why, one of the primary concern would be the importance role of
policymaker in making policy responding to what public has been
demanding, as well as some challenging environments.
II. Development Policy of Indonesia in Brief
A big question which usually occurred in terms of economic development in
many less developed countries is when will they reach prosperity?. So far,
there are many theories explaining this condition and trying to give solution.
Unfortunately, only few of them succeed in implementing it. South Korea,
Taiwan, and Hong Kong (SAR) could be the best examples of it, not to
mention Singapore and even now Malaysia.
In the case of Indonesia, we might say that Indonesia has achieved
certain achievement, which is to some degree may look not really good,
particularly when compared with neighboring countries achievement.
The development in a broad sense in Indonesia actually started
from the economic policy of President Soekarno—the founding father of
Indonesia—by nationalizing all Dutch companies without any compensation
at all3. The policy just regulated to take over the ownership of all Dutch
companies to become state‐owned enterprises. This nationalization policy
gave the first capital to government to run the economy development. Due
to political fight at elite level and some international influences especially
because of the change of geo‐politics in South‐East Asia region, this
economic program had never been done completely. As a result Indonesia
had the worst period of economy compared with other Asian countries.
Policy has been a major tool in determining many areas of
development in Indonesia, particularly since New‐Order regime into power
in early 1960’s. In the past, for instance, policies in economy area, well‐
3 Later on, it would be a problem, when Soeharto took place the national leadership, Dutch government asked for compensation of what Soekarno had been done to all Dutch companies. According to the international business law, Indonesia should pay compensation to The Dutch government which almost near 600 millions gulden as did they nationalized those companies. Because of low bargaining power and big pressure from outside, Soeharto’s administration decide to pay without any complaint at all. For over 30 years, Indonesia had been transferring those amount of money to the Dutch government.
4
known as planned‐development. It has been more than four decades since
the first planning programmed by government so‐called Repelita in late
1969. Under New‐Order regime, the Repelita had persistently been done
multi‐years, up to as the development in Indonesia has been going through.
Under Soeharto’s regime, Indonesia was one of the countries which
have highest economic growth in Asia. The authority invited many foreign
investors from all over the world to invest their money there. At that time,
investment in Indonesia was promising a lot, considering strong political
stability, high economic growth, cheap labors, and conducive investment
policy. Indeed, those instruments proved the feasibility of Indonesian
economy. At least, based on what’s written on the paper or statistical data,
it had reached amazing economic level. At the first time, the idea was
actually good, that was to create single powerful economic source to be a
locomotive of the rest sectors. It was expected that it would bring a
continuous growth and prosperity together. In reality, unfortunately this
policy limited the distribution of wealth over the nation. In fact, money,
capital, qualified human resources, and other economic resources were
centralized in Jakarta only. Expected growth sources had never been
created. What happened then was the huge disparity of economy between
central and local regions. At this point, it can be considered that the
foundation of economy was not established well.
Since the foundation of economy was relatively weak, when
monetary crisis struck Thailand in the middle of 1997 and spread through
other Asian countries, Indonesia could not avoid the wave of crisis. And all
of sudden, those glorious economic performances felt down drastically.
Referring to Rosenstein‐Rodan theory4, the big push of investment
has been actually implemented in Indonesia. However, this theory—
somehow—ignores policy making process and possibility of local authority
attitudes. It was shown when Indonesia received many investments, in a
short term it seemed there was nothing wrong with that, but later then,
because of poor policy and “bad” attitude of the authority, it could not
work well.
4 Colman, David & Fredrick Nixson. Economics of Change in Less Developed Countries. 1978.
5
Slightly different from big push theory, a theory of balanced growth
by Ragnar Nurkse5 focus on forced savings through an increase in taxes on
upper‐income recipients. This theory is quite difficult to be implemented,
especially in Indonesian case, where popularity of policy becomes first
priority rather than “good” policy. Again, it depends on local condition, for
some reason, the authority prefers to have popular policy—no matter how
bad it is—in order to keep the power on their hands, rather than to make
good policy which might be not popular. Taxes is a sensitive issue in
Indonesia, considering the real economic capability of people or industry
sector. Increasing taxes will pull the trigger of social conflict and other
shapes of protest.
Since Indonesian economy depends on natural resources such as oil
and gas for a long time, it should start to change this dependency to
another sector which is—in this case—tax optimalization. This major change
can only be well‐implemented as long as there is strong political will from
political elites and bureaucracy itself.
Perhaps what Hirschman6 tried to pattern industrial linkages is
closely feasible to implement. Although the idea of decreasing costs to
stimulate upstream investments will meet some difficulties in market
system, it is worth it as long as it can gain valuable outputs.
Some of Lewis’s7 surplus labor model can be adopted in order to link
agriculture sector with modern capitalist sector. Furthermore, this model
gives opportunity to transfer some of the labor from agriculture sector to
industry. The only thing that being left by Lewis is when the unlimited
supply of labor was finally depleted. Since then, there is an explanation that
the objective of the transformation of the economy would have been
achieved, and everything dealing with standard of living, prosperity and so
on had been improved. In Indonesian case, in the past, transformation of
labor from one sector to another happened because of economy
centralization. After the local autonomy act and balance of central and local
5 Colman, David & Fredrick Nixson. op.cit. 6 Cypher, James M. & James L. Dietz. The Process of Economic Development. 1997. 7 Kirkpatrick, Colin & Armando Barientos, The Lewis Model After Fifty Years. 2004.
6
finance act implemented, the trend of labor transformation spread to
several regions which has high economic potency.
The last one is Rostow’s stages of growth8. The stages trying to
describe comprehensively “step by step” of the development process from
the beginning to the end. To some degree, this stages is an explaining
model for well done development only, and ignoring other variables which
might be occurred. In fact, external environment influences a lot to the
development process, not to mention the unexpected variables.
As we knew then, World Bank and IMF took action to prevent the
spread of Asian crisis by assisting the crisis‐afflicted country’s government
with some economic recovery program and fund as well. These two
financial institutions plan were welcomed and soon implemented. The
formulation of recovery consists of:
1. privatizing and liberalizing the economy, including liberalizing import
controls, capital markets, reducing financial and legal safety nets for
business.
2. rescheduling existing debt
3. decreasing government spending by ending subsidies, and allowing
market to regulate the price, laying off workers, reducing education,
reducing health expenditure.
4. increasing export by devaluing the currency, improving the terms of
investments, reducing or freeze wages, and reducing worker power.
Since the increasing pressures come from international and even
from inside the country, the government, in this case, had no choice but
implemented all of sudden at once, without considering some social
impacts which might be occurred. Of course, this recovery program aimed
to improve the macro level of economy, to balance and strengthen the
foundation of economy, but in the other hand, in grass root level, there
were a huge disappointment and decreasing trust of the public.
This condition had led Indonesia to a dilemma, in running the
program. The biggest problem was how to provide—at least—basic need
8 Rostow, Walt Whitman. The stages of economic growth: a non-communist manifesto. 1960.
7
for people with affordable price. Since the government should end
subsidies and allow the market to regulate the price, it was difficult to make
the price affordable or even low. From time to time, there were increasing
level of price of any kind of goods. Once the government released the price
of oil, then it led a domino effect to other good’s price. As Robert Wade
(2000) said that many millions of people who were confident of middle class
status feel robbed of their life time savings and security. Public
expenditures of all kinds have been cut, creating “social deficits” that match
the economic and financial ones9.
This “unpopular” policy taken by at least four different regimes,
starting from Soeharto’s (the end of his leadership period), Habibie’s,
Wahid’s and Megawati’s. at the same time, this policy invited antipathy and
public apathy.
At the same time, Indonesian government succeed to convince
these financial institutions to continue the recovery program by injecting
liquid funds. Economic performance had seemed to be entered cyclical
period, when sometimes it is up and down in a short interval of time.
Unlike Indonesia, from the beginning the Malaysian government
refuses international assistance, and tried to strengthen their economy by
implementing some tight policy. They relied on their own rule and power.
And somehow, this policy brought Malaysia into a better condition,
compared with other crisis‐afflicted Asian countries.
When President SBY came into power for the first time in 2004,
political environment was such a free and market‐driven society. Political
awareness among public from all level has been increasing so enormous,
supported mainly by increasing‐press industry. At that time mass media had
started playing important role in developing such awareness. This condition
has led to different mechanism of how public policy should be formulated.
Government and its traditional political supporters is no longer the only
power in, particularly, formulating policy.
III. Revisiting Good Governance
9 Wade, Robert. Governing The Market: A Decade Later. 2000.
8
Why do we need to start from good governance? First, we know that this
term has been a major issue in recent years. But mostly scholars talk about
good governance in relation to the enforcement of transparency,
accountability, and many other things that is attached to governmental side.
It means that the mindset of most of us always mislead to misunderstand of
proper distribution of role for each component of governance. Thus,
secondly, policy process will not involve governmental side only, but also
the other policy stakeholders. Later on, we will briefly elaborated which of
those who belong to policy stakeholders.
Certainly there is no doubt that government in all levels‐would be
the primary institution which is in charge to make it happen. However, in
doing so, government could not solely play this role, and ignoring its
environments. Such environments like political institutions, business sector,
elements of civil society, and many other parties have shown their
increased contribution over time. Collaboration of all parties in running the
country is now unavoidable, and is actually needed. That’s why the term of
government, which dominated in the past, is now noticeably shifting to
what so‐called governance, a form of collaborated working parties.
World Bank10, for instance, had introduced principles of good
governance; accountability, transparency, predictability, and participation.
Meanwhile Bappenas has developed its own version of good governance
principles, which consists of (1) participation, (2) law enforcement, (3)
transparency, (4) stakeholder‐driven, (5) consensus oriented, (6) equality, (7)
effectiveness and efficiency, (8) accountability, and (9) strategic vision.
Above all, for us, the basic idea of good governance is to reduce the
strong power of the state and give more spaces to both private sector and
civil society to play their roles respectively.
Governance is about how to manage resources in participative,
effective and efficient ways, in accordance with responding public needs.
Governance is not a model of running a country wherein the state is the
only player there. The state has primary stakeholders to deal with, as they
need to cooperate each other.
10 World Bank, World Development Report 1997: The State in Changing World. 1997.
9
Good governance is meaningful when it contributes to the process
of achieving nation’s goal. According to UNDP, Sound governance is......
wherein public resources and problems are managed effectively, efficiently
and in response to critical needs of society (UNDP, 2002). This is related to
what Kooiman’s statement (1999) which is saying that governance can be
seen as all of those interactive arrangements in which public as well as
private actors participate aimed at solving societal problems, or creating
societal opportunities, and attending to the institutions in which these
governing activities take place.
In the case of Indonesia, the paradigm shift from “statism” or
government‐centered model to “governance” paradigm represents the
dynamic of social‐political interaction among public sector, private sector
and the citizens in accordance with the effort of achieving nation’s goal and
governmental goals, based on our consitution (Fernanda, 2008).
In fact, the term of good governance as either a concept or a
guidance has been extensively explored and advocated to all governance
components. As a concept, the term is academically well‐established and
widely recognized by all parties. Unfortunatelly it is apparently less
institutionalized, internalized, actualized in policy and service dimensions.
Hence, in nation wide, this good governance movement has been one of
major issues carried out by most central government institutions. As a
matter of fact, most of government institutions entitle good governance
program to their annual program or activity. It means that every program
undertaken by those institution is regarded as part of developing good
governance as a whole.
Meanwhile, in accordance with autonomy implementation, good
governance is also translated into local governance activities. Local parties
are encouraged to develop their respective roles in order to support and
develop their good “local” governance.
On the other hand, policy actors (executive and legislative),
including other policy stakeholders from business community, and civil
society components are not solid enough and synergized in achieving
nation’s goal. As a matter of fact, running the nation by all governance
components has an ultimate goal that is to achieve people’s welfare
10
through development activities. People’s welfare can only be achieved
effectively when the development process is supported by pro‐welfare
policy. In other words, the needs and aspirations of people can be best
translated through a good policy guiding development process well.
As a well‐known concept, up to now, there are two popular kinds of
good governance understanding namely “good public governance” (GPG)
which is related to the emphasize of public sector and its governmental side,
and “good corporate governance” (GCG) which is strongly emphasizing
governance issues within business community.
Apart from those two well‐recognized concepts of good governance
and its various perspectives, National Institute of Public Administration, so‐
called NIPA in 2008 had initiated to conduct research on the other
component of good governance. At the end, NIPA introduced the third form
of governance, which is so‐called good societal governance (GSG). In this
regard, NIPA emphasize civil society as the third sector and its role in
strengthening the building of governance. Thus, the GSG is a
complementary to complete the big picture of good governance, as shown
in the following illustration.
Picture 1
The Three Components of Good Governance
The GSG can be considered as a third concept derived from good
governance in order to balance the system. In other words, the role of the
state should be played properly, and at the same time, the roles of private
11
sectors and civil society should be increased properly. Balancing the system
is therefore needed. If the role played by the state is too powerful or too
weak, then it may lead to undesirable failure. The condition of “state‐
dominated development and stateless development” (World Bank) or “too
much state and too litle state at the same time” (Larbi, 1999) may impose
different type of policy processes.
Based on that, we may conclude that there might be three possible
configurations of governance; (1) state‐led governance, (2) market‐led
governance or stateless governance, and (3) cohesively governance.
State‐led governance or too much state will certainly lead to put
more power and discretion to the state and/or government. Consequently
it may ignore the existence of the other components of governance. Policy
process will flow from the top to the bottom with only small feedback
coming from below. This may impose some abuses or deviations, due to
weak control from institutions beyond the state.
The condition and its policy process can be shown in following
illustration:
Picture 2.
State‐led Governance
On the contrary, when the state has less power to do so, the policy
process may be chaotic caused by the absence of control. None of either
private sector or citizens can take over the policy process, due to lack of
12
capacity of them to do so. This condition is even much dangerous, and is
probably will bring the nation into worst situation, such as bankruptcy or in
other terms called government failure. The policy process will not be able
and credible enough to in rowing the whole nation. Illustration below shows
how chaotic the situation would be.
Picture 3.
Stateless Governance
The absence of credible policies would also affect the relation
between private sector and the citizens. In this kind of situation, even both
private sector and citizens may reject any policy enacted by government.
This is not because of the absence of communication channel. The problem
pretty much lies on the unequal power between the state and its
counterparts. To some extent, this model has approximately similar
characteristic with market‐driven. Roughly we can apply market approach
to this situation. However, even in the market‐driven society, wherein
market takes control of many things, rules and regulations should be
established in advance. Meanwhile, chaotic situation may be getting bigger
when the policy control taken over by society. Such situation might be
roughly similar to what happened in soviet era. Even though the trend lead
to similar situation, society would not be able to take over such control
directly, instead the society would be transformed themselves to the form
13
of the strong state, and finally end up with the ignorance of the society
itself.
Therefore GSG would provide more balanced mechanism of policy
process only when the state and private sector play its respective role
properly. We might say that GSG is a kind of missing piece of puzzle that
complete the building of good governance as a whole. The proper role
played by each component of governance does not necessarily exactly
equal from one to another. What is needed is more than just equal role, but
the strong and cohesive relation between the three. This relation will, at the
end, be translated as what we call the policy networking. Following
illustrations show the difference between equal role among the three with
and without relation.
Picture 4.
Separated governance
This illustration shows each component of governance working and
playing its role separately. Without any communication among them, it
would be difficult to develop a good and communicative policy. In contrast,
relation among the three through communication would be beneficial to
the quality of public policy, like shown on following illustration.
Public Sector
The Citizens
Private Sector
14
Picture 5.
Cohesively governance
This picture represents the most ideal work of governance, where
each component shares role to play, and at the same time keeps balancing
the system. Through this ideal model, the policy process can be made and
initiated from each of them. In this regard, the state represented by
government plays two important roles, both as an initiator and as the same
time as an executor of policy. Meanwhile the private sector and citizens can
also contribute as the agent of public service. In doing so, the three of them
should share resources and capacity, and working in constructive manner.
Conceptually, this kind of interaction among the three encompasses
three main arenas: economic governance, political governance, and
administrative governance. Economic governance deals with decision
making process which immediately and or indirectly affects one’s country
economy, or its neighboring ones. Meanwhile political governance is the
process of decision making, and the execution of policy. The third one,
administrative governance is the implementation system of public sector
policy, in efficient, effective and accountable ways11.
Therefore, the development process can be successfully run when
all components of governance can deeply understand the dynamic
character of development. Surely this can be best understood through
policy ecology perspective. Unfortunately the common criteria of successful
development are typically seen by its “end results” or its direct
11 UNDP. Reconceptualising Governance. 1997.
Public Sector
The Citizens
Private Sector
15
consequences, not by its “on‐going process” which produce that results.
That’s why the primary goal of development is not merely to increase
consumption and economic production, but also to create freedom, fair,
security and basic integrity of human being. Hence a development process
should’ve touched values aspects as well.
Therefore, governance mechanism should provide interactive space
among government, citizens and business community in achieving nation’s
goal. Without such interaction, synergy among the three would be more
difficult to develop. Some problems may occur during the interaction
between one to another. For instance, when government interact with
citizens, problems occurred slightly complex, due to its respective role to
play. Government naturally provides services to the citizens, meanwhile the
citizens should comply with any policy that government executed. This kind
of relationship shows supply‐and‐demand mechanism which may result in
complex problem, particularly when either government or citizens could not
meet balanced interaction. Accordingly the relation between government
and business community shows similar difficulties. Although this relation
would be rather dynamic than what government‐citizens relation has.
On the other hand, relation between business community and
citizens may provide various problems, as both of them are the user of the
policy. Both of them have pretty much something in common. It could be
either a common goal or a common enemy. In this regard, both of them can
mutually cooperate each other in order to pursue common goal.
16
Picture 6.
Interaction among Governance Components
In order to develop harmony among the three, there is a need of
mechanism what so‐called authotheraphetic governance mechanism. Some
informal organizations formed within society have various areas of interests,
mostly dealing with politics, economic, social and cultural issues. In the
context of governance, these various interest groups may be defined as
organized society. Basically organized society is a civil society which is well‐
informed, well society, and well access. In this regard, proper instrument of
decision making process they need is musyawarah.
Picture 7.
Autotherapheutyc Mechanism
Even though through this mechanism, each sector could arrange its
own business, it doesn’t mean each of them is free of doing whatever they
want to do. Such disorder may lead to something ungovernable. That’s why
there is a need of governing system, a system that provides guarantee in
running governance and governance’s work.
17
IV. The Need of Capacity Building & Policy Networking
Through policy ecology perspective, basically development administration is
a kind of two‐side of a coin. First, those which involve development
transformation of physical and non‐physical infrastructure such as
environment’s condition, education standardization, health’s improvement,
economic expansion, road construction, power plant and irrigation , natural
resources conservation, and so on. On the other hand, development
administration can be effectively done when the effectiveness of
government administration can be increased through pro‐people policy.
As a result, the need of competency and commitment from policy
making elites is inevitable, altogether with other governance components
to create synergy and mutual understanding. This sounds too idealistic,
when equal level of role being granted to each components. The most
possible question might be: who is going to formulate policy and execute it?.
As we may define, policy stakeholder consists of the state represented by
government and legislative, business community and the citizens. These
three components of governance can be regarded as the primary policy
stakeholders. Certainly some parts of business community and some other
parts of citizens belonged to secondary policy stakeholder as they do not
directly interact with the policy process.
Of course there is some other way in defining what policy
stakeholders comprise, which can be identified into three kind of
stakeholders:
1. Key stakeholders : Government (depsos, depdikdub, depkes under
the coordination from menko kesra), and legislative bodies
2. Primary stakeholders : civil society (NGO, professional
asociationsbusiness community)
3. Secondary Stakeholders: those who don’t have direct impact with
policy formulation.
Now let us assume that those key and primary policy stakeholders
work simultaneously based on their respective role. Then the next question
would be: the possibility to work with different capacity and resources. The
18
state, of course, has bigger and larger capacity, and not to mention its
experience in running policy process. Meanwhile the business community
has lots of resources and may be some degree of capacity to engage in
policy formulation. What about citizens? They do have interest, public
demand, and certainly basic rights. However, the capacity of citizens to
engage in such process might be still a big question. Thus, to resolve this,
the simple formulation below shows the work of capacity building and
policy networking in developing welfare.
Picture 8.
The need of capacity building & policy networking
Therefore, by starting from building capacity for each primary policy
stakeholder, we may assume that welfare development would be much
easier to conduct. As we have defined that what we meant by the state is
both government and legislative bodies, keep in mind, that the government
we are dealing with is both national and local governments, consequently
the legislative what we meant is also coming from both level.
Capacity building for the state should emphasize the role o the state
in both formulating and executing policy. So, this capacity building is
intended to strengthen its role. Meanwhile capacity building for business
community is to strengthen its role in running economy activity.
The most important thing to do is ti build capacity of citiziens. They
have awareness, but might be lack of capacity to strengthen their role to
engage in policy formulation process.
Capacity Building
Policy Networking
Welfare Development
19
The need of these capacity buildings is inevitable as policy making
process can not solely isolated from its strategic environment, in either
regional or international constellation. Policy dimension which is by and
large characterized by sovereignty of respective country, should have
opened up itself from external dynamic and its unavoidable influence. Thus
from now on, self‐learning among countries is commonly needed.
Once the capacity is built, the following need will occur; policy
networking. It means that the three stakeholders with its sufficient capacity
should be linked from one to another in order to communicate. This is
important to build a communication, not only in formal mechanism, but
more important in informal mechanism. What should be communicated?
Not only have the content of the policy but also to communicate and share
resources thay, to make the most of the policy process.
Through a good networking, policy formulation can be easily flow
and absorb any changes and demand from its stakeholder. Unfortunately,
most of the cases, this kind of communication is in formal sense. For
instance, the UU SPPN which regulate the way of national development
planning from kelurahan level until national level. Such mechanism is, of
course, important in providing guarantee of good policy formulation
process. However it has the weaknesses, such as the capacity of,
particularly, the citizens and business community.
So what is good policy? To us, good policy can perform their
functions well. To be more specific, what are the functions of social policy
(welfare policy); preventive function ‐‐‐ to prevent the poor and
disadvantage group from the condition that threaten their well being,
curative function that enable the poor, disadvantage groups to cope with
hunger, lost of income and access to basic needs and development function
that giving capacity of the poor and disadvantage groups to clam their
welfare right.
Up to now several international forums initiated is mostly intended
to meet policy makers in certain sector only, for instance world
parliamentary forum for parliament members or organizations, and
international trade forum for trade organizations, etc. Only few forum
20
initiated facilitating all policy actors representing all governance
components.
Therefore there is a need of undertaking a forum facilitating the
meet of all policy actors from all issues, involving not only governmental
apparatus and other policy makers, but also other components from
business community (private sectors) and civil society including selected
NGO’s. This forum is intended to meet those actors and to create
commitment and to increase the capacity of policy entity through
information and knowledge sharing, as well as developing network among
policy makers.
That is why; we believe that this international conference is needed
to create wider opportunity to develop capacity and policy network among
policy stakeholders. This conference can bring together all policy
stakeholders from national and local level with academicians, practitioners,
business community, as well as civil society components. Through this
conference we also want to create mutual understanding and synergy
among policy makers and other policy stakeholders. Last but not least, by
going through the conference, there is a chance to widen policy networking.
‐‐‐
21
Development of Social Welfare in Indonesia: Situation Analysis and General Issues12 Edi Suharto, PhD13
The questions to ask about a country’s development are therefore: What has been happening to poverty? What has been happening to unemployment? What has been happening to inequality? If all three of these have declined from high levels then beyond doubt this has been a period of development for the country concerned. If one or two of these central problems have been growing worse, especially if all three have, it would be strange to call the result “development” even if per capita income doubled.
Dudley Seers (1972)
The achievement of social welfare means, first and foremost, the alleviation of poverty in its many manifestations.
Howard Jones (1990) Introduction
In industrialized, civilized and rapidly changing society, social welfare has
become an important function within its national development strategies.
Social welfare is not a new term, either in global or national discourses.
Since 1960s the United Nations, for example, has addressed the issue of
social welfare as one of the activities of international community (Suharto,
2006). The UN defines social welfare as activities organized to help
individuals or communities to meet their basic needs and improve their
12 Presented at International Conference on Building Capacity and Policy Networking for Effective Welfare Development, Center for International Administration Studies, National Institute of Public Administration, Jakarta 18‐19 November 2009 13 Vice Chairperson for Academic Affairs, Bandung College of Social Welfare, Indonesia; Policy Fellow, Local Governance Initiative (LGI), Hungary. Website: www.policy.hu/suharto; Email: [email protected]; Cellphone: 081324156999
22
welfare in accordance with the interests of family and society. DuBois and
Miley (2005) define social welfare as those social provisions and processes
directly concerned with the prevention and treatment of social problems,
the development of human resources and the improvement of quality of
life. Both definitions basically delineate that social welfare is an institution
or a field of activities involving organized activities carried out by
government and private institutions aimed at preventing and addressing
social problems as well as at improving the quality of life of individuals,
groups, and society.
In Indonesia, the term social welfare can be found in Law No. 11 of 2009
concerning “Social Welfare”. Closely examined, it contains two kinds of
meanings: firstly, social welfare as a condition in which material, spiritual
and social needs of citizens are fulfilled and secondly, social welfare as an
organized activity, widely known as the development of social welfare
(pembangunan or penyelenggaraan kesejahteraan sosial) implemented in
the form of social services consisting of social rehabilitation, social security,
social empowerment and social protection (Suharto, 2009a). The main
target or beneficiaries of social welfare is the poor and vulnerable people
(e.g. homeless, street children, child labor, migrant workers), although
general population especially those facing social problems (e.g. persons
with disabilities, persons with HIV/AIDS, victims of domestic violence) can
also be the recipients of social welfare programs.
Situation Analysis
The situation of social welfare in Indonesia can be seen in the Human
Development Index (HDI). In 2007, Indonesia’s HDI ranked 107 among 177
countries of the world. Compared with the index in the ASEAN neighboring
countries, it shows that Indonesian’s standard of living was above Laos
(130), Cambodia (131) and Myanmar (132). However, while this position
was far below Singapore (25), Brunei Darussalam (30), Malaysia (63),
Thailand (78), and the Philippines (80), this ranking was also surpassed by
Vietnam (105), which ranked 109 in 2006 (UNDP, 2007; Suharto, 2009a).
23
The HDI is a composite index that measures the average achievements in a
country in three basic dimensions of human development: economic (a
decent standard of living indicated by gross domestic product/GDP per
capita in Purchasing Power Parity US dollars/PPP US$); health (a long and
healthy life measured by life expectancy at birth); and education (access to
knowledge examined by adult literacy and combined gross enrolment in
primary, secondary and tertiary level education) respectively (UNDP, 2007).
Therefore, this low HDI does not only indicate the failure of economic
development and the low quality of human resources, but also reveal the
failure of social welfare development. This is supported by the fact that
poverty and human misery are still among the most serious social problems
in Indonesia.
Although the rate of poverty between 2002 and 2009 tends to decrease,
the absolute number is still considerably high. In 2008 and 2009, for
example, the number of people living in poverty was 35 millions and 32.5
millions respectively, accounting for 15.4 percent and 14.1 percent of the
total population correspondingly (CBS, 2009). This gloomy picture of
Indonesian welfare will even look worse if it includes those categorized as
“people with social problems”, dubbed by the Ministry of Social Affairs as
“Penyandang Masalah Kesejahteraan Sosial (PMKS)”, comprising of millions
of people, such as neglected child (3.9 millions), neglected child under five
years (1.5 millions), disabled (3.1 millions), neglected elderly (2.7 miilions)
and other disadvantaged groups (homeless people, beggars, prostitute,
persons with HIV/AIDS, remote traditional community, street children, child
labor, etc) accounting for more than 11 millions people (MOSA, 2009).
What Goes Wrong?
Looking at this gloomy portrait of development, the question is: Does it
mean that since its independence 64 years ago, Indonesia did not make any
progress? The answer is no. There are some indicators that show
Indonesia’s progress. The problem is: the progress is relatively slow and
other countries make faster progress.
24
In the last decade, economic liberalization and political democratization
have made major improvement (Husodo, 2006: 1‐2). The economic system
is now witnessing the shift from overregulated economy to market
economy, and the political system has also shifted from centralistic to
decentralistic. Bank Indonesia has become more independent, the
president is directly elected, the House of Representatives is stronger,
government administration is more accountable, trading permit procedures
have become more transparent, regional autonomy has increased (some
regions even have different system from the national system). These are
some examples of the progress.
However, amid the on‐going progress, the progress of other countries is
faster than Indonesia (Husodo, 2006; Suharto, 2008). A UN expert, Prof.
Jeffry Sach points out an interesting comparison of economic indicators. In
1984, Indonesia’s export was US$ 4 billion, while China’s export was only
US$ 3 billion. But 20 years later, China’s exports had reached US$700 billion,
while Indonesia’s export was only around US$70 billion. World Investment
Report 2006 shows that foreign direct investment to China in 2004 reached
US$ 60.6 billion, while in Indonesia it showed negative number. It means
that more investors withdrew the investment from Indonesia. They moved
to other countries which they thought more profitable. Even Indonesian
investors themselves in 2004 invested around US$ 107 million abroad.
Uncertainty of law, unstable security, and unfavorable fiscal policy which
was not conducive make Indonesia uninteresting for investment.
As a country with remarkable natural resources and the potentials of
comparative advantages, the downside of Indonesia’s development should
make us aware that something is wrong in the development and the
management of this country. In short and with reference to the Indonesia’s
development strategy and the issues of social welfare development, there is
a number of factors explaining why the country still faces serious and
multifaceted social problems. Five issues are worth to be highlighted:
25
The mainstream approach of national development in Indonesia
relies heavily on economic growth and foreign debt within the
context of neoliberalism policy interventions. While it lacks of
strategies that have direct impacts on poverty, unemployment and
inequality, the economy is often vulnerable due to “debt trap” and
global crisis. Two books entitled Globalization and its Discontents
written by Nobel Prize winner Joseph E. Stiglitz (2003) and
Confessions of an Economic Hit Man by John Perkins (2004) are
proofs of development failure depended heavily on economic
growth, foreign debts, and neo‐liberalism ideology. After it had been
practiced for more than 30 years, the approach failed to eradicate
poverty. It only caused bubble gum economy and nurtured shaky
conglomeration, corruption, collusion and nepotism (KKN), social
injustice which generated 25 persent of very rich people exceeding
the average of Malaysian rich people. Some even become world‐
class jet‐sets with trillions of rupiah of wealth (Husodo, 2006;
Suharto, 2008).
Poverty alleviation programs are dominated by “project‐oriented”
interventions employing ad‐hoc, partial and residual methods. The
programs tend to be curative and rehabilitative in nature and lack of
preventive measures. All poverty reduction policies depend heavily
on means‐tested targeting. Such poverty reduction programs as
Family Hope Program (Program Keluarga Harapan/PKH), Rice for the
Poor (Beras Miskin/Raskin), and National Program of Community
Empowerment (Program Nasional Pemberdayaan
Masyarakat/PNPM) are targeted to the poor. This approach cannot
prevent people from becoming poor since beneficiaries should be
poor first before receiving the anti‐poverty programs.
Public policy is mainly concerned with state administration and
bureaucracy affairs. It lacks of responding social policy issues
concerned with such welfare strategies as social rehabilitation,
social security, social empowerment and social protection which
are administered in institutionalised and sustainable ways.
Indonesia is one of four countries (with Cambodia, Laos and Pakistan)
26
where social protection systems are very limited (OECD, 2009). In
this country about 60 percent of the population is still living without
any kinds of social protection (Suharto, 2009a). Formal social
protection schemes, such as Health Insurance (Asuransi
Kesehatan/Askes) and Social Security for Workers (Jaminan Sosial
Tenaga Kerja/Jamsostek) have only covered those working in the
formal sector (Suharto, 2009b). Although informal employees and
the self‐employed are the majority in the labour force, they are not
covered by these formal social insurance schemes. Social assisstance
programs provided by the state, mainly by the Ministry of Social
Affairs, are very limited and partial. When the Asian financial crisis
hit the ASEAN region in 1997‐98, the heavy reliance on traditional
family‐based social protection systems and, in some cases, a poorly
developed infrastructure for administering social protection
programes, led to the failure of Indonesian government to respond
effectively to the needs of its citizens (Suharto, et al., 2006).
State commitment and obligation toward the fulfillment of citizen’s
social rights are low. Social expenditure ratios in Indonesia are
below 2 percent of national GDP, far below the 4.8 percent average
for 15 Asian countries and the 20.5 percent average for 30 OECD
countries (OECD, 2009). Indonesia notes very good progress over the
past two years in reallocating spending (from inefficient subsidies)
towards pro‐poor programs (World Bank, 2007). However, this
country is still considered under‐spending in key sectors, such as
infrastructure and health. For example, the level of spending on the
infrastructure and health sectors, accounting for 10.2 percent and
4.2 percent of total expenditures respectively, is rather low by most
international standards (World Bank, 2007).
Decentralization tends to limit the responsibility and capacity of
local government in dealing with social problems. When receiving
the allocation of power from central governement, many local
governments, especially at district level (kabupaten/kota), are
applying the principle of “functions follow money” rather than
“money follow functions.” As a result, the stronger power of local
27
governments tend to be exercised to increasing local revenues (PAD)
rather than providing social services to the residents. Moreover, in
terms of local regulations (PERDA), decentralisation has produced a
number of PERDAs that are “not pro‐poor”. According to Hafidz
Abbas, Head of Board of Research and Development, Ministry of
Law and Human Rights, out of thousands of existing PERDAs, 85
percent of the regulations are made to increase PAD, 10 persen to
claim local government’s assets, and only 5 percent which is really
“pro‐poor” (Media Indonesia, 24 January 2008).
Lessons Learned Economic development is necessary for the improvement of quality of life
in a country. In order to be equitable and sustainable, economic
development should be done fairly and in accordance with the
development of social welfare. Social welfare is an important element in
social policy strategies for eradicating poverty and reducing
multidimensional deprivation. But social welfare is not the only approach of
poverty reduction initiatives. In order to have sustainable and effective
results, it needs to be implemented in combination with other approaches
within the overall context of socio‐economic development. Social welfare
policies should be put integrativelly within a broader set of policies on
macro‐economic development, employment programs, and education and
health policies and be established to reduce risks and deprivation as well as
to encourage growth with equity and sustainability.
Lessons from the bulk of literature on social welfare and social protection
show that the provision of basic social services and protection for the
vulnerable people can be affordable even in low‐income economies, and
that it always has a significant positive economic impact on the aggregate
national development goals of the country concerned (John, 2002; von
Hauff, 2002; Shepherd et al 2004; Suharto, 2009a; Suharto, 2009b). Whilst it
is estimated that significant social services and protection can cost less than
5 per cent of GDP, they have significantly short‐ and long‐term benefits to
28
the economy. Therefore, the relationship between social welfare and
economic development should not be seen as a trade‐off, as there are
many ways in which reducing risk and vulnerability serve to increase
investment and growth, positive associations which can be maximized
(Suharto, 2009b).
What Should be Done?
There is a need to have the paradigm shift in the development of social
welfare. While the system should be responsive to the dynamic and more
complex social problems, the approaches need to celebrate the principles
of human rights, democratization, and the role of civil society both in the
formulation and in the implementation of social programs. This paradigm
shift encompasses six broad themes:
1. The result of development should benefits all people
In the past, the results of development benefited only a small portion of
community which caused socio‐economic gap. Now, we need to reform the
process of development to make it more poor people‐oriented by providing
chances to people with social problems to get an access to development
resources, including easy access to capital, social services and sustainable
social protection schemes.
2. The strategies of development need to considers human being as
subject of development
The paradigm of development in the past focused more on economic
growth and physical development, and considered human being as objects,
so it caused dehumanization in development. The existence of people with
social problems as objects of social welfare development had positioned
them as passive recipients of social assistance which was given as charity.
The development paradigm that positions human beings as subjects of
development will position the people with social problems as active players
29
in activities meant for them and gives proper appreciation to their
potentials and resources.
3. The approaches of development need to reflect on local potentials and
culture
In the past, development tended to standardize models of development
and hence to ignore local potentials and culture. As a result, people with
social problems become dependent upon external assistance. Therefore,
the empowerment of people with social problems should be implemented
by digging out, maintaining and developing social resources, including local
wisdom. Socio‐cultural values, such as social solidarity, cooperation, and
trust should be optimized as basic resource in creating social responsibility.
The improvement of wellbeing of people with social problems need to
involve active role, care and capacity of the people in accordance with their
potentials and culture.
4. Basic social services are provided for all citizens
In the past, basic social services could only be enjoyed by the wealthy
people or by selected poor (narrow targeting approach). Accessibility to
basic social services should be open to all people (universal approach),
including people with social problem who so far have been marginalized.
5. Empowerment of people with social problems become joint‐
commitment between the central government and local government
During the centralistic era, poverty eradication was the responsibility of
central government. Following the decentralization of development, the
policies and programs of empowerment should be the responsibility of both
central government and local government. The relationship between
central and local government is no longer structural but functional. Local
governments need to have strong political will in designing and
implementing social welfare programs for their citizens.
30
6. Empowerment of people with social problems is done on individual,
family, group and community basis, and in an integrated way
In the past, the emphasis of intervention of people with social problems
was on group approach. Assistance was in uniform in the form of
objects/tools. Empowerment of people with social problems should not be
done by group approach only, but also by individual, family, group and
community approach. The facilities to be provided should also be in various
forms in accordance with the potentials and needs of people with social
problems, including access to financial assistance.
References
CBS (Central Board of Statistics) (2009), “The Overview of Poverty in
Indonesia on March 2009” in FacSheet No.43/07/Th.XII, July 1st,
Jakarta: CBS
DuBois, Brenda dan Karla Krogsrud Miley (2005) (edisi ke‐5), Social Work:
An Empowering Profession, Boston: Pearson
Husodo, Siswono Yudo (2006), “Membangun Negara Kesejahteraan’
(Building Welfare State), paper presented at Seminar on Mengkaji
Ulang Relevansi Welfare State dan Terobosan melalui Desentralisasi‐
Otonomi di Indonesia, Institute for Research and Empowerment (IRE)
Yogyakarta and Perkumpulan Prakarsa Jakarta, Yogyakarta 25 Juli
2006
John, Marei (2002), “Social Protection in Southeast and east Asia: Towards a
Comprehensive Picture” in Erfried Adam, Michael von Hauff, and
John Marai (eds), Social Protection in Southeast and East Asia,
Singapore: Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, pp.7‐14
Jones, Howard (1990), Social Welfare in Third World Development, London:
MacMillan
Media Indonesia (2008), 24 January
MOSA (Ministry of Social Affairs) (2009), Public Expenditure Review for
Social Rehabilitation and Services, Jakarta: MOSA
31
OECD (2009), “Key Findings: Indonesia” in Asia/Pacific Edition Fac Sheet,
OECD/Korea Policy center
Perkins, John (2004) Confessions of An Economic Hit Man, San Francisco:
Berret‐Koehler Publisher
Shepherd, Andrew, Rachael Marcus, and Armando Barrientos (2004), Policy
Paper on Social Protection, London: DFID
Stiglitz, Joseph E, Globalization and Its Discontents, New York: W.W. Norton
and Company.
Suharto, Edi (2009a), Kemiskinan dan Perlindungan Sosial (Poverty and
Social Protection), Bandung: Alfabeta
Suharto, Edi (2009b), “Social Protection Systems in ASEAN: Social Policy in a
Comparative Analysis” in Social Development Issues, Vol.31, No.1,
pp.1‐26
Suharto, Edi (2008), Kebijakan Sosial Sebagai Kebijakan Publik (Social Policy
as Public Policy), Bandung: Alfabeta (second edition)
Suharto, Edi (2006), Membangun Masyarakat Memberdayakan Rakyat:
Kajian Strategis Pembangunan Kesejahteraan Sosial dan Pekerjaan
Sosial (Building Community Empowering People: Strategic Analysis
on Social Welfare Development and Social Work), Bandung: Refika
Aditama (second edition)
Suharto, Edi, Juni Thamrin, Michael Cuddy dan Eammon Moran (2006),
Strengthening Social Protection Systems in ASEAN, Galway: GDSI
UNDP (United Nations Development Pogramme) (2007), Human
Development Report 2007/2008 Fighting Climate Change: Human
Solidarity in a Divided World, New York: UNDP
von Hauff, M. (2002), “The Relevance of Social Security for Economic
Development” in Erfried Adam, Michael von Hauff and John Marei
(eds), Social Protection in Southeast and East Asia, Singapore: FES
World Bank (2007), Spending for Development: Making the Most of
Indonesia’s New Opportunities, Jakarta: The World Bank
32
Curriculum Vitae in Brief Edi Suharto, PhD
Edi Suharto is a specialist in the area of Social Work Macro Practice. With more than fifteen years of experience, he has been serving as lecturer, researcher, training manager, programme designer and policy analyst in the field of social development and social work focusing on such areas as social policy, social welfare services, poverty alleviation programmes, social protection and social security schemes, child protection as well as Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) and community development initiatives.
Dr Suharto is currently Vice Chairperson for Academic Affairs at the Bandung College of Social Welfare, Indonesia after serving two years as Director of the Postgraduate School of Specialist Social Work at the college. From November 2008 to November 2009, Dr Suharto is Policy Fellow at Local Government and Public Service Reform Initiative (LGI), Budapest Hungary. He is also a visiting lecturer at Postgraduate Programme of Interdisciplinary Islamic Studies and Social Work, Islamic State University of Sunan Kalijaga, Yogyakarta; Postgraduate School of Social Work and Community Development, Bogor Institute of Agriculture; Postgraduate Programme of
Managament of Social Development, University of Indonesia, Jakarta; and Postgraduate Programe of Social Welfare, Padjadjaran University, Bandung. In these postgaruate programmes of social work/social welfare, Dr Suharto gives lectures and serves as thesis supervisor in a number of subjects and areas such as social policy analysis, social welfare policy and programme, human service management, social work with poverty, and community organisation and development (COCD). He often serves as consultant for international organisations such as ILO‐IPEC (International Labour Organisation – International Programme for the Elimination of
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33
Child Labour), Centre for Policy Studies (CPS), Hungary; and Galway Development Services International (GDSI), Ireland. In 2007, he has served as Special Expert for Ministry of Social Affairs for a year in developing and implementing PKH (Programme Keluarga Harapan), a conditional cash transfer scheme developed by Bappenas (National Board of Development Planning) in cooperation with the World Bank. In 2007‐2009, Dr Suharto was consultant for Plan International for CNSP (Children in Need of Special Protection) programme in Indonesia. In 2009, he is also serving as consultant for Plan International Indonesia and UNICEF for the projects relating to child protection issues. Since 2004 to the present, Dr Suharto is a member of editorial board of Indonesian Journal of Social Work. Since 2007 to the present, he is a member of editorial board of Journal of Business and Corporate Social Responsibility, Indonesia and Journal of Political Biography, Indonesia. He has published more than twenty books or book chapters as well as articles in a number of international and national journals such as:
“Opportunities and Challenges of Taxing the Urban Informal Economy” dalam Nick Devas (ed),
Local Government and Local Taxation of the Informal Economies, Budapest: LGI (2010 forthcoming)
“Social Protection Systems in ASEAN: Social Policy in A Comparative Analysis”, International Journal of Social Development Issues, Vol.31, No. 1, 2009, pp.1‐26
Kebijakan Sosial Sebagai Kebijakan Publik (Social Policy as Public Policy), Bandung: Alfabeta (second edition 2008)
Pekerjaan Sosial di Dunia Industri: Memperkuat Tanggungjawab Sosial Perusahaan (Social Work in Industrial World: Strengthening Corporate Social Responsibility), Bandung: Refika Aditama (2007)
Analisis Kebijakan Publik: Panduan Praktis Mengkaji Masalah dan Kebijakan Sosial (Public Policy Analysis: A Practical Handbook for Analysing Social Problems and Policies) (fourth edition), Bandung: Alfabeta (2008);
Membangun Masyarakat Memberdayakan Rakyat: Kajian Strategis Pembangunan Kesejahteraan Sosial dan Pekerjaan Sosial (Developing Community Empowering People: Strategic Analysis on Social Welfare Development and Social Work) (second edition), Bandung: Refika Aditama (2006)
34
“How Informal Enterprises Coped with the Asian Economic Crisis: The Case of Pedagang Kakilima in Bandung” in Edwina Palmer (ed), Asian Futures, Asian Traditions, London: Global Oriental (2005), pp.243‐264
"Human Development and the Urban Informal Sector in Bandung, Indonesia: the Poverty Issue," International Journal, New Zealand Journal of Asian Studies (NZJAS), Vol. 4, No. 2., 2002, pp.115‐133.
Pembangunan, Kebijakan Sosial dan Pekerjaan Sosial (Development, Social Policy and Social Work), Bandung: Lembaga Studi Pembangunan (1997)
He can be reached at +62‐22‐2504838 (office); +62‐22‐2502962 (fax); +62‐22‐7534913 (home); and +62‐81324156999 (mobile); or email: [email protected]
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Edi Suharto, PhD
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The questions to ask about a country’s development are therefore: What has been happening to poverty? What has been happening to unemployment? What has been happening to inequality? If all three of these have declined from high levels then beyond doubt this has been a period of development for the country concerned. If one or two of these central problems have been growing worse, especially if all three have, it would be strange to call the result “development” even if per capita income doubled
Dudley Seers (1972)
The achievement of social welfare means, first and foremost, the alleviation of poverty in its many manifestations
Howard Jones (1990)
Sectoral Development
The context
People Welfare (KESRA)
HealthEducation
Social Welfare
Wellbeing (sejahtera)OBJECTIVE
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37
In industrialized, civilized and rapidly changing
society, social welfare has become an important
function within its national development
strategies.
Activities organized to help individuals or
communities to meet their basic needs and
improve their welfare in accordance with the
interests of family and society (UN)
Those social provisions and processes directly
concerned with the prevention and treatment of
social problems, the development of human
resources and the improvement of quality of life
(DuBois and Miley, 2005)
Carried out by government and private institutions
Institution, a field of activities, or organized activities
Aimed at preventing and addressing social problems as well as improving quality of life
Social welfare as a condition in which material, spiritual
and social needs of citizens are fulfilled
Social welfare as an organized activity: the development of
social welfare implemented in the form of social services
consisting of social rehabilitation, social security, social
empowerment and social protection
The main target or beneficiaries: the poor and vulnerable
people (e.g. homeless, street children, child labor, migrant
workers), and general population especially those facing
social problems (e.g. persons with disabilities, persons with
HIV/AIDS, victims of domestic violence)
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This indicates the failure of economic
development and the low quality of
human resources, as well as the
failure of social welfare development
In 2007, Indonesia’s HDI ranked 107 among 177 countries.
Above Laos (130), Cambodia (131) and Myanmar (132)
Far below Singapore (25), Brunei Darussalam (30),
Malaysia (63), Thailand (78), and the Philippines (80) and
surpassed by Vietnam (105) ranked 109 in 2006
The mainstream approach of national development : economic
growth and foreign debt within the context of neoliberalism policy
interventions
Poverty alleviation programs: “project‐oriented” interventions
employing ad‐hoc, partial and residual methods
Public policy: state administration and bureaucracy affairs and lacks of
responding social policy issues and strategies: social rehabilitation,
social security, social empowerment and social protection
State commitment and obligation : the fulfillment of citizen’s social
rights are low
Decentralization: limiting the responsibility and capacity of local
government in dealing with social problems
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39
Economic development is necessary for the improvement of quality of life in a country. In order to be equitable and sustainable, economic development should be done fairly and in accordance with the development of social welfare
Social welfare is an important element in social policy strategies for eradicating poverty and reducing multidimensional deprivation. But it is not the only approach of poverty reduction initiatives. It needs to be implemented in combination with other approaches within the overall context of socio‐economic development
The provision of basic social services and protection for the vulnerable people can be affordable even in low‐income economies, and that it always has a significant positive economic impact on the aggregate national development goals of the country concerned
The result of development should benefits all people
The strategies of development need to considers human being as subject of development
The approaches of development need to reflect on local potentials and culture
Basic social services are provided for all citizens
Empowerment of people with social problems become joint‐commitment between the central government and local government
Empowerment of people with social problems is done on individual, family, group and community basis, and in an integrated way
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“International Conference on Building Capacity and Policy Networking for Effective Welfare Development”
Jakarta, 18 November 2009
Growth Constraints and Welfare Development
Jörn BrömmelhörsterSenior Country Economist
Indonesia Resident Mission
Content
• Welfare and public finance
• Critical contraints to growth
• Critical constraints to reducing poverty and inequality
• Welfare development and supporting systems
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Welfare and public finance
• Welfare is part of public finance and for public finance growth is important
• Whatever the welfare concept, it needs to be affordable, efficient and effective
• Welfare is about services delivered (results)
Growth mattersPer Capita GDP in 2000 US$
1980 1990 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Indonesia 397 612 800 818 844 872 904 943 983 1,033 1,083
Malaysia 1,919 2,608 4,030 3,965 4,096 4,251 4,455 4,609 4,789 5,009 5,155
Philippines 989 901 977 975 999 1,028 1,073 1,106 1,143 1,202 1,225
Singapore 9,043 14,658 23,019 21,869 22,571 23,704 25,651 26,886 28,234 29,185 27,991
Thailand 789 1,400 1,968 1,991 2,072 2,193 2,305 2,387 2,490 2,594 2,645
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Some Observations• Advancements due to prudent macroeconomic management
• … but economic growth has not been pro employment
• … poverty has declined, but the pace has slowed down
• … large proportions clustered around poverty lines
• … gap between rural and urban poverty incidence has widened
• … large disparities in poverty incidences across provinces
• … recent rise in income inequalities
• … degradation of natural resources and environment, and rising global environment challenges
Critical constraints to growth
• Inadequate and inefficient infrastructure – both at national and sub‐national levels
• Weaknesses in governance and institutions
• Unequal access to and poor quality of education
• Insufficient mainstreaming of environmental concerns including climate change in development planning
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Critical constraints to reducing poverty and inequality (1)
• Lack of access to productive employment opportunities
Critical constraints to reducing poverty and inequality (2)
• Unequal access to opportunities (leads to weaker human capabilities)
– Education
– Health
– Other social services
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Critical constraints to reducing poverty and inequality (3)
• Unequal access to opportunities (Uneven playing field)
– Infrastructure
– Land
– Credit
Critical constraints to reducing poverty and inequality (4)
• Inadequate provision of social safety nets
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From welfare challenges to supportive welfare interventions
1. All constraints are measurable2. All constraints can be compared to other countries 3. How good are the current welfare interventions? To
what extent did they assist in reducing some of the development constraints?
4. Based on the constraints strengthened and implementable welfare interventions can be developed
5. All policies and systems need to be results‐based and well governed
Terima kasih
For more information please contact:Jörn Brömmelhörster ([email protected])
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HUMAN SYSTEM AND THE COMPLEXITIES OF POLICY
NETWORK
Prof. Dr. Bambang Shergi Laksmono, MSc
Faculty of Social and Political Sciences, Universitas Indonesia
Government’s policies with the objectives and goals of improving welfare cannot stand alone and solitary. A proper policy network is needed in order to ensure that the target population receives the maximum benefit. However, to guarantee further the government’s commitment to improve welfare, the policy makers should understand the target populations as a human being – individuals, families, and societies – and its environment and system, in order to preserve their dignity and ensuring that the products of policies is always accessible in humane and uncomplicated ways.
Basic Perspectives: policy and the human system
ocial welfare policy is – basically – anything a government
chooses to do or not to do involving the issues that affects
the quality of life of the people (DiNitto, 1999). The issues of
the policy in social welfare context is very broad, ranging
from taxations, health care, education, housing, minimum
wage, public assistance, and many more. As something
created and formulated by the government, a policy must
have at least a goal or purpose. Some scholars (Gilbert and Terrel,
1998; Friedrich, 1963; Lasswell & Kaplan, 1970) would even say that
goals of a policy should be specific and thorough.
Nevertheless, a simplification on an applied term revolves
around the general idea that policy is counted as a government’s
action which would have impacts on the welfare of the population
by providing them with service, income, and other products of policy.
S
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The products of a policy can be formed in many things: public
service buildings, social projects, regulations, and such.
The receiving end of a policy is the population, the public,
ordinary living individuals, or – in a simple way – humans. Yes,
humans. The same fellow humans who attend schools as students,
going to the clinics and hospitals as nurses or patients, to the market
to buy and sell goods, working as labours in factories or clerks in
offices, tending the rice fields as farmers, bus drivers, our neighbour
and families, and many others. They are around us every day, and as
humans they are the main core of the activity of the society.
Every policy in every sector that the government made will
affect humans – individuals, families, and society – in the end. A
government’s policy on economics will directly or indirectly affects
the income or expenditure level of families. The similar manner will
happen if a government imposes a policy on social or cultural life,
which will affect the routine activities of individuals or society. Every
policy, especially concerning the matters of welfare, the individuals,
families, and society are the ones will be affected in the end (Coote,
Harman, & Hewitt, 1990). Whether the effect goes positively or not,
it depends on the quality of a policy itself and its implementation in
‘understanding’ human’s behaviour as the target of the policy.
Therefore, policy makers need to understand the human
system that revolving around an individual. As a human, an
individual and his/her life were exposed to other systems and
dynamics. There are economic factors, social factors, psychological
factors, and biological factors, just to name a few. These factors
contribute on how an individual lives. Furthermore, the dynamics of
culture, society, family, and even technology also play great roles for
individuals in perceiving his response and attitude toward
everything.
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48
Diagram A. The Human System. Note that a single individual is heavily influenced
by many aspects of life. The aspects written inside the diagram is simplified.
From the diagram, it can be seen that life of an individual is
deeply intertwined and influenced by many other aspects in life. In
natural response, an individual played several roles at a time, trying
to fulfil of what’s expected of him/her in every aspects of life. In a
similar manner, life of an individual is greatly affected when there
are changes in one of the aspects. These changes, one of them were
caused by the government trough their policies.
In the search of ultimate wellness in living, individuals will try
to balance all the aspects revolving around the human system. The
condition where individuals able to fulfil his/her needs in every
aspect and sectors adequately will lead to the state of welfare.
Therefore, policy networks must be based and centred on the
understanding of human system in order to achieve welfare for the
population, especially in maintaining their basic and advanced needs,
as well as maintaining their dignity as human beings.
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49
Complexity of the Theory: the many aspects of policy networks
It has to be understood that a policy doesn’t stand solitary.
There are complexities in such a system, especially in formulating a
policy. There are multiple aspects to be considered, whether it’s
social, political, economical, or even cultural. As a product that in
the end must be delivered to the population, a policy is by no means
free from intersectional and intersecting influences of disciplines
and themes. Therefore, when a policy is formulated, there are many
details that should not be left out, as linkages between issues, the
stakeholders, scales of the policy, inter‐policy connections, as well as
the most important: the needs of the people itself.
Linkages between issues and problems must not be
underestimated. In a modern and interconnected world, one issue is
connected to another interdependently, and has the chance of
igniting another issue (Rischard, 2003). This is due to the dynamics
of social system, where issues are not static but evolving and both
influenced by and influencing the aspects of the society and
community. For instance, the issue of poverty is deeply connected
with the issue of unemployment, lack of economic opportunities,
crimes, housing, and others. Should someone formulate a policy to
tackle poverty, the policy will have to consider those connected
issues, too, in order to achieve complete goals of the policy itself.
Even after the issues and aspects had been compromised,
the formulation of a policy also needs to prioritize the scale of issues
and its dynamics. The scale of issues and its dynamics can vary
depends on the level of importance and the size of the target
populations. For instance, a minimum wage policy made by central
government would mean the scale will be national, while the same
policy made by local government will only affect the certain region
or area.
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50
Diagram B. The scales of issues. When an issue is analyzed and a policy is
formulated, it would be very wise to consider the scale of the issues that is about
to be tackled, as well as the target and goals to be achieved by a policy. This model
is modified and simplified from Cash, et al (2006) and Kennedy,Balasubramanian,
and Crosse (2009). Note also that the list of the hierarchy on the scale is not shown
complete.
Outside the policy itself, there are stakeholders. Stakeholders
are individuals or groups that are influential or having interest in an
issue of a policy, or also those who formulates the policy. Those who
are going to be directly or indirectly affected by the policy are also
stakeholders. Now, in sense of practice, who are the stakeholders? It
depends on what policy and what issue. A policy of government’s
support in agriculture put the farmers, food distributors, and the
ministry of agriculture as stakeholders. Meanwhile, a government’s
policy on minimum wage would put the labourers and business
owners as the immediate stakeholders. To some extent, there are
also universal stakeholders such as the NGOs and mass media.
PROSIDING
51
The stakeholders are both vital and crucial in policy‐making
process. In a formulation of a policy, there are often be conflicting
stakeholders, and each will try to influence the policy makers,
whether to or not to take an action toward an issue (Sharma &
Starik, 2004). The connections between stakeholders are also crucial
in determining the forms and scale of a policy. This is coherent with
the scale and dynamics of issues itself. The larger the issue in terms
of scale and importance, the more stakeholders will get involved. A
policy on healthcare, for example, would not only bring the public,
nurses, doctors, health workers, and the ministry of health as
stakeholders, and also health institutions management, as well as
drugs and medicine companies (Galston, 2006).
Diagram C. Interdependency inside the triangle and a policy is deeply influenced by
the stakeholders.
On the grander side, it should be remembered that in all, the
stakeholders could be simplified into three categories: the civil
society, public sectors, and the business sectors. The public sector is
simply put as the government, who are there as the main thinkers of
a policy, creating laws and regulations, as well as enforcing them.
The business sector is the market itself; the main force of
PROSIDING
52
employment, supply chains, distribution of goods and services to the
consumers. Meanwhile, the civil society is the people itself as
individuals or social and cultural cohesion which made the public
and business sectors existed, as well as receiving reciprocal benefits
from them. A policy should bridge the triangle between the civil
society, public sectors, and the business sectors.
Returning to the original point, a policy doesn’t stand solitary.
A formulated and enacted policy also exposed to the connection
with other policy in the hope to achieve its goals. Often, a policy
needs another policy as continuation or as pairs in order to solve an
issue due to the dynamics of the issues and problem that need to be
tackled trough government’s policy. In the context of social welfare,
the social issues are not static. The issues are dynamics and evolving,
sometimes unpredictable in case of the changes of events.
Consequently, policy makers must also be vigilant in analyzing the
circumstances in the grassroots level when a policy is implemented.
Should there be a need to improve the policy to meet the standard
of the evolving issue, then the changes or new policies should be
formulated accordingly.
Those were also related to the predictability of an issue and
how policy makers will fare to anticipate it. While mostly issues are
both predictable and anticipated, such as population control, several
issues are not. They are unpredictable, such as natural disaster, but
it could be anticipated in terms of disaster mitigation and the
minimizing of casualties. The same nature also shared by economic
and market volatility. It will all be depended on how policy makers
can anticipate the issues trough policy network, whether they are
predictable or not.
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53
Diagram D. Predictability of issues and policy network. Notice the arrow on
global warming, which means that the issue is evolving to be on the verge of
becoming anticipated.
Another important aspect is the capability of the policy
maker to determine who does what, when, and where. While mostly
managerial, this aspect is very much important in sense of keeping
the policy to be implemented effectively, and to avoid overlapping
between governmental institutions in implementing the policy as
well as delivering the products of policy to the target population
(Butcher, 1995; Flynn, 1990).
However, despite the complexities and intertwining aspects,
it should be kept in mind that the receiving ends of a policy are the
populations, families, and individuals. Therefore, the human system
and human interest for welfare is undoubtedly should be the main
concern and core of thoughts in designing, formulating, and devising
a policy.
Challenges in Planning
Understanding the complexities of policy network might give
policy makers a grand view of the way to solve problems and issues.
However, the real challenges came in the implementation of the
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54
policy itself and also in maintaining consistency between policies, or
between policies made by the bureaucrats and the facts in the fields.
One of the main challenges is to minimize the overlapping
and contrasting policies between governmental bodies. There have
been frequent inconsistencies between policies, laws, and
regulations. Record shows that between 1999 and 2007, there has
been overruling of more than 1400 local laws. Those laws were
overruled for their inconsistencies with the superior national laws.
The laws being overruled were mostly on economics, taxations, and
incomes. But there were also a significant number of laws overruled
for their conflicting and controversial nature, such as discrimination
of human rights, gender, environmental destructions, and more.
The case happened not only on conflicting laws in the
different hierarchy, but also in the same level, and in the same issue.
One of the most infamous – in line with welfare topic – in Indonesia
is between the laws of child protection and juvenile court, on the
case of minimal age. In the Law of Child Protection, a child is defined
as a person under 18‐year‐old. Meanwhile, in the Law of Juvenile
Court, 8‐years‐old is the minimum age as a child to be brought on
the Juvenile Court.
Another serious challenge is the effort of synchronizing and
maintaining the consistency between the bureaucracy and the
people in the grassroots.
The problem lies in the inconsistency between the ‘real’
needs in the bottom and the policy from the top. Even though many
local governments have implemented bottom‐up methods in
planning, it is unfortunately not enough in securing the needs from
the grassroots.
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55
Diagram E. This shows one of the common inconsistencies between the needs of
the grassroots level with the output of a policy. Note that because the schools are
built in urban areas, the children who need it in rural area cannot have an easy
access to those schools.
Diagram E shows an example how inconsistencies are usually
being made. The population in rural areas voiced their concern for
lack of educational facilities. Therefore, there is a need of building
new schools in the rural areas. This aspiration is brought to the
governmental bodies to be responded as a policy that will deliver
them the access to educational facilities. However, the policy‐
making process and the pressures from other stakeholders would in
many times change the output of a policy. In the Diagram, the
output to the problem (the policy taken) is to build schools just as
the populations wanted, but the schools will be built in urban areas,
many miles away from where the populations that need schools
lives. On paper, the policy meets the goal and objective: building
schools. But as an outcome, the population and children in rural
area, who needed the schools the most, is only given limited – if not
none – access to the schools.
This many respects, this connected to another challenge of
how policy makers should not formulate a policy, and goals of a
policy, as merely statistics. On the contrary, the goals of a policy
should be seen as goods and services that must be delivered to the
target population in humane reasoning, giving them easy access and
the ability to maintain their dignity as a human being. The challenge
of maintaining the dignity of the target population as human being
will also lead into another issue of cultural restraint in formulating
and implementing policies.
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56
The issue of cultural restraint is connected to the autonomy
of provinces. Every provinces or regions possessed their own
characteristics, cultures, traditions, and norms. Those values were
mostly embedded into the daily living activities of the populations in
respective provinces and regions. Implementing the same policy for
all regions and provinces will not be as much effective in the
grassroots level, as there are cultural differences between provinces
which need different measures in responding the differences.
Autonomy and local self‐government is undoubtedly a way to solve
the challenge, but the facts that many local laws contradicts the
superior laws broaden the challenge on how to compromise the
laws and regulation in order to create consistency to strengthen
government’s commitment in improving the people’s quality of life.
Recommendations: the need of a paradigm shift
In answering those challenges, there are several
recommendations to be considered. First, there should be
commitments to the issues of welfare. As a concept, welfare is very
broad and encompassing all aspect of human lives. However, the
government must have a clear framework of thought that in
formulating and implementing policies in concerns of social welfare,
the interest of the individuals, families, and society as the target
populations must be put in the first line.
In coherence to the simplified triangle of stakeholders, the
government as the public sector should also support the civil society
and the market in order to create a main driving force in fulfilling the
needs of the population, as well as the delivery of the products of
policy, therefore leading them to welfare. On the theme of
improving welfare, economic development is still the most effective
way in improving the quality of life. Another is to sharpen the needs
and potentials of regions and sectors in order to create specific
advantages in economic development.
Second, in order to achieve welfare and strengthen the
commitment, the government should also ensure the consistency in
PROSIDING
57
policy, laws, and regulation. Instead of creating overlapping and
contrasting policies, the government must redouble its efforts in
formulating policies that supports each others. The consistency also
means that the effort is also subject to the commitment of creating
the state of welfare for the population. This would also means that a
reform in the way of thinking in managing an implementation of
policy.
The third and most important step to be made is the shift of
paradigm, from thinking like a bureaucrat to think like the receivers
of policy products, the target population. While there are no
wrongdoings in thinking as a bureaucrat, a policy will be more
effective when its products are safely delivered and accessible to the
target population. In logic with understanding the human system as
the core of thought in the policy‐making process, it is more than
reasonable to put forward the interest of the target population by
understanding them.
Further, this step will evolve the paradigm of policy making
from goal‐based planning into evident‐based and human‐centred
planning. Evaluating a policy is no longer adequate just by looking
into statistics of goals and objectives, but rather should be in‐depth
in explaining whether the target population genuinely benefit from
the policy or not. In the end this will raise the popular legitimacy of
the policy itself, by once again, putting the interest of target
population first as well as showing the commitment to maintain and
improve the quality of a policy.
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58
References
Butcher, T. 1995. Delivering Welfare. Buckingham: Open University
Press.
Cash, D. et.al. 2006. Scale and cross‐scale dynamics: governance and
information in multi‐level world. Ecology and Society, 11(2), 8.
http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol11/iss2/art8.
Coote, A., Harman, H. & Hewitt, P. 1990. The Family Way: A New
Approach in Policy Making. London: Institute for Public Policy
Research.
DiNitto, D. 1999. Social Welfare: Politics and Public Policy. Boston:
Allyn and Bacon.
Flynn, N. 1990. Public Sector Management. Hemel Hempstead:
Harvester Wheatsheaf.
Friedrich, C. 1963. Man and His Government. New York: McGraw‐Hill.
Galston, W. Political Feasibility: Interest and Power. Oxford
Handbook of Public Policy, chp. 26. London: Oxford University
Press.
Gilbert, N. & Terrel, P. 1998. Dimensions of Social Welfare Policy.
Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Kennedy, E., Balasubramanian, H. & Crosse, W. 2009. Issues of scales
and monitoring status and trends in biodiversity.
Environmental Program and Policy Evaluation: Adressing
Methodological Challenges, New Directions of Evaluation 122.
San Francisco: Josey‐Bass.
Lasswell, H. & Kaplan, A. 1970. Power and Society. New Haven: Yale
University Press.
Rischard, J. 2003. High Noon: Twenty Global Problems, Twenty Years
to Solve Them. New York: Perseus Books.
Sharma, S. & Starik, M. Stakeholders, the environment and society:
New perspectives in research on corporate sustainability.
London: Edward Elgar Publishing.
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59
Human Systems and the Complexity of Policy Network for Social welfare
Bambang Shergi Laksmono
Policy Network : A Definition
• A coordinated policy effort to fortify the scale of activities and
penetration capacity of intervention through effective
strategies to gain welfare impact of a society.
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(Thomdean, HarianKompas 2007)
Planning Vision for Policy Network (I)
HIV‐Aids
Elderly
Soil erosion
Global warming
Tsunami
Family breakdown
Earthquake
Road accidents
Anticipated
Predicted
Not‐anticipated/Ignored
Unpredicted
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Synchronized :
Laws, regulationsValues & concepts
Governance. Participation, corruptio
n eradication
Strategies,
economic drivers
clusters
Policy
Networking
Planning Vision for WelfarePolicy Network (2)
Spatial scale
Jurisdictional scale
Target scale
Temporal scale
Global
REGIONAL
National
Local
Trans National
National
Provincial
Local
Society
Community
Family
Individual
Decades
Annual
Monthly
Daily
Source:(Kennedy, E.,Balasubramanian, H. & Crosse, W., 2009)
PROSIDING
62
Critical Dimensions to Welfare
RiskProtection
SocialServices
PublicSafety
Freedom ,Rights &
Responsiblity
WealthRedistribution
Subsidy
Progresive taxation
Land reform
Seed capital
Digital devide
fluctuation
Climate ChangeDisaster
Industry / eksternality
Promoting
RehabilitatifPreventif
Kuratif
Child
Elderly
Disability
Social conflict
Cash transfer
Harga Komoditas Ekspor
Aviation accidents Road accidents
Public utilitiesTobacco use
Reinforcing Policy Network
Human Resources
Infrastructure
Law & Regulation
Capital & Technology
Province
regency
village
Central government
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63
Integrasi Kebijakan Membangun Skaladan Efektifitas Program
Insentif
Perpajakan
Penetapan
Afirmatif
Ruang
Pertumbuhan
Skala dankualitas
Pelayanan
Sosial
Conflicting interest betweenLaws and Local Regulations
• Since 1999 2007, there are 1406 Local Regulations has been overwritten/cancelled
• Mainly on local tax and retribution
• Other regulations were related to sensitive issues on human rights violation, religious belief, discrimination, gender equality, environmental pollution.
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Policy Network : A challenge
• Not merely increased expenditure
• Reconciling merely economic interests to social /welfare impact
• A test to discipline and smart ways to achieve maximum welfare impact
• A test of determined and accountable leadership
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Millennium Development Goals: A Framework for Welfare Development
Abdurrahman SYEBUBAKARHead of Poverty Reduction Unit, a.i.
UNDP Indonesia
What are they?
Poverty & Hunger
EDUCATION
GENDER
CHLD HEALTH
Maternal Health
Comm. Diseases
ENVIRONMENT
PARTNERSHIP
Over 50 indicators Base line: 1990
18 targetsto achieve
by 2015
8 Goals
2
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67
Where did they come from?
Millennium Summit in September 2000, world leaders adopted the Millennium Declaration
The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for improving the human condition by 2015 are derived from the Millennium Declaration
The Declaration was the high point of a series of international conferences and summits beginning in 1990 on a wide range of commitments and plans of action
Why do they matter?
The failure of development assistance to contribute to improved living conditions
They are the first set of quantitative and time‐bound goals shared by developing and developed countries
They offer an integrated, goal‐oriented framework for improving human welfare
They form the basis on which to mobilize resources for investing in human development and human welfare
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68
5
MDG achievement in Indonesia
Mixed progress, national aggregates maskdisparities across the archipelago‐‐‐a significantnumber of the districts and provinces in the outerislands are unlikely to meet some goals
On track: basic education, gender and womenempowerment, child mortality rate, reduce thespread of communicable diseases (TB)
Insufficient progress: poverty, maternalhealth, malaria, HIV/AIDS and access to safedrinking water and improved sanitation
6
Trend of the Number (Million People) and Percentage of Poor Population (%) Based on National Poverty Line, 1976-2009
PROSIDING
69
Goal 1: Prevalence of child malnourishment
37.535.5
31.629.5
22.519
13.5
9.5
27.3
26.124.6
26.4
27.5 26
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025
Pe
rce
nt
Trend Proyeksi (Depkes)
Target MDG
Target RPJM: 20
Target RPJP: 9.5
7
8
GOAL 2: ACHIEVE UNIVERSAL PRIMARY EDUCATION
NER primary and secondary enrolment (SD/MI &SMP/MTS)
GER primary and secondary enrolment(SD/MI and SMP/MTS)
Target MDGs APM SD/MI = 100
danAPK SLTP/MT = 100
94.793.393.088.7 91.3 92.2 91.6 91.6 92.5 92.2 92.7 92.3 92.9 92.7 92.6 94.9 95.1
96.292.588.7
82.382.2
55.661.1
64.4 65.770.5
74.2 73.1 76.0 77.5 78.379.9 81.1
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
19
92
19
93
19
94
19
95
19
96
19
97
19
98
19
99
20
00
20
01
20
02
20
03
20
04
20
05
20
06
20
07
20
08
20
09
20
10
20
11
20
12
20
13
20
14
20
15
APM SD/MI (7-12 Tahun)
APK SMP/MTs
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9
GOAL 3: PRMOTE GENDER EQUALITY AND EMPOWER WOMEN
Ratio of NER (girls to boys) by education levels
101.3100.0100.1 101.1
103.4101.7
103.2 102.5104.2 104.8
102.6 102.2 101.6
99.3
100.0298.00
95.20 94.70 96.10
99.60 99.90
103.20 103.70
100.10
97.1098.30 98.90
100.37
95.6093.6092.80
87.10
103.51
85.10
102.51
82.2083.60
85.30
79.50
81.80
90.00 89.90
99.5199.42
99.98100.10100.10
100.30
100.30100.10
100.1099.70
99.80100.2099.90100.60
1992
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2005
2006
2007
Rasio APM SMP/MTs Perempuan/Laki-laki (13-15)
Rasio APM SMA/MA Perempuan/Laki-laki (16-18)
Rasio APM Pendidikan Tinggi Perempuan/Laki-laki (19-24)
Rasio APM SD Perempuan/Laki-laki (7-12)
68
57
91
81
58
46 45
3435
46
2632
23
0
30
60
90
120
1991 1994 1997 2000 2003 2006 2009 2012 2015
Dea
ths
per
1.00
0 liv
e bi
rths
AKB
AKBA
AKB RPJMN
AKBA MDG
AKB MDG
10
• Indonesia achieved CMR rate set at the World Summit for Children (65 per 1.000 live birth) in 2000 – MDG Target would also be achieved
• Gaps between provinces are high
GOAL 4: INFANT AND CHILD MORTALITY
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11
• Slow progress; MDG target less likely to achieve
• Birth attended by skilled personnel : 38.5 % (1992) – 71.9 % (2007)
• Affected by social, economic and cultural factors
• Difficulties to obtain MMR in remote rural areas
GOAL 5: MATERNAL MORTALITY
425390373
334 307
255228
Target MDGsAKI = 102
0
100
200
300
400
500
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
kem
atia
n ib
u pe
r 10
0.00
0ke
lahi
ran
hidu
p
Angka Kematian Ibu (AKI) (SDKI)Target MDGs AKI
AIDS cases up to March 2008
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
AIDS Cases Cumulative Cases
12
• HIV and AIDS prevalence is small but might rise fast
• Papua: Prevalence 2.4% and has been considered general epidemics
• Knowledge on HIV/AIDS improved
Goal 6: COMMUNICABLE DISEASES – HIV & AIDS
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GOAL 7: ENSURE ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY
Access to improved water sources, urban and rural
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Rural Urban
14
Not sufficiently focused on the poorest of the poor
Global, aggregate figures mask discrepancies
Quantitative rather than qualitative
Technocratic nature, less on transforming power relations
The international accountability mechanisms for the MDGs are weak
Developed countries need to fulfill their commitment to support the MDGs
CHALLENGES
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15
Data availability and quality need improvement
A need for systematic application in planning, budgeting, monitoring and evaluation of development
Awareness and understanding of different stakeholders are limited
Contextualization at the local level needs to be strengthened.
A need for coherent and explicit strategy (Road Map) that provides clear and concrete direction to all stakeholders for realization of the MDGs
CHALLENGES
16
Establish MDGs at the core of national and sub national development plans
Integrate MDG financing in national and sub-national budgets
Build capacities systematically with a long-term horizon through to 2015
Track progress through disaggregated data
Empower communities to seize opportunities, create wealth, assert their claims Establish effective laws, institutions, transparency and accountability These are crucial for the MDG achievement and hence for sustainable human development
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Goal 1. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger Target 1A: Halve, between 1990 & 2015, the proportion of people whose income is less than on dollar a day
Source : BPS –NTB 2007
Lagging behind Likely to achieve
Already achieved
% of poor people in this district far higher than those of the provincial, national and global target
Example: MDG Scorecard
R as io penduduk mis kin (% )
7,5
16,60
24,99
28,97
‐ 5,0 10,0 15,0 20,0 25,0 30,0 35,0
MDGs Target 2015
Nas ional 2007
NTB 2007
LOMBOK BAR AT 2007
Proportion of Poor People (%)
Analysis of Utilization of Budget for
Education ‐ TTS District
Year 2008
9.53%
16.05%
4.24%
70.18%
DINAS PENDIDIKAN Belanja Langsung Barang dan Jasa
DINAS PENDIDIKAN Belanja Langsung Modal
DINAS PENDIDIKAN Belanja Langsung Pegawai
DINAS PENDIDIKAN Belanja Tidak Langsung Pegawai
25.58 % Development Expenditure 25.58 %
Staff Salary & others 74.42 %
Analysis of APBD 2008 TTS District According to MDGs
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Poverty Map VS Budget Allocation for Poverty Alleviation (Belu, 2008) Malnutrition vs Budget
(Flores Timur, 2008)
Example: MDG‐Based Maps
Thank You
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UNDERSTANDING WELFARE
AN LDS CHARITIES PERSPECTIVE
FROM PHILOSOPHY TO IMPLEMENTATION
BY:DR. LOWELL K. ANDERSON
OBJECTIVES
DR. Anderson LDS Material 2
1- To understand an LDS CHARITIES view on welfare
2- To understand how LDS Charities functions
3- To understand our view of the solution to welfare
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WELFARE
DR. Anderson LDS Material 3
Public definition:
A hand‐out when in need‐‐‐‐financial, material & emotional support
THE CHALLENGE
DR. Anderson LDS Material 4
The problem ofWELFAREMassive– every body wants
helpResources are limited
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DR. Anderson LDS Material 5
WelfareNeeds
LONG TERMIMMEDIATE
TWO APPROACHES TO WELFARE
DR. Anderson LDS Material 6
1‐ GOVERNMENT2‐ NGO’s
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GOVERNMENT
DR. Anderson LDS Material 7
The Big Picture Co‐ordinate
Resources Direct the efforts
NGO’s
DR. Anderson LDS Material 8
Address local needs Follow governments
direction
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REACHING OUT TO HELP
DR. Anderson LDS Material 9
A world‐wide organization for relief called LDS Charities
To provide immediate relief to disaster victims
To help rebuild lives
To improve the quality of life
To help eliminate disease
To provide comfort and give hope
To help people see a brighter tomorrow
DR. Anderson LDS Material 10
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A World wide organization• 13 + million members• Members in 165 countries
• Most members live outside the U.S.
• In U.S. – 4th largest membership of all churches
• Continued growth through‐out the world
DR. Anderson LDS Material 11
LDS CHARITIES
DR. Anderson LDS Material 12
IMMEDIATELONG TERM
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DR. Anderson LDS Material 13
HOW IS LDS CHARITIES FUNDED
Members of the church world‐wide donate money and time
• Members world wide fast 24 hours, skipping 2 meals—every month
• Money saved from those meals, is donated for the relief of the suffering
• Money is administered throughout the world, when & where needed
DR. Anderson LDS Material 14
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WORLDWIDE STRUCTURE
DR. Anderson LDS Material 15
H.Q .
SLC‐UTAH
EUROPESOUTH
AMERICA
ASIA
AFRICANORTH AMERICA
PACIFIC REGION
NETWORKING LINE OF AUTHORITY
ASIA AREA PRESIDENCY
COUNTRY DIRECTOR
DR. Anderson LDS Material 16
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DR. Anderson LDS Material 17
COUNTRY DIRECTOR
INDONESIA
MALAYSIA
VIETNAM
THAILAND
CAMBODIA
TAIWAN
DR. Anderson LDS Material 18
LDS CHARITIES COUNTRY DIRECTOR
NGO’SGOVERNMENT
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OUR FOCUS ON WELFARE
DR. Anderson LDS Material 19
ADDRESS IMMEDIATE NEEDS
TO HELP LESS FORTUNATE PEOPLE TO HELP THEMSELVES
After the devastation , then what?
DR. Anderson LDS Material 20
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All victims of disasters need help, hope and life saving support
DR. Anderson LDS Material 21
LDS CHARITIES Humanitarian efforts include
Emergency relief with food, water and
medicine
Long term help to help rebuild lives and homes
To help rebuild communities & provide
hope & stability
DR. Anderson LDS Material 22
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Three new medical clinics & hospital wing were rebuilt in
Indonesia
DR. Anderson LDS Material 23
New Community Center was built
DR. Anderson LDS Material 24
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In Indonesia 24 village water projects were completed reaching
over 200,000 people
DR. Anderson LDS Material 25
NEW SCHOOLS IN INDONESIA
15 new schools were built by LDS Charities.
Thousands of young children were helped
DR. Anderson LDS Material 26
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NEW HOMES BUILT
OVER 900 NEW HOMES BUILT
HOMES INCLUDED BEDS & KITCHEN SUPPLIES
DR. Anderson LDS Material 27
World wide humanitarian distributions and projects
Wheel chairs‐200,000 plus
Clean water projects in over 2,500 communities
People helped through clean water projects‐ 3,560,000
All funded by LDS Charities
DR. Anderson LDS Material 28
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Fighting measles worldwide
DR. Anderson LDS Material 29
World Health Organization estimates 6‐8 million children die annually
LDS CHARITIES contributed 54,784 volunteers
Vaccination program was performed in 28 countries
189,261,345 children vaccinated since 2003
DR. Anderson LDS Material 30
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STARFISH STORY
DR. Anderson LDS Material 31
ONE AT A TIME
DR. Anderson LDS Material 32
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FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES
DR. Anderson LDS Material 33
INDIVIDUAL SELF RELIANCE
FAMILY IS THE BASIC BUILDING BLOCK OF SOCIETY
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AN OUNCE OF PREVENTION IS WORTH A POUND OF CURE
DR. Anderson LDS Material 35
INDIVIDUAL SELF RELIANCE IS THE CORE SOLUTION
SAVE THE SEAGULLS
DR. Anderson LDS Material 36
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CYCLE OF WELFARE DEPENDENCE
DR. Anderson LDS Material 37
SELF RELIANCE BREAKS THIS CYCLE
BECOMING SELF RELIANT
DR. Anderson LDS Material 38
“—requires work. Work is a basic source of happiness, self‐worth, and prosperity. As people become self‐reliant, they are better prepared to endure adversities and are better able to care for others in need”
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SIX AREAS OF SELF RELIANCE
DR. Anderson LDS Material 39
EDUCATION
EMPLOYMENT
HEALTHFINANCES
SPIRITUAL STRENGTH
HOME STORAGE
LEARNING SELF SUFFICIENCY
DR. Anderson LDS Material 40
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DR. Anderson LDS Material 41
President Marion G. Romney taught:
“Without‐self reliance one cannot exercise the innate desires to serve. How can we give if there is nothing there? Food for the hungry cannot come from empty shelves. Money to assist the needy cannot come from an empty purse. Support and understanding cannot come from the emotionally starved. Teaching cannot come from the unlearned. And most important of all, spiritual guidance cannot come from the spiritually weak”.
EDUCATION
• One of our highest values is
EDUCATIONBRIGHAM YOUNG UNIVERSITY
ONE OF THE LARGEST PRIVATE UNIVERSITIES IN AMERICA
DR. Anderson LDS Material 42
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Perpetual Education Fund Provide scholarships & loans to members of the LDS Church from developing nations
To provide a means to receive higher education or training in skills
To provide a brighter future for their countries
DR. Anderson LDS Material 43
PHYSICAL HEALTH
DR. Anderson LDS Material 44
PRACTICE SOUND PRINCIPLES OF NUTRITION
AVOID HARMFUL SUBSTANCES
PHYSICAL FITNESS & WEIGHT CONTROL
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Strong Families Build A Strong Nation
DR. Anderson LDS Material 45
WHAT TO EXPECT
DR. Anderson LDS Material 46
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DR. Anderson LDS Material 47
Definition of personal & Family Preparedness
Personal & Family preparedness, isn’t just preparation for some kind of disaster, it’s preparation for LIFE ‐‐‐the foreseen and the unexpected
For us it is a culture‐‐‐ a way of life
EMOTIONAL & SPIRITUAL STRENGTH
DR. Anderson LDS Material 48
Learn to communicate with God through prayer
Learn to reach out & share
Develop strong family relationships
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DR. Anderson LDS Material 49
Families are forever
DR. Anderson LDS Material 50
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CAPACITY BUILDING FOR PROMOTING POLICY NETWORKING*)
Oleh :
Ketua Umum Asosiasi Pemerintah Kabupaten Seluruh Indonesia
(APKASI)
PENDAHULUAN
Penyelenggaraan Negara pada hakekatnya adalah bertujuan
untuk kesejahteraan rakyat. Hal ini sejalan dengan pernyataan yang
dikemukakan pada Pembukaan UUD 1945 alenia ke empat yang
berbunyi sebagai berikut :
Kemudian dari pada itu untuk membentuk suatu Pemerintah Negara Indonesia yang melindungi segenap bangsa Indonesia dan seluruh tumpah darah Indonesia dan untuk memajukan kesejahteraan umum, mencerdaskan kehidupan bangsa, dan ikut melaksanakan ketertiban dunia yang berdasarkan kemerdekaan, perdamaian abadi dan keadilan sosial, maka disusunlah Kemerdekaan Kebangsaan Indonesia itu dalam suatu Undang‐Undang Dasar Negara Indonesia, yang terbentuk dalam suatu susunan Negara Republik Indonesia yang berkedaulatan rakyat dengan berdasarkan kepada Ketuhanan Yang Maha Esa, Kemanusiaan Yang Adil dan Beradab, Persatuan Indonesia dan Kerakyatan yang dipimpin oleh hikmat kebijaksanaan dalam Permusyawaratan/Perwakilan, serta dengan mewujudkan suatu Keadilan sosial bagi seluruh rakyat Indonesia.
Disini sangat jelas bahwa terbentuknya pemerintahan Negara yang
akan menyelenggarakan Negara adalah ditujukan salah satunya
untuk mewujudkan kesejahteraan rakyat. Amanat tersebut juga
mengandung makna negara berkewajiban memenuhi kebutuhan
*) Makalah disajikan pada International Conference on Building Capacity and
Policy Networking for Effective Welfare Development, Lembaga Administrasi Negara (LAN), Jakarta, 17-19 Nopember 2009.
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setiap warga negara melalui suatu sistem pemerintahan yang
mendukung terciptanya penyelenggaraan pelayanan publik yang
prima dalam rangka memenuhi kebutuhan dasar dan hak sipil setiap
warga negara atas barang publik, jasa publik, dan pelayanan
administratif.
Upaya mewujudkan kesejahteraan rakyat tentu tidak terlepas
dari kebijakan yang ditetapkan atau diambil oleh penyelenggara
Negara. Kebijakan sebagai produk pengambilan keputusan politik
antara legislatif dan eksekutif maupun kebijakan sebagai produk
pengambilan keputusan yang dilakukan oleh eksekutif dalam
penyelenggaraan Negara sehari‐hari.
Perumusan dan pengambilan keputusan oleh penyelenggara
Negara yang akan melahirkan suatu kebijakan sangat dipengaruhi
berbagai faktor internal dan eksternal dari suatu Negara. Demikian
juga halnya bagi penyelenggara Negara di tingkat lokal/daerah,
kebijakan yang dihasilkan disamping sangat ditentukan oleh kondisi
kebutuhan dan kemampuan masing‐masing daerah juga sangat
dipengaruhi dan ditentukan oleh kebijakan penyelenggara Negara di
tingkat nasional. Dan bahkan kebijakan di tingkat lokal ini juga
dipengaruhi oleh faktor‐faktor regional dan internasional.
KEBIJAKAN PUBLIK
Apa itu kebijakan publik? Kebijakan publik adalah suatu
istilah atau konsep yang tidak asing lagi di kalangan penyelenggara
negara maupun di kalangan masyarakat. Banyak pendapat ahli yang
mengemukakan tentang pengertian kebijakan publik. Secara umum
dapat kita lihat terdapat dua kelompok besar yaitu; pertama,
kebijakan publik adalah tindakan‐tindakan pemerintah, dan kedua,
kebijakan publik adalah keputusan‐keputusan pemerintah yang
mempunyai maksud dan tujuan tertentu.
Dengan demikian secara umum kebijakan publik dapat
diartikan sebagai keputusan‐keputusan yang merupakan pilihan dari
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pemerintah untuk maksud dan tujuan tertentu yang pada akhirnya
akan melahirkan tindakan‐tindakan nyata dari pemerintah.
Kebijakan publik tentu saja tidak lahir begitu saja, namun
lahirnya kebijakan publik tentu melalui beberapa proses dan
tahapan. Berdasarkan pendapat beberapa ahli proses kebijakan
publik terdiri atas beberapa langkah yaitu :
1. policy germination, penyusunan konsep kebijakan sebagai
akibat adanya kebutuhan yang dirasakan.
2. policy recommendation, pengumpulan saran pendapat
sebagai bahan pengambilan keputusan.
3. policy analysis, telaahan dan kajian terhadap bahan yang
telah dikumpulkan.
4. policy formulation, perumusan terhadap kebijakan yang
diambil.
5. policy decision, pengambilan keputuasan melalui bentuk
pengesahan secara formal oleh lembaga berwenang.
6. policy implementation, pelaksanaan dari kebijakan yang
dijabarkan melalui berbagai program dan kegiatan.
7. policy evaluation, monitoring dan evaluasi secara berkala
terhadap pelaksanaan kebijakan, serta pengkajian terhadap
dampaknya.
Kebijakan publik di tingkat lokal/daerah selayaknya juga
mengalami proses tahapan sebagaimana di atas. Namun dalam
kenyataannya proses lahirnya kebijakan publik kadang kala hanya
muncul secara mendadak demi kepentingan sesaat dan kepentingan
pihak tertentu. Kondisi ini sering kali menyebabkan terjadinya
konflik kepentingan baik secara horizontal maupun vertikal.
Lahirnya kebijakan publik tanpa melalui proses dan tahapan
secara benar mempunyai dampak terhadap implementasi kebijakan
tersebut. Bahkan kebijakan tersebut jauh dari tujuan ideal
penyelenggaraan negara untuk mewujudkan kesejahteraan rakyat.
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Kebijakan yang lahir demi kepentingan sesaat ini sering membawa
dampak yang kurang baik terhadap upaya mewujudkan
kesejahteraan rakyat.
PENTINGNYA JEJARING KEBIJAKAN
Penyelenggaraan negara di tingkat lokal yang
diselenggarakan oleh Pemerintahan Daerah juga tidak terlepas dari
proses penetapan kebijakan. Untuk dapat menyelenggarakan fungsi
tersebut pemerintahan daerah yang terdiri dari komponen
pemerintah daerah (eksekutif) dan DPRD (legislatif) melahirkan
kebijakan dalam bentuk Peraturan Daerah. Kemudian sebagai
pelaksanaan dari kebijakan tersebut Kepala Daerah sebagai
pimpinan eksekutif juga melahirkan berbagai bentuk kebijakan
seperti Peraturan Kepala Daerah, Keputusan Kepala Daerah,
instruksi dan lain sebagainya.
Semenjak bergulirnya reformasi dalam penyelenggaraan
pemerintahan daerah yang diawali dengan lahirnya Undang‐Undang
Nomor 22 Tahun 1999 tentang Pemerintahan Daerah yang
kemudian diikuti dengan lahirnya Undang‐Undang Nomor 32 Tahun
2004 telah terjadinya perubahan yang sangat signifikan dalam
proses lahirnya kebijakan dalam penyelenggaraan pemerintahan
daerah.
Jika sebelumnya kebijakan penyelenggaraan daerah oleh
pemerintahan daerah sangat dipengaruhi secara dominan oleh
pemerintahan pusat, maka dengan lahirnya UU 22/1999 dan UU
32/2004 telah memberikan ruang dan kebebasan bagi pemerintahan
daerah untuk lebih kreatif dalam menetapkan kebijakan
penyelenggaraan pemerintahan daerah. Kebebasan dalam
melahirkan kebijakan tersebut kadang kala juga melahirkan
kebijakan yang bertentangan dengan kepentingan umum dan
bahkan dapat menyebabkan terjadinya konflik antar daerah
sehingga mengakibatkan tidak dapat dibangunnya sinergi antar
daerah dalam mewujudkan kesejahteraan rakyat.
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Untuk mengatasi adanya hambatan dan konflik kepentingan
antar daerah maka Undang‐Undang Nomor 22 Tahun 1999 pasal 115
mengakomodir terbentuknya Asosiasi Pemerintah Daerah. Yang
dimaksud dengan Asosiasi Pemerintah Daerah adalah organisasi
yang dibentuk oleh Pemerintah Daerah dalam rangka kerja sama
antar‐Pemerintah Propinsi, antar Pemerintah Kabupaten, dan/atau
antar‐Pemerintah Kota berdasarkan pedoman yang dikeluarkan oleh
Pemerintah. Sebagai tindak lanjut ketentuan pasal 115 ini maka
lahirlah asosiasi pemerintah daerah yaitu APPSI (Asosiasi Pemerintah
Propinsi Seluruh Indonesia), APEKSI (Asosiasi Pemerintah Kota
Seluruh Indonesia) dan APKASI (Asosiasi Pemerintah Kabupaten
Seluruh Indonesia).
Melalui asosiasi pemerintah daerah dibangun kerjasama yang
diharapkan melahirkan sinergi antar pemerintah daerah dalam
mewujudkan kesejahteraan masyarakat. Semenjak terbentuknya
asosiasi pemerintah daerah tersebut telah dijalin kerjasama dalam
memperjuangkan kepentingan daerah. Melalui wadah ini dilakukan
berbagai upaya fasilitasi dan inisiasi terhadap lahirnya berbagai
kebijakan nasional untuk kepentingan daerah serta kebijakan daerah
yang selaras dan sejalan dengan kepentingan nasional.
Kenapa jejaring kebijakan ini menjadi penting dalam
penyelenggaraan negara baik di tingkat nasional dan tingkat
lokal/daerah?
Perumusan kebijakan dalam rangka pembangunan suatu
negara juga tidak bisa dilepaskan dari pengaruh lingkungan strategis
di tingkat kawasan (regional) maupun konstelasi internasional.
Dimensi kebijakan publik yang menjadi ciri kedaulatan dan
kewenangan sebuah negara harus bisa membuka diri terhadap
dinamika lingkungan luar. Sehingga pembelajaran antar negara
menjadi penting untuk dilakukan.
Demikian juga halnya dalam perumusan kebijakan dalam
rangka pembangunan daerah tentu tidak bisa terlepas dari pengaruh
dari daerah lainnya baik daerah tetangga langsung maupun daerah
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lainnya dalam suatu negara. Daerah yang berbatasan secara
langsung akan saling mempengaruhi dalam melahirkan kebijakan
untuk daerahnya. Demikian juga antara yang dianggap sudah maju
dengan yang berkembang. Biasanya daerah maju akan menjadi
rujukan bagi daerah berkembang dalam merumuskan dan
menetapkan kebijakan.
Undang‐Undang Nomor 32 Tahun 2004 tentang
Pemerintahan Daerah mengatur tentang adanya kerjasama antar
daerah yaitu :
Pasal 195
(1) Dalam rangka meningkatkan kesejahteraan rakyat, daerah dapat
mengadakan kerja sama dengan daerah lain yang didasarkan
pada pertimbangan efisiensi dan efektifitas pelayanan publik,
sinergi dan saling menguntungkan.
(2) Kerja sama sebagaimana dimaksud pada ayat (1) dapat
diwujudkan dalam bentuk badan kerja sama antar daerah yang
diatur dengan keputusan bersama.
(3) Dalam penyediaan pelayanan publik, daerah dapat bekerja sama
dengan pihak ketiga.
(4) Kerja sama sebagaimana dimaksud pada ayat (1) dan ayat (3)
yang membebani masyarakat dan daerah harus mendapatkan
persetujuan DPRD.
Pasal 196
(1) Pelaksanaan urusan pemerintahan yang mengakibatkan dampak
lintas daerah dikelola bersama oleh daerah terkait.
(2) Untuk menciptakan efisiensi, daerah wajib mengelola pelayanan
publik secara bersama dengan daerah sekitarnya untuk
kepentingan masyarakat.
(3) Untuk pengelolaan kerja sama sebagaimana dimaksud pada ayat
(1) dan ayat daerah membentuk badan kerja sama.
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(4) Apabila daerah tidak melaksanakan kerja sama sebagaimana
dimaksud pada ayat (1) dan ayat (2), pengelolaan pelayanan
publik tersebut dapat dilaksanakan oleh Pemerintah.
Dari ketentuan pasal 195 dan 196 Undang‐Undang Nomor 32
Tahun 2004 dapat disimpulkan kenapa diperlukan adanya jejaring
kebijakan, diantaranya yaitu :
1. Kemampuan daerah terbatas
Perbedaan potensi sumber daya yang dimiliki masing‐masing
daerah, baik sumber daya manusia, sumber daya alam maupun
sumber daya finansial mengakibatkan adanya perbedaan
kemampuan antar daerah. Perbedaan kemampuan daerah ini
menyebabkan adanya keterbatasan kemampuan daerah dari
berbagai aspek. Karena keterbatasan kemampuan ini maka
daerah memerlukan adanya kerjasama dan proses pembelajaran
antar daerah.
Melalui kerjasama dan jejaring kebijakan ini diupayakan untuk
mengatasi keterbatasan kemampuan daerah yang pada akhirnya
akan meningkatkan kapasitas daerah dalam penyelenggaraan
urusan‐urusan guna mewujudkan kesejahteraan rakyat pada
masing‐masing daerah khususnya dan rakyat Indonesia pada
umumnya.
2. Dampak hubungan lintas daerah
Pembagian wilayah administrasi pemerintahan daerah tidak
begitu saja dapat memisahkan rakyat dalam beraktifitas.
Hubungan lintas daerah membawa dampak yang signifikan
terhadap daerah yang saling berbatasan. Daerah sedang
berkembang yang berbatasan langsung dengan daerah maju
akan terpengaruh dengan daerah tetangganya dan akan
termotivasi untuk meningkatkan kapasitas untuk mendekati
bahkan berupaya mengejar ketertinggalannya.
Disisi lain hubungan lintas daerah juga bisa membawa dampak
negatif, seperti daerah yang tidak terurus dan semrawut akan
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membawa pengaruh kepada daerah tetangga yang sudah tertib
dan teratur.
3. Efektifitas dan efisiensi
Keterbatasan kemampuan suatu daerah mengharuskan suatu
daerah untuk berupaya optimal memenuhi kebutuhan
masyarakatnya. Melalui kerjasama antar daerah akan
membantu daerah dalam mewujudkan kesejahteraan rakyat
tersebut. Dengan membangun kerjasama dan jejaring kebijakan
antar daerah tersebut maka masing‐masing daerah akan
mendapatkan kemudahan dan keringanan dalam penyediaan
sarana prasarana, pembiayaan dan sebagainya sehingga akan
terwujud efisiensi dalam penyelenggaraan daerah.
4. Sinergi hubungan antar daerah
Sinergi hubungan antar daerah akan mendorong efektifitas
pencapaian tujuan dan target pembangunan masing‐masing
daerah. Masing‐masing daerah tidak bisa berjalan sendiri dan
untuk itu perlu adanya sinergi antar daerah. Sejalan dengan
konsep Negara Kesatuan Republik Indonesia, maka sinergi antar
daerah merupakan suatu keharusan karena melalui sinergi
tersebut akan dapat dikukuhkan persatuan dan kesatuan bangsa.
5. Proses Pembelajaran
Pengalaman masing‐masing daerah dalam mengelola dan
penyelenggaraan daerah akan dapat dijadikan oleh daerah
lainnya sebagai rujukan dan proses pembelajaran menuju
penyelenggaraan daerah yang lebih baik, efektif dan efisien.
Demikian juga halnya pengalaman ”best practises” yang ada
pada di berbagai pemerintahan lokal maupun nasional di
berbagai negara.
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PENINGKATAN KAPASITAS JEJARING KEBIJAKAN
Memperhatikan pentingnya jejaring kebijakan dalam
mewujudkan kesejahteraan rakyat maka upaya membangun atau
peningkatan kapasitas menjadi tujuan penting yang perlu segera
diwujudkan. Oleh sebab itu dalam membangun kapasitas tersebut
perlu adanya masukan pemikiran dan perumusan kesepahaman
yang meliputi :
1. Bentuk jaringan kebijakan
Bentuk jaringan kebijakan yang akan dibangun memperhatikan
kebutuhan dan kemampuan sumber daya yang ada. Bentuk
jaringan dapat mengadopsi best practises dari berbagai negara
yang sudah mengembangkannya.
2. Pengelolaan jaringan
Mekanisme pengelolaan jaringan serta titik simpul kendali
jaringan yang akan dibangun perlu dilegalkan dan diterima
semua pihak
3. Penajaman tujuan dan sasaran
Tujuan dan sasaran yang akan dicapai melalui jejaring kebijakan
ini harus mempunyai tujuan dan sasaran yang jelas dan tegas.
4. Menetapkan prioritas
Perlu adanya penetapan skala prioritas terhadap tahapan yang
akan dilaksanakan dan tujuan yang akan dicapai
5. Peranan masing‐masing stakeholders
Karena jejaring kebijakan ini melibatkan berbagai unsur maka
perlu pengaturan peranan dari masing‐masing pihak.
6. Pengelolaan sumber daya dan pembiayaan
Sumber daya yang ada serta pembiayaan jejaring kebijakan ini
perlu ditata secara komprehensif sehingga dapat tercapainya
efektifitas dan efisiensi.
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Bagi jajaran pemerintahan di daerah upaya peningkatan
kapasitas jejaring kebijakan ini perlu adanya penyamaan persepsi
dan visi antara unsur pemerintah daerah (eksekutif), DPRD
(legislatif), dunia usaha, akademisi dan stakeholders lainnya. Dan
yang sangat penting disini adalah bagaimana terbangunnya
persamaan persepsi tentang kesejahteraan rakyat di antara
komponen eksekutif dan legislatif di daerah.
ASOSIASI PEMERINTAH KABUPATEN
SELURUH INDONESIA
Ketua Umum,
H. Sujono
Bupati Pacitan
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PENGEMBANGAN KAPASITAS DALAM JEJARING KEBIJAKAN
Disampaikan pada:International Conference on Building Capacity and Policy Networking for
Effectiveness Welfare DevelopmentJakarta, 19 November 2009
APEKSI
Dideklarasikan pada tanggal 25 Mei 2000 padasaat Munas para Wali Kota Seluruh Indonesiadi Surabaya
Saat ini Apeksi beranggotakan 98 pemerintahkota di seluruh Indonesia
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VISITerwujudnya organisasi yang strategisuntuk pemberdayaan kota‐kota dalamrangka pelaksanaan otonomi di Indonesia
MISIMenjadikan organisasi yang terpercaya, profesional dibidang perkotaan dalam mendukung dan melaksanakanupaya terbaik bagi pemerintahan kota melaluipembangunan yang demokratis, transparan, otonomiyang bertanggung jawab, sebagai bagian dari masyarakatbaru pada struktur pemerintahan di Negara KesatuanRepublik Indonesia
LINGKUP PROGRAM KERJA 2008‐2012
1. Pengembangan Kapasitas Kota
2. Advokasi
3. Kerjasama Antar Daerah
4. Komunikasi dan Informasi
5. Kemitraan
6. Konsolidasi Organisai
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KESEJAHTERAAN : DALAM TATARAN NORMATIF (UUD NEGARA RI 1945)
Ditegaskan dalam Alinea IV Pembukaan UUD Negara RI 1945
“Kemudian daripada itu, untuk membentuk suatuPemerintahan Negara Indonesia yang melindungisegenap bangsa Indonesia dan seluruh tumpah darahIndonesia dan untuk memajukan kesejahteraanumum, mencerdaskan kehidupan bangsa…. dst
Kesimpulan : Pemerintah RI dibentuk untukmelindungi (Law and Order) dan mensejahterakanrakyat (Welfare)
BAGAIMANA MENCIPTAKAN KESEJAHTERAAN OLEH PEMERINTAH
DEKONSENTRASI(PEMERINTAH WILAYAH/FIELD ADMINISTRATION)
FUNCTIONAL FIELDADMINISTRATION;KANDEP/KANWIL
INTEGRATED FIELDADMINISTRATION;KEPALA WILAYAH
PEMERINTAH PUSAT
POWER SHARING
1. OTONOMI TERBATAS(ULTRA VIRES)
2. OTONOMI LUAS (GENERAL COMPETENCE)
DESENTRALISASI(PEMERINTAH DAERAH)
Sumber: I Made Suwandi
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URGENSI KEBERADAAN PEMERINTAH DAERAH
1. Keberadaan Pemda untuk melindungi dan mensejahterakan masyarakat secara demokratis
2. Kesejahteraan diukur dengan Indeks Pembangunan Manusia (Human Development Index), dengan indikator utamanya (i) penghasilan; (ii) kesehatan; dan (iii) pendidikan.
3. Untuk meningkatkan pencapaian HDI dilakukan melalui pelayanan publik yang sesuai dengan kebutuhan masyarakat
4. Kebutuhan masyarakat terdiri dari : (i) Kebutuhan Pokok (Basic Needs); dan Kebutuhan Pengembangan Sektor Unggulan (Core Competences). Sektor unggulan dapat diidentifikasi dari sintesis PDRB, mata pencaharian, dan pemanfaatan lahan.
Pasal 18A UUD Negara RI
(1) Hubungan wewenang antara Pemerintah dan pemerintah daerah provinsi, kabupaten, dan kota, atau antara provinsi dan kabupaten dan kota diatur dengan undang‐undang dengan memperhatikan kekhususan dan keragaman daerah.
Kesimpulan :
1. Pemerintah Pusat, Provinsi, dan Kabupaten/Kotaberkewajiban dan mempunyai kewenangan untukmenciptakan ketentraman dan ketertiban sertakesejahteraan masyarakat
2. Dalam rangka menciptakan ketentraman dan ketertibanserta kesejahteraan masyarakat wajib bersinergi.
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Misi utama Pemda adalah :
Menyediakan pelayanan dasar (Basic Services) dan mengembangkan sektor unggulan (Core Competences) dengan cara‐cara yang demokratis
Outputs / end products Pemda adalah :
a. Public Goods; barang‐barang kebutuhanmasyarakat, seperti : jalan, pasar, sekolah, RS, dsb.
b. Public Regulations; pengaturan‐pengaturanmasyarakat, seperti KTP, KK, IMB, HO, AkteKelahiran, dsb.
Kesimpulan :
Pemda harus mempunyai kewenangan‐kewenangan yangmemungkinkan mereka dapat menghasilkan public goods danpublic regulations yang sesuai dengan kebutuhan masyarakat(kebutuhan dasar dan pengembangan sektor unggulan)
KEBIJAKAN:
PembangunanKesejahteraan
PENJARINGAN ASPIRASI
PENYUSUNAN
PELAKSANAAN
PENGAWASAN
SIKLUS KEBIJAKAN (Kebijakan ‐> Pembangunan Kesejahteraan)
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STRATEGI APEKSI
SIKLUS KEBIJAKAN
PENJARINGAN
ASPIRASI
Focus Group Discussion dan seminar untuk penjaringan masukan terhadap suatu perundangan
PENYUSUNAN
Pelatihan dan workshop penyusunan kebijakan
PELAKSANAAN
Repat Kerja Teknis, Pelatihan, Workshop, Magang, Studi banding, Penerbitan buku
PENGAWASAN
Pelatihan dan workshop pengawsan/analisis tentang suatu kebijakan baik nasional, di tingkat daerah/kota
•Revisi UU 32/2004
•Revisi PP 38/2007
•Revisi UU Pajak dan Retribusi Daerah
•PP tentang Pelabuhan dan Bandara
•Posisi terhadap perubahan iklim
• Pelatihan/workshop penyusunan anggaran
• Pelatihan/workshop penyusuan perda
• Pelatihan/workshop penyusunan laporan keuangan
• Rapat teknis bagi Sekda untuk implementasi UU baru: sampah, penanggulangan bencana, perubahan iklim
• Magang manajemen pemerintahan ke Korea
• Peberbitan buku Best Practice, pinjaman dan obligasi daerah
• Workhsop Hasil Studi pencegahan tindak pidana korupsi
PROSIDING
117
JEJARING KEBIJAKAN :
STAKEHOLDERS
ASOSIASI PEMERINTAHAN
DAERAH: APEKSI, APKASI, ADEKSI, ADKASI, APPSI
INSTANSI PEMERINTAH :
DEPDAGRI, DEPKEU, KLH, KPP,
MENPAN
DPR/DPD
PERGURUAN TINGGI/AKADEMIS
I/PUSAT STUDI : UI, UGM, dsbORNOP :
KPPOD, PSHK, dsb
LEMBAGA INTERNASIONAL:
CITYNET, KAS, UNDP, GTZ, dsb.
MEDIA MASSA
JARINGAN ASOSIASI
PEMERINTAHAN DAERAH DUNIA :
UCLG, VNG
Rasuna Office Park Lt. 3 Unit WO 06‐09
Komplek Rasuna Episentrum
Jl. H.R. Rasuna Said, Kuningan – Jakarta 12960
Telp. (021) 8370 4703, 9393 890
Fax. (021) 8370 4733
Website: www.apeksi.or.id
Email: [email protected]