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1. Personality and organisational commitment................................................................................................. 1

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02 March 2015 ii ProQuest

Document 1 of 1 Personality and organisational commitment Author: Spagnoli, Paola; Caetano, Antonio ProQuest document link Abstract: Purpose - This study aims to test the mediating role of work satisfaction aspects, such as satisfactionwith the work itself and satisfaction with human resource practices, in the relationship between the Big Five andorganisational commitment. Design/methodology/approach - Data from 190 new police officers in a three-wavelongitudinal survey were analysed by structural equation modelling (SEM). Findings - Results showed that:satisfaction with human resource practices completely mediated the relationship between openness toexperience and normative commitment; satisfaction with the work itself completely mediated the relationshipbetween conscientiousness and normative commitment whereas it partially mediated the relationship betweenextroversion and affective commitment. Research limitations/implications - This study is focused on the policecontext. Future studies should investigate other contexts for comparison. Practical implications - The predictiveeffect of personality on both job satisfaction and organisational commitment has some practical utility withregard to selection practices. During the organisational entry process, organisations should monitor differentaspects of job satisfaction in order to foster a positive environment for employees. Originality/value - To theauthors' knowledge, this is the first study that investigates the process linking personality to job satisfaction andorganisational commitment in a unique longitudinal model during the organisational socialisation process. Full text: Introduction Today more than ever, organisations must compete to attract and retain high quality employees. Lawenforcement agencies face the additional challenge of having to maintain a stable workforce committed to thework and the organisation. Because of the extensive training costs associated with grooming a police officer, ithas become increasingly important to ensure the adjustment and retention of new employees ([44] McElroy etal. , 1999). Recent meta-analysis on organisational socialisation literature showed that organisationalcommitment and job satisfaction are the two most relevant distal outcomes of the adjustment process ([6] Baueret al. , 2007; [58] Saks et al. , 2007). One of the most relevant models of organisational commitment wasproposed by [2] Allen and Meyer (1990). They assumed that organisational commitment could be generatedfrom at least one of three mind-sets that depict three diverse forms of organisational commitment: affective commitment that reflects the affective attachment to, identification with, and involvement in theorganisation; continuance commitment that represents the perceived cost of leaving; and normative commitment that reflects the obligation to remain. Job satisfaction that can be defined as "... an attitude individuals have about their jobs. It results from theirperception of their jobs and the degree to which there is a good fit between the individual and the organisation"([32] Ivancevich et al. , 1997, p. 86). Several studies have explored the development of organisational commitment during the initiation period of ajob (e.g. [7] Beck and Wilson, 2000; [23] Farkas and Tetrick, 1989; [45] Meyer and Allen, 1988; [53] Ostroff andKozlowski, 1992) and all of them reported a decreasing incidence of organisational commitment during thisearly period. The explanation for this is traditionally attributed to reality shock, unmet expectations or exposureto negative experiences ([46] Meyer and Allen, 1997). Traditionally, literature on organisational commitment and job satisfaction has held that they are correlates butthere is no consensus concerning their causal order ([30] Huang and Hsiao, 2007). The prevailing view incurrent literature assumes, however, that satisfaction is an antecedent of commitment ([34] Jernigan et al. ,2002; [51] Mowday et al. , 1982; [52] Mueller et al. , 1994) and that the effects of various antecedents on

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commitment are mediated through job satisfaction ([33] Iverson and Roy, 1994; [40] Lok and Crawford, 2001;[49] Michaels, 1994; [55] Price and Mueller, 1981). After some decades of studies mainly focused on the environmental factors predicting job satisfaction andorganisational commitment, a renewed interest in studying these two constructs through a dispositionalapproach has emerged ([11] Bruk-Lee et al. , 2009; [22] Erdheim et al. , 2006; [36] Judge et al. , 2002; [71]Zettler et al. , 2011). Within organisational socialisation literature, however, findings related to the impact ofpersonality variables on organisational outcomes are scant ([69] Wanberg and Kammeyer-Mueller, 2000) andare mainly focused on proximal outcomes such as role conflict, role ambiguity, task mastery and socialintegration. Thus, studies examining the role of personality variables on distal outcomes (i.e. commitment andjob satisfaction) are still lacking. An understanding of the role a police officer's personality plays in the development of organisationalcommitment would provide interesting information for practitioners with regard to selecting and recruiting policeofficers. In fact, traditionally, literature has mainly focused on the relationship between personality andbehavioural outcomes, such as police officers' performance (e.g. [4] Barrick and Mount, 1991; [59] Salgado,1997; [20] Detrick et al. , 2004), and neglected the impact of personality on job attitudes. Nevertheless, there is little one can do to affect officers' personalities once on the job. Therefore, managerialinterventions, which focus on work-related attitudes such as different aspects of job satisfaction, may increasepolice officers' organisational commitment and consequently help towards their adjustment and retention (e.g.[8] Bellou, 2010; [10] Brough and Frame, 2004; [19] Dantzker and Surrette, 1996; [13] Chan and Doran, 2009;[68] Van der Heijden et al. , 2009). Accordingly, it is assumed here that two aspects of job satisfaction:satisfaction with the work itself, and satisfaction with the human resource practices might play a key role in theprocess of developing organisational commitment early on. As suggested by [18] Currivan (1999) employeeorientation towards a specific job precedes orientations towards the entire organisation. Previous researchalong the same lines revealed that satisfaction with the work itself might be a central determinant ofcommitment ([39] Lee et al. , 2000). That being so, in this current study satisfaction with the work itself isconsidered one of the two central dimensions of the development of organisational commitment. The othercrucial dimension is satisfaction with human resource practices. The choice of this dimension is due to theextensive theoretical support provided by several studies that demonstrate the essential role human resourcepractices play in the development of organisational commitment (e.g. [1] Agarwala, 2003; [12] Buck andWatson, 2002; [28] Gellatly et al. , 2009; [47] Meyer and Smith, 2000). The aim of the present study is twofold. First, it aims to expand the literature on the dispositional approach tothe study of job satisfaction and organisational commitment. Second, it aims to contribute to our understandingof the role different aspects of job satisfaction play in the process of developing organisational commitment. Inparticular, the current three-wave longitudinal study was conducted to investigate the mediating role played byjob satisfaction aspects, such as satisfaction with human resource practices and satisfaction with the work itself,in the process linking personality dimensions and organisational commitment during the organisationalsocialisation process. To our knowledge, this is the first study where the process underlying personalityvariables, job satisfaction aspects and organisational commitment is investigated in a longitudinal model. Themodel, presented in Figure 1 [Figure omitted. See Article Image.], outlines the specific variables examined inthe current study and their anticipated relationship. A deeper review of the literature about the variablesconsidered and the rationale underlying the mediating hypothesis are provided next. Personality and job satisfaction A recent review by [64] Staw and Cohen-Charash (2005) addressed the person-situation debate and concludedthat a better understanding of the role played by personality in organisational settings is needed. Recently,several scholars have addressed this issue, providing evidence of significant dispositional determinants on jobsatisfaction ([11] Bruk-Lee et al. , 2009; [36] Judge et al. , 2002). [64] Staw and Cohen-Charash (2005)


described the development of the process underlying job satisfaction, indicating that it may comprise severalinformational steps. The first step consists of exposure to work events. After that there is recognition andevaluation of these events and conditions. Then follows storage of affectively laden information as well as therecall of prior positive and negative experiences. Finally, satisfaction is reported or expressed to others. [64]Staw and Cohen-Charash (2005) posited that this process should be considered as typical rather thanexclusive, owing to the fact that the order of the steps could be reversed or that not every step illustrated maybe undertaken when one expresses job satisfaction. What [64] Staw and Cohen-Charash (2005) stronglyemphasise, however, is that individual differences may play a key role in job satisfaction in that dispositions mayamplify or condition the experience and expression of job satisfaction. These assumptions are corroborated bytwo important meta-analyses conducted by [36] Judge et al. (2002) and [11] Bruk-Lee et al. (2009). Resultsshowed that some of the five-factor traits are associated with job satisfaction. The five personality factors are commonly known as: extroversion (e.g. sociable, talkative, and ambitious); conscientiousness (e.g. responsible, dependable, achievement-oriented); neuroticism (e.g. tense, nervous, highly-strung); agreeableness (e.g. good-natured, cooperative, trusting); and openness to experience (e.g. imaginative, cultured, non-traditional). In particular, [36] Judge et al. (2002) found that neuroticism (ρ=-0.29), conscientiousness (ρ=0.26), extroversion(ρ=0.25) and agreeableness (ρ=0.17) were truly correlated to job satisfaction, whereas openness to experienceshowed just a weak correlation to job satisfaction that was indistinguishable from zero (ρ=0.02). Forconscientiousness and agreeableness, however, they found an 80 per cent credibility interval including zero,suggesting that the relationship between conscientiousness and agreeableness and job satisfaction is not fullygeneralised across studies. [11] Bruk-Lee et al. (2009) replicated and extended [36] Judge et al. (2002) meta-analysis, selecting papers that clearly used the Big Five measure in both cross-sectional and longitudinalresearch contexts. Despite the two meta-analysis results that show a moderate association between some of the Big Five and jobsatisfaction, the trend supplying empirical studies on this topic does not seem to provide concordant results(e.g. [38] Lapierre and Hackett, 2007; [43] Mazler and Renzl, 2007; [50] Mount et al. , 2006; [67] Tziner et al. ,2008). As [31] Ilies et al. (2006) suggest, a better understanding of the role of personality in job satisfaction isstill needed. Moreover, most of the studies examining personality affecting job satisfaction very often includeonly an overall or composite measure of job satisfaction. Studies including specific aspects of satisfaction arefew ([61] Snipes et al. , 2005) and none of them has investigated the relationship between the Big Five andspecific aspects of job satisfaction. The different aspects of job satisfaction refer to nuanced varieties of thesame construct. The recent growing interest and evidences of the role of particular aspects of job satisfactionduring a person's working life points to a need to explore this issue (e.g. [61] Snipes et al. , 2005; [57]Rutherford et al. , 2009; [62] Spagnoli et al. , 2011). Thus, in order to cover this gap in the literature, this presentstudy explores the relationship between the Big Five and two specific aspects of job satisfaction (satisfactionwith the work itself and satisfaction with human resource practices). In particular, we expect a positiverelationship between all the Big Five dimensions and job satisfaction aspects, except for the relationshipsbetween neuroticism and job satisfaction aspects which, in accordance with the literature, we suppose to benegative. Thus: H1. The Big Five, except for neuroticism, are positively related to satisfaction with the work itself andsatisfaction with human resource practices. Personality and organisational commitment Unlike job satisfaction, studies examining the relationship between personality and organisational commitmentare very scarce ([22] Erdheim et al. , 2006; [67] Tziner et al. , 2008; [71] Zettler et al. , 2011). This is a little


surprising in view of the strong relationship between job satisfaction and organisational commitment ([56]Rayton, 2006; [70] Yousef, 2002). Thus, it would be worthwhile for more empirical studies to investigate therelationship between personality and organisational commitment. To our knowledge, just few studies haveexamined the relationship between personality and organisational commitment. One of these studies wasconducted by [22] Erdheim et al. (2006). They found that extroversion was positively associated with affective,normative and continuance commitment; neuroticism, conscientiousness and openness to experience weresignificantly related to continuance commitment; agreeableness was significantly associated with normativecommitment. More recently, [67] Tziner et al. (2008) looked at personality and organisational commitment. Theyfound that agreeableness; openness to experience and conscientiousness were significantly associated with ageneral measure of organisational commitment. Because the two studies were cross-sectional, it was not possible to establish the inference of causality. To beable to infer any causality among these variables, would require a longitudinal study. Thus, in order to extendthis literature we conducted a longitudinal study investigating the relationship between personality andorganisational commitment. According to the literature review, different traits may be associated to each of thedistinctive components of organisational commitment. Following this theoretical line, different hypothesesregarding the relationship between the Big Five and organisational commitment have been tested in the presentstudy. Extroversion Given that extroversion and affective commitment are both related to a positive emotional reaction, it isreasonable to assume that individuals high in extroversion should experience higher affective commitment thanthose who are less extroverted ([22] Erdheim et al. , 2006). Thus: H2a. Extroversion is related to affective organisational commitment. Moreover, it is likely that individuals high in extroversion could reciprocate the support received from theorganisation due to their disposition to look for frequent interaction in order to satisfy their need for interpersonalexchange. So: H2b. Extroversion is related to normative organisational commitment. Neuroticism . Neurotic individuals tend to experience negative affect and consequently there should be littlelikelihood of their developing a positive emotional reaction to their organisation. Thus: H2c. Neuroticism is not related to affective organisational commitment. Furthermore, the psychological contract could be invalidated by the excessive preoccupation and anxietyexpressed by neurotic individuals, and consequently they may not feel the reciprocation needed in order todevelop the normative organisational commitment. Thus: H2d. Neuroticism is not related to normative organisational commitment. Conscientiousness Results of previous studies show that the more conscientious individuals may develop a generalisedinvolvement tendency, therefore they are more likely to be more affectively committed to the organisation thanthose who are less conscientious. Thus: H2e. Conscientiousness is positively related to affective organisational commitment. For the same reason it is likely that conscientious employees will work hard and effectively. This involvement inthe job may engender the organisation's trust and support, and thus, a reciprocation of duties and rights.Therefore: H2f. Conscientiousness is positively related to normative organisational commitment. Agreeableness Employees high in agreeableness are supposed to be more trusting, compliant and caring than otheremployees. Thus, it is likely that this disposition may foster the development of an affective tie to theorganisation. So:


H2g. Agreeableness is positively related to affective organisational commitment. Moreover, these employees tend to get along with co-workers in congenial ways. This pleasant behaviour mayenhance and encourage the development of the psychological contract and thus the organisationalcommitment. So: H2 h. Agreeableness is positively related to normative organisational commitment. Openness to experience Employees high in openness to experience are inclined to seek the attractive features of their organisation. It islikely that when these attractive characteristics are met they may develop an affective tie to the organisation. Sowe expect: H2i. Openness to experience is positively related to affective organisational commitment. Like the more extroverted employees, the employees high in openness to experience may be more inclined toseeking interpersonal interactions in order to get the information and feedback they need to learn the job. Theirdisposition to build new relationships may foster the possibility to enhance the conditions of the psychologicalcontract. H2l. Openness to experience is positively related to normative organisational commitment. Job satisfaction and organisational commitment Various studies have examined the validity of different measures of the three components of organisationalcommitment ([3] Allen and Meyer, 1996; [15] Cheng and Stockdale, 2003) and investigated the relationshipbetween organisational commitment and its antecedents and outcomes ([2] Allen and Meyer, 1990; [14] Chenand Francesco, 2003; [48] Meyer et al. , 2002). Although the order of the causal relationship betweenorganisational commitment and job satisfaction remains unclear, the prevailing view in the literature assumesthat job satisfaction is an antecedent of organisational commitment ([27] Gaertner, 1999; [34] Jernigan et al. ,2002; [43] Mazler and Renzl, 2007; [66] Tsai and Huang, 2008; [70] Yousef, 2002). Moreover, several authorshave pointed out that the effects of various antecedents, such as: age, pre-employment expectations, perceivedjob characteristics and perceptions of organisational culture and subculture, on commitment are totally orpartially mediated through job satisfaction ([33] Iverson and Roy, 1994; [40] Lok and Crawford, 2001; [49]Michaels, 1994; [55] Price and Mueller, 1981). Recent compelling evidence exists that job satisfactionsignificantly affects organisational commitment (e.g. [43] Mazler and Renzl, 2007; [66] Tsai and Huang, 2008;[70] Yousef, 2002). The rationale at the basis of the assumption that job satisfaction is an antecedent oforganisational commitment is consistent with the classification of job and organisational characteristics asantecedents of organisational commitment suggested by [42] Mathieu and Zajac (1990), [46] Meyer and Allen(1997). In short, and according to the literature discussed previously: job satisfaction and organisational commitmentare two work-related attitudes that reflect two significant workplace outcomes; job satisfaction is a relevantantecedent of organisational commitment and it might mediate the relationship between some antecedents andorganisational commitment; Big Five dimensions may influence both job satisfaction and organisationalcommitment. Therefore, assuming that job satisfaction plays a key role in the development of organisationalcommitment during the organisational socialisation process, the mediating role of two job satisfaction aspects inthe relationship between personality dimensions and organisational commitment appears to be theoretically andrationally supported. H3a. Satisfaction with human resource practices and satisfaction with the work itself will mediate therelationship between conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness and affective organisational commitment. H3b. Satisfaction with human resource practices and satisfaction with the work itself will mediate therelationship between extroversion, agreeableness, openness to experience and normative commitment. Method Sample


The participants were 190 raw Portuguese police recruits who voluntarily took part in the study. They were allmale and their mean age was 23.5 years (St. Dev. 1,312). Of them, 60 (31.6 per cent) had 11 years ofeducation and 130 (68.4 per cent) had more than 11 years. Organisational setting The participants in this study were Portuguese police officers. The police organisational context andsocialisation process in this setting have several specificities that have to be taken into consideration. After arecruitment and selection process, which includes several psychological tests, exams and interviews,newcomers have to attend an initial training course of about eight months during which they acquire knowledgeof law, policing techniques, social psychology, English language, informatics and first aid, and they are trainedin specific police exercises. Only those that have successfully completed this training are given employmentcontracts as police officers. Subsequently, they are assigned to different police stations throughout the country.In general, only a few newcomers are assigned to the same police station. At the police station they have tocope with a new working context, new co-workers and superiors. During the early months, when on patrol ordoing outdoor surveillance, they work together with older colleagues. Procedure This is a three-wave longitudinal study: Time 1 (T1) occurred just after participants had been given their employment contract. Time 2 took place six months after their allocation to the police station (that is, after T1). Time 3 occurred 12 months after T1. In Time 1, 498 individuals answered a questionnaire about socio-demographic background (such as age andeducation level) and a personality inventory. In the second wave, 316 (64 per cent response) participantsanswered a questionnaire focused on job satisfaction. In the third wave, 190 participants answered aquestionnaire on organisational commitment (38 per cent response). Both the age and the Big Five means didnot differ significantly among the 190 three-waves and the 316 two-waves respondents. No differences werefound among the 316 two-waves respondents and the 182 non-respondents at T3 and among the 498 one-wave respondents and the 316 two-waves respondents. Measures Personality variables. Personality dimensions were assessed (at Time 1) by 15 items reported by [35] John andSrivastava (1999) in the Big Five inventory. We selected three items for each of the five dimensions inaccordance with the best factor loading values shown by a preliminary exploratory factor analysis. Items wereanswered on seven-point Likert scales ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (7). The result ofconfirmatory factorial analysis (CFA), carried out with Amos 16, showed an excellent fit of the model with thedata observed for the fifteen items ( X2 =113,264, df=80 p =0.009; CFI=0.95; RMSEA=0.047). Phi values wereall <1.0, indicating a good discriminate validity, and lambda values were all significant (p <0.05), showing agood convergent validity. Item examples: I am talkative (extroversion); usually I do things effectively(conscientiousness); I am curious about many different things (openness to experience); I like to cooperate withothers (agreeableness); I easily get nervous (neuroticism). Job satisfaction. Satisfaction with specific aspects, such as satisfaction with the work itself (three items) andsatisfaction with human resource practices (three items), adapted from [63] Spector (1985), was assessed.Items were answered on a seven-point Likert scale ranging from 1=not satisfied to 7=very satisfied. The resultof confirmatory factorial analysis (CFA), carried out with Amos 16, showed an excellent fit of the model with thedata observed ( X2 =12,365, df=8, p =0.123; CFI=0.98; RMSEA=0.054). Phi values were all <1.0, indicating agood discriminate validity, and lambda values were all significant (p <0.05), showing a good convergent validity.Item examples: how satisfied are you with the training received? (satisfaction with human resource practices);how satisfied are you with the work itself? (satisfaction with the work itself.) Organisational commitment. Organisational commitment was assessed (at Time 3) by six items from [46] Meyer


and Allen (1997) (three items for affective commitment, three items for normative commitment). Items wereanswered on seven-point Likert scales ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (7). The result of theconfirmatory factorial analysis (CFA), carried out with Amos 16, showed a good fit of the model with the dataobserved ( X2 =73,335, df=24, p =0.00; CFI=0.90; RMSEA=0.09). Phi values were all <1.0, indicating a gooddiscriminate validity, and lambda values were all significant (p <0.05), showing a good convergent validity. Itemexamples: I do not feel "emotionally attached' to this organisation (affective commitment); I would not leave thisorganisation now because I have a sense of obligation to the people in it (normative commitment). Analytical strategy Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to test our hypotheses. This approach provides a direct test ofthe significance of the indirect effects ([41] MacKinnon et al. , 2002). The maximum likelihood (ML) method wasused for model estimation as well as the following fit indexes: chi-square, CFI (comparative fit index) andRMSEA (root mean square error of approximation). The most popular fit index is the chi-square. If the chi-square is not significant, the model is regarded as acceptable. That is, the observed covariance matrix is similarto the predicted covariance matrix, and thus, the matrix predicted by the model. If the chi-square is significant,the model is usually regarded as unacceptable. CFI assesses the extent to which the tested model is superior toan alternative model in reproducing the observed covariance matrix. The CFI index varies from 0 to 1. A valuebetween 0.92 and 0.95 is considered a good fit and performs well in small samples. The RMSEA introduces acorrection for lack of parsimony since, all other things being equal, more complex models are penalised. AnRMSEA value ≤0.08 is a reasonable error of approximation of the population. According to [37] Klein et al.(2006), a test of the overall model in Figure 1 [Figure omitted. See Article Image.] would not allow us to assesseach of the hypothesised mediated relationships individually. In fact, those researchers assumed that "whenmultiple mediators are involved, it is not possible to separate the indirect effects among the various mediatorsand evaluate specific mediators within the overall model" ([37] Klein et al. , 2006, p. 106). Hence, we followedthe two-stage approach they suggested. Therefore, in the first stage we decomposed the model into sub-models that allowed us to test separately each hypothesised mediated relationship. This resulted in fourseparate models each representing the mediation hypothesis. The four models tested in the first step of theanalysis resulted from the fact that we have two mediator variables (satisfaction with the work itself andsatisfaction with human resource practices) and two dependent variables (affective and normativeorganisational commitment). The results of the four models tested are presented in Tables I [Figure omitted.See Article Image.] and Table II [Figure omitted. See Article Image.]. In particular, Table I [Figure omitted. SeeArticle Image.] presents the results of the evaluation of the four models tested in the first step of the analysisand the overall model tested in the second step through some fit indexes. Table II [Figure omitted. See ArticleImage.] presents the coefficients of the effects tested in the four models: (a) the effect of the independentvariable on the mediator; (b) the unique effect of the mediator on the dependent variable; (c) the direct effect ofthe independent variable on the dependent variable when testing the mediation; (ab) the indirect effect, that is,the product of effect a and effect b; (c) the total effect, that is, the effect of the independent variable on thedependent variable without testing the mediation. The total effect measures the extent to which the dependentvariable changes when the independent variable increases by one unit. In contrast, the indirect effect(sometimes referred to as mediated effect) measures the extent to which the dependent variable changes whenthe independent variable is held fixed and the mediator variable changes to the level it would have attained hadthe independent variable increased by one unit. When the measured effect between the independent variableand the dependent variable is zero upon fixing the mediator variable, the mediation effect is said to becomplete. If, however, the measured effect changes upon fixing the mediator but remains significantly differentfrom zero, the mediation effect is said to be partial ([25] Frazier et al. , 2004). Then, in light of the results obtained in the first stage of the analysis, a revision of the hypothesised modelshown in Figure 1 [Figure omitted. See Article Image.] was carried out. In the second stage, the overall, post


hoc model was tested and the results of the fit indexes are presented in the last line of Table I [Figure omitted.See Article Image.]. The picture of the model results and the Beta coefficients are shown in Figure 2 [Figureomitted. See Article Image.]. Results Table III [Figure omitted. See Article Image.] presents means, standard deviations, Cronbach's alphas andintercorrelations of the study's variables. Owing to its low mean value (see Table III [Figure omitted. See Article Image.]), neuroticism was deleted fromthe analysis before the SEM was run. The low mean of neuroticism could be explained by the recruitmentprocedure that might have attracted and selected individuals low in this dimension. Future studies, however,should supply further explanation of this result. Results in the first stage of the analysis showed that: whereas satisfaction with human resource practicescompletely mediated the relationship between openness to experience and normative commitment, it onlypartially mediated the relationship between openness to experience and affective commitment; whereassatisfaction with the work itself completely mediated the relationship between conscientiousness and affectivecommitment, it only partially mediated the relationship between extroversion and affective commitment. The fourseparate mediation models were examined because it was not possible to simultaneously test the individualmediation hypotheses by examining the overall model presented in Figure 1 [Figure omitted. See Article Image.]([37] Klein et al. , 2006). Analysis of the sub-models, however, did not account for the fact that the differentmediators, while conceptually distinct, are correlated. Thus, a test of the overall model is needed to address theredundant effect of the two mediators. The post hoc composite model was built without the paths when therewas no evidence of mediation and with additional paths where partial mediation was suggested. Moreover, thedirect relationship between agreeableness and normative commitment was tested in order to account for all thesignificant effects found in the first stage of the analysis. The revised model, presented in Figure 2 [Figureomitted. See Article Image.], was then empirically tested (a) to integrate the results from separate sub-modelmediation tests, (b) to address the intercorrelatedness and redundancy among those separate mediationrelationships, and (c) to provide an initial, post hoc , empirical test of this model. The summary statistics for thiscomposite model are presented at the bottom of Table I [Figure omitted. See Article Image.] and indicate thatthis post hoc model fits the data very well (RMSEA=0.04; CFI=0.92). Results show that not all the paths in themodel were significant at this stage of the analysis. In particular, satisfaction with the work itself did not mediatethe relationship between openness to experience and affective commitment. In short: extroversion appeared tohave both indirect and direct significant effects on affective commitment; a negative significant direct effect wasfound between openness to experience and affective commitment whereas an indirect effect mediated bysatisfaction with human resource practices linked openness to experience and normative commitment. Thus, the results completely support hypotheses H2a , H2h and H2l , but only partially support H1 , H3a andH3b . Theoretical and practical implications The current study demonstrated how personality variables may directly and indirectly affect organisationalcommitment during the organisational socialisation process through the effect of job satisfaction aspects. Ingeneral, these results underline the relevant role that personality and job satisfaction play in the development oforganisational commitment ([22] Erdheim et al. , 2006; [66] Tsai and Huang, 2008). In particular, these resultssupport and extend previous findings regarding the mediating role that job satisfaction plays in the processlinking several antecedents to organisational commitment. In fact, in the current study we found evidence of themediating role that two job satisfaction aspects, such as satisfaction with the work itself and satisfaction withhuman resource practices, play in the process linking personality dimensions to organisational commitment. Results showed that while satisfaction with the work itself totally mediated the relationship betweenconscientiousness and affective commitment, it partially mediated the relationship between extroversion and


affective commitment. Moreover, the results revealed that satisfaction with human resource practices totallymediated the relationship between openness to experience and normative commitment. In particular, theseresults would suggest that newcomers in this context tend to consider both human resource practices andperforming this specific job a necessary precondition for developing a bond of commitment with theorganisation. The analysis, however, revealed different paths linking personality dimensions to job satisfactionaspects and organisational commitment. Regarding the impact of personality on job satisfaction, our results partly support previous studies and providesome important evidence for the unquestioned relationship between personality and specific aspects of jobsatisfaction. In fact, in accordance with the findings of [36] Judge et al. (2002) and [11] Bruk-Lee et al. (2009)conscientiousness and extroversion were significantly and positively related to the two job satisfaction aspects.Typically, individuals high in conscientiousness are very involved in the job and perform their work better thanthe less conscientious ([26] Furnham and Fudge, 2008; [54] Poropat, 2009). Thus, it is likely that they receivemore rewards and positive feedback than others. This fact would probably make these individuals feel moresatisfied about the work itself. Individuals high in extroversion normally show positive moods, and, as reportedin previous studies, they perform their job competently ([4] Barrick and Mount, 1991) and have higher salariesand more promotions than the less extroverted ([60] Seibert and Kraimer, 2001). Thus, following theassumption, also suggested by [11] Bruk-Lee et al. (2009), that productivity causes satisfaction, it is likely thatextroverted individuals might feel more satisfied than others. Moreover, in contrast to previous meta-analyses, but according to [67] Tziner et al. (2008), our results pointed toa significant relationship between openness to experience and satisfaction with human resource practices.According to [29] Griffin and Hesketh (2004) openness to experience is a complex personality dimension thatseems to be weakly associated with performance ([5] Barrick et al. , 2001) and job attitudes ([11] Bruk-Lee et al., 2009; [36] Judge et al. , 2002). According to [67] Tziner et al. (2008), however, individuals high in openness toexperience are likely to seek the rewarding features of their jobs that generate work satisfaction. Interestingly,our results showed that openness to experience also has a significant direct and negative effect on affectivecommitment and a significant, indirect, but positive effect on normative commitment when the relationship ismediated by satisfaction with human resource practices. Given this result, we can conclude that in this contextindividuals high in openness to experience would develop a negative affective commitment. One explanationcould be that individuals high in openness to experience, owing to their curious nature, might feel frustrated bythe strict hierarchical context and, consequently, are likely to develop a feeling of disaffection towards theorganisation. On the other hand, our results showed that individuals high in openness to experience mightdevelop a positive normative commitment when they feel satisfied by the human resource practices. In otherwords, the new police officers, who showed a high rate of openness to experience would be negativelyaffectively committed, but they would develop a positive normative commitment if they were satisfied with thehuman resource practices. In line with previous research (e.g. [7] Beck and Wilson, 2000; [1] Agarwala, 2003;[12] Buck and Watson, 2002; [28] Gellatly et al. , 2009), this result assigns a crucial role to human resourcepractices in the development process of organisational commitment. Moreover, in line with the concept ofopenness to experience as a complex dimension, this result gives some clues to a better understanding of therole of openness to experience as an antecedent of job attitudes. Future studies, however, should replicatethese findings in different settings in order to compare results from different job contexts. Regarding the impact of personality on organisational commitment, our findings reveal that four of the Big Five(extroversion, conscientiousness, openness to experience, agreeableness) were directly or indirectly associatedwith affective and normative commitment. In accordance with [22] Erdheim et al. (2006), our results showed thatextroversion is a significant determinant of affective commitment and that agreeableness is a significantantecedent of normative commitment. Furthermore, in line with [67] Tziner et al. (2008), we found that opennessto experience and conscientiousness were significant determinants of organisational commitment. Similarly to


what happened with extroversion, satisfaction with the job itself completely mediated the relationship betweenconscientiousness and affective commitment. Thus, it is likely that individuals high in both conscientiousnessand extroversion easily develop a feeling of satisfaction with the work itself and, consequently, they develop anaffective commitment bond with the organisation. The result regarding extroversion is consistent with previousfindings indicating that positive emotionality and affective commitment are positively related ([65] Thoresen et al., 2003). From the practical perspective, the predictive effect of personality both on job satisfaction aspects andorganisational commitment may have some utility regarding selection practices. Managers would be more likelyto select police officers more efficiently if they considered the personality inventories not only for recruiting thebest performers, but also with regard to the adjustment and retention of the new recruits. However, our findingssupported previous cross-sectional results ([22] Erdheim et al. , 2006), which show that only some of thevariance in organisational commitment is uniquely determined by personality. Therefore, much of the variance islikely to be the result of environmental factors. As [9] Bowling et al. (2006) suggest, disposition may affectattitude, but the environment is also a factor affecting the formation of employees' attitudes. Our results suggestthat managers of police departments should take into consideration the fact that different aspects of jobsatisfaction may play a key role in the development of organisational commitment during the early career ofpolice officers. Thus, with regard to human resource practices, managers should design communicationstrategies to help them become aware of any processes that might prevent police officers from developing asense of commitment to the organisation so that they may avoid them. Police organisations, as well as otherpublic organisations, could handle this process by increasing the availability of counselling services andimproving their ability to change organisational culture in a total quality management setting. This would meanintroducing organisational practices that would ensure, for example, that recruits have realistic expectations (i.e.that information they receive prior to entry is accurate and comprehensive), that those expectations are met,and that junior officers feel valued and supported by the organisation. In short, our findings strongly suggest that organisations should work harder to provide a satisfying and positiveenvironment for employees, which confirms the assumptions made by [64] Staw and Cohen-Charash (2005). Potential limitations A typical study limitation in organisational research is related to the type of data collected. Even though a largepart of research is based on self-reported data, it is advisable to collect data from different sources, namelysupervisors, co-workers or peers. [21] Edwards (2008), however, highlighted that organisational research ismainly based on the individual's perception and therefore self-reported data are still acceptable for assessingthe rate at which they experience job attitudes. The limitation of self-reported data aside, in this study we tried tocontrol the common method variance associated with this kind of measurement through three waves of datacollecting. Another limitation of this study resides in the specific context examined. In fact, it may be argued that individualswho apply for, and get jobs as police officers, are likely to harbour positive attitudes towards the police force,even before applying. In other words, according to there might be a sort of self-selection of the new policeofficers owing to the values shared between them and the particular culture of the working context.Consequently, these individuals could have developed a positive emotional disposition to the policeorganisation even before the entry process to the organisation, which may influence the development oforganisational commitment. Future research directions In this study only two job satisfaction aspects were considered. It would be very interesting if future studies wereto investigate the role of other aspects of job satisfaction, such as satisfaction with their relationships with co-workers and superiors, and satisfaction with rewards, for example. Future studies should also focus on exploring the effect of satisfaction with specific human resource practices


and environmental conditions in a specific context. Additionally, we believe that it could be very interesting toconsider the latest trend in the study of organisational commitment profiles, that is, the combinations of thethree dimensions of organisational commitment. Recently, [28] Gellatly et al. (2009) presented interestingresults pointing out the relationships between HRM practices and organisational commitment profiles. Finally, different contexts should also be studied for comparison. The specificity of a context in a study means itdoes not provide information extendible to another context. However, it does provide important insights tounderstanding and consequently the opportunity to make more efficient interventions for improving it. Conclusion The current study addresses the process linking personality dimensions, job satisfaction aspects, such assatisfaction with human resource practices and satisfaction with the work itself, and organisational commitmentduring the organisational socialisation process. The results demonstrate how personality variables may directlyand indirectly affect organisational commitment during the organisational socialisation process through theeffect of job satisfaction aspects. In particular, this is one of the first studies aimed at investigating the role of jobsatisfaction aspects in the relationship between personality and organisational commitment. Our results supportand extend previous findings regarding the mediating role that job satisfaction plays in the process linkingseveral antecedents to organisational commitment. Moreover, the evidence underlines the relevant role thatpersonality and in particular job satisfaction aspects play in the development of organisational commitment. This research was supported by FCT (Science and Technology Foundation), project PTDC/PSI/73347/2006. References 1. Agarwala, T. (2003), "Innovative human resource practices and organisational commitment: an empiricalinvestigation", International Journal of Human Resource Management, Vol. 14, pp. 175-97. 2. Allen, N.J. and Meyer, J.P. (1990), "The measure and antecedents of affective, continuance, and normativecommitment to the organisation", Journal of Occupational Psychology, Vol. 63, pp. 1-18. 3. Allen, N.J. and Meyer, J.P. (1996), "Affective, continuance, and normative commitment to the organisation:an examination of construct validity", Journal of Vocational Behavior, Vol. 49, pp. 252-76. 4. Barrick, M.R. and Mount, M.K. (1991), "The big five personality dimensions and job performance: a meta-analysis", Personnel Psychology, Vol. 44, pp. 1-26. 5. Barrick, M.R., Mount, M.K. and Judge, T.A. (2001), "Personality and performance at the beginning of the newmillennium: what do we know and where do we go next?", International Journal of Selection and Assessment,Vol. 9, pp. 9-30. 6. Bauer, T.N., Bodner, T., Erdogan, B. and Truxillo, D.M. (2007), "Newcomer adjustment during organisationalsocialisation: a meta-analytic review of antecedents, outcomes, and methods", Journal of Applied Psychology,Vol. 92, pp. 707-21. 7. Beck, K. and Wilson, C. (2000), "Development of affective organisational commitment: a cross-sequentialexamination of change with tenure", Journal of Vocational Behavior, Vol. 56, pp. 114-36. 8. Bellou, V. (2010), "Organizational culture as a predictor of job satisfaction: the role of gender and age",Career Development International, Vol. 15, pp. 4-19. 9. Bowling, N.A., Beehr, T.A. and Lepisto, L.R. (2006), "Beyond job satisfaction: a five-year prospective analysisof the dispositional approach to work attitudes", Journal of Vocational Behavior, Vol. 69, pp. 315-30. 10. Brough, P. and Frame, R. (2004), "Predicting police job satisfaction and turnover intentions: the role ofsocial support and police organisational variables", New Zealand Journal of Psychology, Vol. 33, pp. 8-16. 11. Bruk-Lee, V., Khoury, H.A., Nixon, A.E., Goh, A. and Spector, P.E. (2009), "Replicating and extending pastpersonality/job satisfaction meta-analyses", Human Performance, Vol. 22, pp. 156-89. 12. Buck, J.M. and Watson, J.L. (2002), "Retaining staff employees: the relationship between human resourcemanagement strategies and organisational commitment", Innovative Higher Education, Vol. 26, pp. 175-93. 13. Chan, J. and Doran, S. (2009), "Staying in the job: job satisfaction among mid-career police officers",


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Subject: Studies; Job satisfaction; Attitudes; Human resource management; Classification: 9130: Experimental/theoretical; 6100: Human resource planning Publication title: Career Development International Volume: 17 Issue: 3 Pages: 255-275 Publication year: 2012 Publication date: 2012 Year: 2012 Publisher: Emerald Group Publishing, Limited Place of publication: Bradford Country of publication: United Kingdom Publication subject: Occupations And Careers ISSN: 13620436 Source type: Scholarly Journals Language of publication: English Document type: Feature DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/13620431211241081 ProQuest document ID: 1021831949 Document URL: http://search.proquest.com/docview/1021831949?accountid=39870 Copyright: Copyright Emerald Group Publishing Limited 2012 Last updated: 2012-08-09 Database: ProQuest Research Library


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