Proposal for a Thesis

in the Field of Anthropology and Archaeology

in Partial Fulfillment for the Requirements for the

Master of Liberal Arts Degree

Harvard University

Extension School

October 19, 2015

Kristi May Feinzig

Address

City State Zip

Phone Number

Email address

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I.

Tentative Title

“Tracing Sixteenth Century Beads in Peru and Venezuela to Understand Their Impact on

Indigenous Ritual Practices and Material Culture at the Time of the Spanish Conquest”

II.

The Research Problem

Trade beads are referenced in historical records and have been found in many

archaeological sites; however, there are few comprehensive sources that focus on their

importance around the time of the Spanish Conquest. When the Conquistadors landed in South

America, they brought glass beads and were able to trade them for items of great value. These

items included: precious metals, pearls, cotton items, gemstones, and even women. At the same

time, the indigenous populations of South America already had their own cross-cultural

exchange for highly valued shell beads.

Information about cultures and societies can be gleaned from the study of glass and shell

bead dispersion and use in the context of indigenous communities. “European items were

incorporated into an already indigenous system of exchange that placed high value on hard,

sharp, and shiny objects, many of which were used for bodily adornment.” (pg 153) By using a

combination of archaeological discoveries, museum bead collections, and historical accounts, I

hope to draw conclusions on bead replacement, foreign contact, and acculturation during the

contact period.

According to Peter Francis (1992),

“In the civilizations of Mesoamerica and the Andes the bead trade had

consisted of moving raw materials to a central locale, processing them, and

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distributing finished products to outlying regions. The Spanish quickly

seized the centers of these civilizations. They destroyed the old bead

industries and introduced outside beads. Soon both native and Spanish

traders were using the old trade routes but carrying new beads (Francis

1992c in Asia’s Maritime Bead Trade, 179).

To fully understand the dispersal of beads in South America, it is necessary to evaluate

several factors including: regional differences (coastal vs. amazon), status differentiation, bead

manufacture, aesthetic value (brilliance), and religious/ burial practices. This context, rather than

archaeological evidence alone, is important in understanding beads and the people who used

them.

I will look at site level bead discoveries in order to better understand how far beads

traveled. By looking at the percentage of indigenous beads versus European beads, I hope to

gain a better understanding of their value in various customs and religious practices. “Shell

beads have been rather rare in the lowlands, being reported mainly in Andean and sub-Andean

ceremonial and high-status contexts. Those associations point to the potential importance of

social complexity and inequality to explain the origins and distribution of such valuables.”

(Gasson, 2000) In order to understand the initial appeal of beads, we must understand the

indigenous value system (Scaramelli, 2005)

Shell beads were made out of local material found on the coast of Ecuador and were

traded locally before the arrival of the Spanish. As local costumes and dress adapted, the

importance of shell beads such as Spondylus also fluctuated. Spondylus shell beads were highly

regarded prior to Spanish contact where “ideas concerning the spiritual and creative power of

light were inextricably bound up with its embodiment in physical form” (Saunders, 1999).

However, new, shiny, brilliant beads introduced by the Spanish may have replaced the shell

beads.

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This research will evaluate whether or not foreign beads caused transformations in

indigenous ritual practices. Through the examination of tangible site level artifacts and examples

in written accounts, I will identify instances where Spanish beads were inserted into existing

customs and practices. These examples will provide evidence to help determine whether or not

Spanish beads replaced indigenous beads and if they transformed customs and traditions in

indigenous culture.

As part of this research, I will identify bead types that were valued by indigenous cultures

prior to contact and compare them to bead types that were brought by the Spanish. In looking at

material culture, “A common practice is a simplistic association of classes of material culture

with ethnic identities, comparing percentages of imported versus non-imported artifacts to

determine degrees of cultural change, or directly associating artifacts combining elements of

multiple stylistic traditions with people with blended ethnic identities or even genetic

backgrounds.” (Card, 2013 pg. 3) I believe the same can be done with trade beads that were

introduced by the Spanish Conquistadors. Beads with archaeological provenance can be used to

prove or disprove theories about bead distribution. This includes examples from the Los

Tamarindos Trench in La Cabrera, Lake Valencia found at the Harvard Peabody Museum (34-

159-30/847). By finding examples in museum collections and anthropological records, I will

seek evidence that confirms or dis-confirms whether new beads were merely inserted into

existing rituals or if they transformed rituals.

This thesis will provide support in answering the following questions: What beads were

used by indigenous populations in the Venezuelan Amazon and the coast of Peru prior to

Spanish contact? What was the role of beads in indigenous customs and traditions in Peru before

the time of European contact? What, if any, changes came about in the use of beads in

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indigenous customs and traditions following the introduction of European beads into South

America? What evidence do we have in modern day museums and archaeological records that

allows for the proper identification of bead origination and use? Why were people attracted to

beads? What did people see in them that so fascinated them?

Through a better understanding of bead acceptance and value, we can learn more about

their adoption into ritual practices, better understand their context, and show whether or not new

beads transformed indigenous rituals.

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III.

Definition of Terms

Andean: (English) Indigenous peoples living in, and near to the Andes Mountains; the Andean

region stretches from modern day Ecuador to northern Chile. (www.smith.edu)

Andes: (English) A geographical region encompassing the Andean mountains, stretching from

modern day Ecuador to northern Chile. (www.smith.edu)

Castile: (English) A kingdom on the Iberian peninsula, today in the country of Spain.

Technically, Spain's New World possessions belonged only to two kingdoms, Castile and

León, because they were responsible for the expeditions of conquest. (www.smith.edu)

Chullpas: above ground burial sites used by the Chachapoyas

Chachpoyas: tribe in the Andean tropical cloud forest between the Maranon and Huallaga rivers

(Church, 2006) Encyclopedia of Anthropology.

Chotuna,: Area on the North Coast of Peru where glass beads have been found.

Conquest Period: 1530-1679

Conquistadors: a conqueror, especially one of the Spanish conquerors of Mexico and Peru in the

16th century

Early Colonial Period: 1680-1767

Iberia, Iberian: (English) Relating to the Iberian peninsula, comprising modern Spain and

Portugal. (www.smith.edu)

Inka: (Quechua) The empire built by a group of Quechua-speaking Andeans in the 14th and 15th

centuries that stretched from Ecuador to Chile. "Sapa Inka" was the title of its supreme ruler, and

its capital city was Cuzco. Also Inca. (www.smith.edu)

Laguna de los Cóndores: Lake near Kuelap, Chachapoyas where mummy bundles were found

Late Pre Contact Period: 1400-1529

Material Culture: Material culture studies is an interdisciplinary field that examines the

relationship between people and their things, the making, history, preservation, and

interpretation of objects. It draws on theory and practice from such disciplines as art

history, archaeology, anthropology, history, historic preservation, folklore, and museum

studies, among others. (University of Delaware, Center for Material Culture Studies)

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New Spain: (English) The name that Spain gave to her northern Viceroyalty, which comprised

the modern regions of Mexico, Central America, Venezuela, and the Caribbean. The

capital city was Mexico City (www.smith.edu)

Nueva Cádiz bead: bead named for a location on an island off the coast of Venezuela, the first

archaeological site where this type was found. (Corning Museum of Glass)

Spondylus: is a bivalve mollusk also known as a spiny oyster, found in the warm waters of most

of the oceans of the world.

Viceroy: (English) The head of the largest administrative district (a viceroyalty) established by

the Spanish crown in her colonies, second in power only to the king. (www.smith.edu)

Viceroyalty: (English) The largest administrative district established by the Spanish crown in her

colonies. Its head, the viceroy, was second in power only to the king. In 1700, there were two

viceroyalties: New Spain and Perú. The Viceroyalties of Nueva Granada and Rio de la Plata

were carved out of these in the 18th century. (www.smith.edu)

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IV.

Background of the Problem

Beads and other artifacts can tell an important story. The context for bead trade during

the time of Spanish contact can be used to reveal the importance of their use as cultural objects.

Chapter I of this thesis will provide a background on beads and bead types. Bead

appearances will be described including: material, shape, size, glass versus stone and overall

luster. The first chapter will also cover bead manufacturing processes such as cane molding and

grinding.

Chapter II will cover indigenous uses of beads in religion and dress in order to have a

baseline for their use prior to Spanish contact.

Chapter III will look at the route of entry and dispersal of beads in the new world.

Historical records will be used to provide evidence of bead movement across South America.

Other material evidence such as dress and burial contexts will also be evaluated.

Chapter IV will evaluate the key hypothesis of this thesis research by studying whether

European beads replaced indigenous beads in ritual practices and customs (including dress) but

left those practices and customs unchanged, or whether they replaced and transformed the

customs and traditions in indigenous culture. Through the evaluation of material evidence, bead

innovation and technological innovations, this research may show that European beads were

merely incorporated into existing customs.

Chapter V will conclude this research and will discuss limitations and future areas of

interest in the field.

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It is critical to understand where beads were found and what cultural contexts they were

used. Patterson says, “the increasing importance of the economic system was underwritten not

only by the continued flow of goods (the expansion of trade) but also their removal from

circulations (hording or burial goods) and by their periodic destruction.” (Patterson, 2014, pg

117) As beads fell in and out of circulation, certain types became more valuable. Museum

collections include excellent examples of beads found in burial contexts. As a result, these

collections will aid in understanding the cultural value placed on certain types of beads.

Some of the sites that will be explored are: Chachapoyas, Peru, Orinoco, Venezuela, the

Ica Valley, Peru, Nasca, Peru, La Cabrera/Lake Valencia, and the Cerro Blanco complex on the

North coast of Peru. Other areas of Venezuela will also be researched to determine points of

entry prior to distribution. The Orinoco provides a greater number of bead artifacts than other

regions and the Ica Valley provides context into bead styles from the Middle Horizon dating

back to 800 A.D. so these will be used in analysis. Finally, specific beads such as the Nueva

Cadiz found in burial sites in the Ica Valley have allowed archaeologists to understand the extent

of Spanish contact in the early parts of the Colonial Period.

Peru’s geography spans the rugged Andean mountains to Pacific coastal deserts

intersected by many rivers flowing down the mountainsides. The rains that flow down the

mountain rivers allow for irrigation and cultivation. As a result, many of these areas became

populated from very early times (beginning around 4,500 B.C.) as people built irrigation canal

systems and terraced landscapes. Trade also became more expansive between the regions since

all materials were not available at any one location or elevation. Toward the end of the pre-

Hispanic era, the Inca administration also had an elaborate network to move materials from one

region to another. An understanding of the ritual practices and bead dispersal during the Inca

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administration will provide one of the underlying comparative contexts for this thesis.

In other regional examples, specific cultures such as those of the Chachapoyas provide a

look into the cultural exchange between the Peruvian cloud forest and the tropical lowlands and

will aid in the distinction between the coast and inland. Chachpoyas’ finds in the mortuary

complex at Laguna de los Cóndores show “the wide array of offerings that accompanied the

more than 200 mummy bundles.” (Church, 918) It is through finds like this that we are

provided with artifacts that can help trace the original source of beads and to ascertain how new

beads were incorporated into burial practices. An understanding of the dates of the burials also

provides a window into the continued material importance of beads into Spanish Colonial times.

For example, “A small wooden crucifix, glazed pottery and glass trade beads indicate that the

chullpas at Laguna de los Cóndores continued to be used into early Spanish colonial times.”

(Church, pg 921)

An example of bead progression can be found in Table 1 below which shows the

evidence of beads during different periods in the Middle Orinoco, Venezuela. By examining

beads and other artifacts across time, anthropologists and archaeologists can gain a better

understanding of a culture’s adoption and acceptance of outside materials. It can also provide

insight into bead demand and usage over time. Similar methods will be employed to gain a

better understanding of the bead progression at the sites that have been chosen for this thesis.

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Table 1 Archaeological phases and associated artifacts in the Orinoco

Documentation of other bead findings is scattered in footnotes and museum collections.

This thesis research will provide a centralized resource for continued interpretation of the trade

patterns, cultural significance and material value that was placed on beads in Central and South

America at the time of the Spanish conquest.

V.

Research Methods

One goal is to identify bead styles found in archaeological records and bead collections at

several museums. The bead collections at The Field Museum, The Corning Museum of Glass,

The Harvard Peabody Museum, The Yale Peabody Bead Collection and other museums in the

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New England region will be utilized to document various bead styles found in South America

that date to the 16th Century.

Beads are found in many contexts: burial sites, shipwrecks, and archaeological sites.

Testimony of beads is also found in documented ship’s records, historical accounts and Spanish

documents. Documents such as these will be used in this research.

Similar to Hopwood (2003), my research will identify available beads based on the

classifications of Kidd and Kidd (1983). I will also utilize the Karklins’ bead guide (1985) to

identify the beads available in local museum collections. The main characteristics of the beads

will be recorded in an Excel spreadsheet for further analysis.

Bead classification methods found in Smith and Good (1982) will be utilized because

their classification specifically covers 16th Century glass trade beads. They divide the beads into

four groups based on method of manufacture: drawn cane, wire wound, blown beads and crumb

beads. Cane beads are divided further into classes such as: normal (round), twisted cross

section, chevron beads with molded cross section and others. (Smith, 1982, pg 19) A description

of bead types and manufacturing processes will be covered in detail

I will define the types of glass beads based on their common characteristics. The

material, style, design, color and other elements will be evaluated. The location of bead

discoveries in archaeological sites, the anticipated origin and the cultural practices in certain

regions will help identify and classify the beads. Archaeological evidence will be used as much

as possible.

The count of bead types found in specific regions of Peru and Venezuela will be

analyzed. Physical characteristics such as color, diameter, thickness, material, type and function

will be recorded and compared with findings from additional sites and museum collections. To

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the extent possible, statistical analysis will be conducted to test for similarities between bead

sets.

This research will also utilize methods from Rafael Gassón’s article Quirípas and

Mostacillas: The Evolution of Shell Beads as a Medium of Exchange in Northern South America

with particular emphasis on the Orinoco Basin of Venezuela. Other works that will be cited

include Pottery Style and Society in Ancient Peru: Art as a Mirror of History in the Ica Valley,

1350-1570 by Dorothy Menzel

Archaeological resources such as Patricia Plunket and Gabriela Uruñuela’s Dating

Cholula, México on the Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies website will

be used as a template for recording data. The structure and tables that they use to record samples

can also be used in structuring a database of beads.

VI.

Research Limitations

I will focus primarily on Peru and Venezuela as the source material from these two

regions is more accessible. The focus will not be on Portuguese contact. I will travel to Yale to

the Peabody Museum and hope to travel to Chicago to the Field Museum to document and

evaluate beads from their collections. All source material will need to be in the English

language.

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VII.

Tentative Schedule

Submission of thesis proposal draft

Proposal returned by research advisor

Final draft of thesis proposal submitted

July 29, 2015

August 20, 2015

August 29, 2015

Proposal accepted by advisor (with minor revisions)

Thesis Proposal returned with corrections

Thesis Director and Co-Director Assigned

Thesis Proposal approved by Co-Directors

Registration for thesis completed

September 13, 2015

September 30, 2015

October 31, 2015

November 2, 2015

November 6, 2015

First Chapter submitted to Co-Director November 15, 2015

Co-Director returns first chapter

Second Chapter submitted to Co-Director

December 1, 2015

December 15, 2015

Co-director returns second chapter January 15, 2016

Third Chapter completed February 5, 2016

Third Chapter returned from Co-Director

Fourth Chapter completed

Fourth Chapter returned from Co-Director

Final Chapter completed

Final Chapter returned from Co-Director

Entire Thesis final revision period

Final text submitted to thesis directors and research advisor

Bound copy approved

February 19, 2016

March 4, 2016

March 18, 2016

April 15, 2016

April 29, 2016

May 30, 2016

June 15, 2016

Graduation November 2016

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VIII.

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Carter, Benjamin .Dissertation: Technology, Society and Change: Shell Artifact

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16

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