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LWT - Food Science and Technology xxx (2014) 1e5

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LWT - Food Science and Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier .com/locate/ lwt

Properties of extruded chiaecorn meal puffs*

Jeffrey A. Byars*, Mukti SinghFunctional Foods Research Unit, National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department ofAgriculture, 1815 N University St, Peoria, IL 61604, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Received 10 January 2014Received in revised form6 June 2014Accepted 16 June 2014Available online xxx

Keywords:ChiaExtrusionCorn meal

* Mention of trade names or commercial products ithe purpose of providing specific information and doeor endorsement by the U.S. Department of Agricultutunity provider and employer.* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ1 309 681 6330; fax

E-mail address: jeffrey.byars@ars.usda.gov (J.A. By

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2014.06.0360023-6438/Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Please cite this article in press as: Byars, J. A.,http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2014.06.036

a b s t r a c t

This study investigated the properties of extruded corn meal puffs containing chia. Mixtures of corn mealand chia seeds (0e20 g/100 g) were processed in a laboratory-scale twin-screw extruder at differentmoisture contents (18e22 g/100 g) and final heating zone temperatures (120e160 �C). Extrusion pro-cessing provides a simple method for grinding the seeds, which is necessary for making the fatty acidsavailable. The expansion of cylindrical extrudates decreased with increasing chia content, increasingmoisture and increasing final heating zone temperature. The hardness of the extrudates increased withincreasing moisture content and decreased at intermediate chia levels. The specific mechanical energy ofthe extrusion process decreased with increasing chia content.

Published by Elsevier Ltd.

1. Introduction

Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) seeds contain the highest level of a-linolenic acid fatty acid from a plant source, at up to 68 g/100 g ofthe oil (Ayerza, 1995). They also contain high levels of protein(Coates & Ayerza, 1996) and dietary fiber (Reyes-Caudillo, Tecante,& Valdivia-Lopez, 2008). Due to the health benefits of these com-ponents, there has been increased interest in developing functionalfood products containing chia.

A number of recent studies has shown that chia can be suc-cessfully incorporated into food products. For example, chia gelwas used to replace 25 g/100 g of the oil or eggs in cakes withoutdecreasing sensory properties (Borneo, Aguirre, & Le�on, 2010).Chia flour was used as a shortening in gluten-free chestnut flourdoughs by Moreira, Chenlo, and Torres (2012). The chia flourincreased water absorption and decreased the developmenttime, and was found to improve the chestnut flour doughs morethan olive or sunflower oil. Pizarro, Almeida, Samm�ana, andChang (2013) showed that up to 15 g/100 g chia flour could beincorporated into pound cake to improve nutritional propertiesand maintain sensory acceptance. Chiaebarley composites wereprepared by Inglett, Chen, Xu, and Lee (2013), who found thatreplacing up to 20 g/100 g of the barley with chia did not lead to

n this publication is solely fors not imply recommendationre. USDA is an equal oppor-

: þ1 309 681 6685.ars).

& Singh,M., Properties of extr

large changes in the pasting or rheological properties of thecomposites, and improved the water holding capacity. We arenot aware of any studies using chia in extruded food products.

Extrusion has been shown to be an effective method for incorpo-rating other functional ingredients into food products. For example,Wu, Huff, and Hsieh (2007) prepared extruded corn meal puffs withflaxseed meal, another good source of a-linolenic acid and fiber. Theyfound that increased flaxseed levels not only led to higher retention oflignan compounds, but also less expanded and harder extrudates.Ramos Diaz et al. (2013) studied the expansion and oxidative stabilityof extrudates containing cornflour and amaranth, quinoa and ka~niwa.Each of the pseudocereals increased the expansion relative to thecontrol, but sampleswith thehighestfiber levels had the least increasein expansion. Whole extrudates exposed to high relative humidityshowed very little hexanal formation upon storage. Thachil, Chouksey,and Gudipati (2014) showed that fish oil rich in u-3 polyunsaturatedfatty acids could be used to create oxidatively stable extrudates withcorn flour. They found that a higher level of amylose bound higheramounts of oil in the extrudates and decreased oxidation. We are notaware of any studies using chia in extruded food products.

The goal of this work was to study the effects of chia on theproperties of a model system of an extruded corn meal puff.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Materials

Degermed corn meal (Quaker Oats Co., Chicago, IL) was pur-chased locally. Black chia seeds (S. hispanica L.) were purchased

uded chiaecornmeal puffs, LWT - Food Science and Technology (2014),

Fig. 1. Schematic of screw configuration.

J.A. Byars, M. Singh / LWT - Food Science and Technology xxx (2014) 1e52

from Chia Seed Growers (Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico). Themoisture content of the corn meal was 10.9 g/100 g. The oil contentof the materials was 1.9 g/100 g for the corn meal and 29.7 g/100 gfor milled chia seeds. 0.7 g/100 g oil was extracted fromwhole chiaseeds. Blends of 5, 10, 15 and 20 g/100 g chia (as is basis) and cornmeal were prepared in a planetary mixer (Hobart A200, Troy, OH).

Table 2Expansion ratio and hardness of extrudates.

Chia,g/100 g

Zone6 T, �C

Moisture,g/100 g

Expansionratio

Hardness,N/mm2

0 120 22 1.61 ± 0.09 0.658 ± 0.1130 120 20 2.30 ± 0.06 0.426 ± 0.0610 120 18 2.80 ± 0.07 0.217 ± 0.0210 140 22 1.82 ± 0.06 0.473 ± 0.0600 140 20 2.81 ± 0.05 0.338 ± 0.1180 140 18 2.74 ± 0.05 0.237 ± 0.0460 160 22 2.05 ± 0.02 0.358 ± 0.0260 160 20 2.30 ± 0.05 0.266 ± 0.0310 160 18 2.39 ± 0.05 0.239 ± 0.0415 120 22 2.06 ± 0.04 0.304 ± 0.0615 120 20 2.38 ± 0.07 0.254 ± 0.0505 120 18 3.03 ± 0.09 0.114 ± 0.0425 140 22 2.50 ± 0.06 0.274 ± 0.0875 140 20 2.41 ± 0.01 0.245 ± 0.0125 140 18 2.71 ± 0.08 0.117 ± 0.003

2.2. Extrusion

Corn meal and chiaecorn meal blends were extruded in a Bra-bender TSE-20 (C.W. Brabender Instruments Inc., South Hack-ensack, NJ) corotating twin-screw extruder. The screw diameterwas 20 mm, and the length was 795 mm, and the screw configu-ration is shown in Fig. 1. The screw speed was 250 rpm. The ma-terials were fed using a volumetric feeder (Brabender DDSR20-5) ata rate of 3.4 kg/h. An annular gear pump and mass flow meter(MZR-7205S and Cori-flow M14, Bronkhorst, Inc, Bethlehem, PA)were used to add water to achieve moisture contents of 18, 20 and22 g/100 g. The four barrel heating zonesweremaintained at 25, 55,75 and 85 �C. The die adapter flange (L¼ 45mm)wasmaintained at110 �C, and the temperature of the die head (L ¼ 95 mm) was set at120, 140 or 160 �C. The diameter of the die was 2.38 mm, and itslength was 7.0 mm. Extruded samples were dried in a mechanicalconvection oven (STM 135, Precision Scientific, Chicago, IL) at 40 �Cfor 4 h to achievemoisture contents of approximately 8 g/100 g. Themoisture content of the cooled products was determined with amoisture analyzer (Mettler-Toledo HR83, Greifensee, Switzerland).

5 160 22 2.02 ± 0.07 0.241 ± 0.0525 160 20 2.51 ± 0.03 0.156 ± 0.0275 160 18 2.45 ± 0.07 0.129 ± 0.02110 120 22 2.40 ± 0.06 0.217 ± 0.04510 120 20 2.47 ± 0.04 0.181 ± 0.04110 120 18 2.96 ± 0.07 0.119 ± 0.03110 140 22 2.52 ± 0.21 0.183 ± 0.035

2.3. Expansion ratio

Since the surfaces of many of the samples were irregular due tobubble formation, direct measurements of the diameter were not

Table 1Amount of oil extracted from extrudates.

Chia,g/100 g

Zone6 T, �C

Moisture,g/100 g

Extracted oil,g/100 g extrudate

Extracted oil,g/100 g chia oil

0 120 22 0.05 n/a5 120 22 0.93 65.35 140 22 0.91 63.15 160 22 1.00 68.710 120 20 1.51 52.410 120 18 1.57 54.010 160 20 1.55 53.310 160 18 1.62 56.015 120 22 2.06 47.715 140 22 2.44 56.515 160 22 2.75 63.520 120 22 3.07 54.720 120 20 3.80 67.020 120 18 4.24 74.120 160 22 3.47 60.9

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used. Instead, the volume of the extrudates was measured bydisplacement of rapeseed. Samples of known length and weightwere placed in a 250 mL graduated cylinder, and rapeseed wasadded to fill the cylinder. The volume of the samples could there-fore be determined, and an average diameter was calculatedassuming cylindrical extrudates. Five measurements weremade foreach sample. The expansion ratio was the ratio of the averageextrudate diameter to the die diameter.

10 140 20 2.53 ± 0.12 0.167 ± 0.04210 140 18 2.75 ± 0.06 0.126 ± 0.03010 160 22 1.80 ± 0.13 0.318 ± 0.03110 160 20 2.30 ± 0.11 0.244 ± 0.01910 160 18 2.53 ± 0.05 0.119 ± 0.01615 120 22 2.44 ± 0.05 0.301 ± 0.01915 120 20 2.65 ± 0.09 0.245 ± 0.08415 120 18 2.83 ± 0.04 0.202 ± 0.02515 140 22 2.04 ± 0.10 0.388 ± 0.06115 140 20 2.39 ± 0.09 0.269 ± 0.04415 140 18 2.98 ± 0.08 0.132 ± 0.03315 160 22 1.65 ± 0.09 0.393 ± 0.08515 160 20 2.08 ± 0.17 0.252 ± 0.05315 160 18 2.06 ± 0.09 0.213 ± 0.03720 120 22 1.97 ± 0.04 0.458 ± 0.03420 120 20 2.17 ± 0.08 0.392 ± 0.03620 120 18 2.37 ± 0.05 0.295 ± 0.06020 140 22 1.92 ± 0.15 0.403 ± 0.04720 140 20 2.05 ± 0.05 0.351 ± 0.04520 140 18 2.23 ± 0.02 0.230 ± 0.05520 160 22 2.14 ± 0.16 0.210 ± 0.03020 160 20 2.18 ± 0.04 0.169 ± 0.02020 160 18 2.40 ± 0.01 0.127 ± 0.029

uded chiaecornmeal puffs, LWT - Food Science and Technology (2014),

s:

Fig. 2. Effects of chia content, moisture content and temperature on specific mechanical energy: A) 5 g/100 g chia; B) 10 g/100 g chia; C) 15 g/100 g chia; D) 140 �C (C 0 g/100 gchia; B 5 g/100 g chia; ; 10 g/100 g chia; D 15 g/100 g chia; - 20 g/100 g chia).

J.A. Byars, M. Singh / LWT - Food Science and Technology xxx (2014) 1e5 3

2.4. Color

Extruded sampleswere ground in a coffee grinder, and their colorwas measured using the LabscanXE Hunter colorimeter (HunterAssociates Laboratories Inc., Reston, VA). The Hunter L (lightnessscale 100¼ pure white, 0¼ black), a (red/green) and b (yellow/blue)values were used to calculate the total color DE ¼ (L2 þ a2 þ b2)0.5.Three readingswere taken for each sample, and average valueswerereported. The colorimeter was calibrated with a standard referencetile with values of L ¼ 93.36, a ¼ �1.00 and b ¼ 0.81.

2.5. Hardness

A TA-XT2i Texture Analyzer (Texture Technologies Corp.,Scarsdale, NY) was used to measure the force to break thechiaecorn meal puffs. A TA-92 3-point bend fixture was used with30 mm separation between supports, and the test speed was1 mm/s. Six measurements were taken for each sample, andaverage values were reported. The hardness was defined as theratio of the force at breaking to the cross sectional area based onaverage diameter.

2.6. Specific mechanical energy

The specific mechanical energy was calculated as

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SME�Whkg�1

�¼ torqueðNmÞ$screwspeedðrpmÞ$2p$#of screw

massflowrate�kgh�1�$60

The torque was obtained as an average value after reaching steadystate as recorded by the extruder software, and the standard de-viation of the values over the measuring period was also reported.

2.7. Oil content/lipid extraction

Oil from ground chiaecorn meal samples was extracted with anautomatic fat extractor (Soxtec 2050, Foss N. America, Eden Prairie,MN) using AOAC (2006) method 2003.06. Extracted oil was re-ported based on the weight of the sample.

2.8. Data analysis

SAS software (v. 9.3, SAS Institute, Cary, NC) was used to applythe response surface regression procedure (RSREG) to determinethe regression equations for the three-dimensional graphs. Resultswere analyzed using analysis of variance (PROC GLM) and Duncan'sMultiple Range Test to determine differences between means at asignificance level of p < 0.05.

uded chiaecornmeal puffs, LWT - Food Science and Technology (2014),

J.A. Byars, M. Singh / LWT - Food Science and Technology xxx (2014) 1e54

3. Results and discussion

An important consideration in determining the effectiveness ofextrusion as a means of creating food products containing chia iswhether the fatty acids are made bioavailable. Consumption ofmilled chia seeds can raise plasma levels of a-linolenic acid andeicosapentaenoic acid (Jin et al., 2012), but Austria et al. (2008) haveshown that whereas consuming milled flaxseed increased plasmaa-linolenic acid levels, consuming whole flaxseed did not. If similareffects can be expected for chia, it is necessary for the extrusionprocess to break down the seed coat and make the oils available.Visual inspection of the extrudates confirmed that the chia seedsdid not remain intact during processing. No whole seeds wereobserved in the extruded materials, although some small darkflecks were present.

In an attempt to quantify the effectiveness of the extrusionprocess in making the oils available, the oil was extracted fromextrudates. Table 1 reports the amount of extracted oil for a range ofextrusion conditions based on the weight of the extrudate on an asis basis. The oil content of finely milled chia seeds was 29.7 g/100 g,so the amount of chia oil in the extrudates could be calculated foreach chia content. The oil extracted from the extrudates was alsocompared to the total amount of chia oil on a dry weight basis.These values ranged from 48 to 74 g/100 g chia oil, and generallyincreased with increasing extrusion temperature and decreasing

Fig. 3. Effects of chia content, moisture content and temperature on color: A) 5 g/100 g chia;10 g/100 g chia; D 15 g/100 g chia; - 20 g/100 g chia).

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moisture content. The amount of oil extracted appears to be lowerthan what might be expected from the visual evidence of theeffectiveness of the grinding of the seed. 1.9 g/100 g oil wasextracted from the corn meal before extrusion, yet less than 0.1 g/100 g was extracted from an extruded corn meal puff, suggestingthat the oil may be incorporated into the product matrix and not beextractable by this method. This is consistent with the results ofThachil et al. (2014), who found that 34e51 g/100 g added oil couldbe extracted with hexane from their extrudates prepared fromnormal corn flour and up to 3 g/100 g oil. They showed that theremaining oil was either weakly bound and extractable withchloroform, or more tightly bound and only extractable afterdigestionwith a-amylase. Amyloseelipid complexes have also beenshown to form during extrusion of blends of wheat and almondflours (De Pilli et al., 2008), blends of rice starch and pistachio flour(De Pilli, Derossi, Talja, Jouppila, & Severini, 2011, 2012), and blendsof corn and lentil flours (Lazou & Krokida, 2011); however, thesestudies did not determine whether the complexes contained oils ornative fatty acids from the flours. Some of the oil may remain inunground chia seed fragments, but these results suggest that thisamount may be much lower than the 26e52 g/100 g chia oilimplied by the results in Table 1. Extrusion can clearly be effective ingrinding chia seed and making the fatty acids available, but theproduction of any real food product should consider the extrusionconditions to maximize availability. The use of whole chia seeds

B) 10 g/100 g chia; C) 15 g/100 g chia; D) 140 �C (C 0 g/100 g chia;B 5 g/100 g chia;;

uded chiaecornmeal puffs, LWT - Food Science and Technology (2014),

J.A. Byars, M. Singh / LWT - Food Science and Technology xxx (2014) 1e5 5

may simplify the extrusion process, and eliminates the possibilityof oxidation of the oils in ground chia seeds before extrusion.

The expansion ratio of the extruded products ranged from 1.61to 3.03 (Table 2). Increased temperature and increased moisturecontent both caused a decrease in the expansion ratio, with theeffect of temperature becoming much more pronounced for 10 and15 g/100 g chia samples. Most of the measured propertiesdepended more strongly on moisture content than temperature.The 20 g/100 g chia samples had the lowest expansion ratios, and 5and 10 g/100 g chia samples had the highest expansion ratios.Moisture content has been shown to be important in determiningextrudate expansion (Faubion & Hoseney, 1982), which is consis-tent with the decrease in expansion ratio with increased moisturecontent observed here. However, increased temperature is gener-ally expected to increase expansion (Chinnaswamy& Hanna, 1988).The differences here may be caused by the high oil and fiber con-tent of the chia. Ramos Diaz et al. (2013) studied the extrusion ofamaranth, quinoa and ka~niwa in mixtures with corn flour andshowed that each test material had greater expansion than thecontrol, although increasing fiber content decreased the extent ofincreased expansion. They suggested that the increased expansionmay be due to the effect of plasticizers such as sugars and amines.

The hardness of the extrudates depended most strongly on themoisture content, with higher moisture content leading to harderextrudates (Table 2). The hardness decreased relative to the controlat 5 and 10 g/100 g chia, but then increased for higher chia contents.Wu et al. (2007) also found that moisture content significantlyaffected the hardness of flaxseedecorn extrudates, although thehardness increased with increasing flaxseed concentration. RamosDiaz et al. (2013) also showed that lowmoisture content resulted inlow hardness for each of the systems they studied.

The specific mechanical energy (SME) decreased with increasingmoisture content and increasing temperature, and it was alsoreduced for increasing chia content in the extrudates. Surfaceresponseplots for samples containing5,10 and15% chia are shown inFig. 2AeC. Fig. 2Ddirectly compares the SME for all samples at 140 �C,and complete results are given inTable S1. The SME characterizes theamount of energy delivered to the extruded material, and thereforetheextent ofmolecular degradation. TheSMEwas sufficientlyhigh tobreak down the starch granules completely, as indicated by the lackof a pasting peak in a Rapid Visco Analyzer (results not reported).High chia concentrations resulted in higher concentrations of oil,which can act as a lubricant and reduce friction in the extruder (Abu-hardan, Hill, & Farhat, 2011; Colonna & Mercier, 1983). Highermoisture content and increased temperature both reduced the SME,presumably due to lower viscosity of the extruded material.

The total color of the samples dependedmost strongly on the chiacontent, as shown in Fig. 3D, and it also increased slightly withincreasing temperature or decreasing moisture. The total color isshown in Fig. 3 and Table S1, but the effect of chia concentrationwasto reduce the L (lightness) and b (yellow) values, with only smallchanges to a (red) values. For example, at 140 �C and 20 g/100 gmoisture, the L, a, b values for the control sample were 78.8, 7.6 and50.1, respectively, while for 20 g/100 g chia they were 55.7, 4.7 and27.9. The dependence on composition is to be expected from thebright yellowcornmeal and thedark chia seeds.Wuet al. (2007) alsoobserved large decreases in lightness and yellownesswith increasedflaxseed concentration, although flaxseed caused an increase inredness. They also found an increase in lightness at lower moisture,which was attributed to the effect of moisture on expansion.

4. Conclusions

Extrusion of whole chia seeds with corn meal was shown to beeffective in grinding the chia seeds and incorporating theoils into the

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product matrix. Increased oil levels reduced the expansion ratio anddecreased the hardness at chia levels of 5 and 10 g/100 g. Increasedchia content also reduced the specific mechanical energy of theextrusion process, and reduced the total color of the extrudates.

Acknowledgments

We are grateful to Jeanette Little, Steven A. Lyle and WilmaRinsch and for technical assistance.

Appendix A. Supplementary data

Supplementary data related to this article can be found at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2014.06.036.

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uded chiaecornmeal puffs, LWT - Food Science and Technology (2014),