Promising Practices for Reading Interventions for Braille Readers: Results of Single Subject Studies

Getting in Touch with Literacy Conference

Albuquerque, NM Nov 19, 2015

Deborah D. Hatton, Ph.D., Vanderbilt University

Allen Huang, M.Ed., Tennessee School for the Blind

What ARE evidence-based and promising practices?

• Varies by type of practice and population

• What Works Clearinghouse of IES

• Council for Exceptional Children (2014)

• National Professional Development Center on ASD

• CEC Division on Research Quality Indicators for

• Single subject

• Correlational

• Experimental/quasi-experimental

• Qualitative

What Works Clearinghouse Procedure for Identifying EBP

• Uses systematic review process/procedures to • locate, screen, review studies, including quality. • identify, select, critically appraise relevant research;

extract/analyze data from studies. • A WWC systematic review consists of five steps:

developing a review protocol; • searching the literature; • reviewing studies, including screening eligibility, reviewing

quality, reporting results from high quality studies; • combining findings within and across studies; and • summarizing the review.

http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/documentsum.aspx?sid=19

Criteria for Identifying EBP from Single Subject Research Studies

Horner et al. (2005) • Practice is operationally defined • Context and outcomes of practice clearly defined

• Specific conditions of practice • Individuals qualified to apply the practice • Populations of individuals • Specific outcomes

• Practice is implemented with documented fidelity • Practice is functionally related to change in valued outcomes • Experimental control

• Five methodologically sound studies, that meet minimal quality criteria, published in peer-reviewed journals

• Three different researchers in three different geographical locations • Five or more studies with a total of at least 20 participants

Criteria for Identifying EBP from Single Subject Research Studies

Kratochwill et al. (2010)

• Criteria for designs

• Systematic manipulation of independent variable

• IOA data collected in each phase with at least 20% of data points in each condition

• Three attempts to demonstrate an intervention effect at three different points or with three different phases

• Minimum of 4-6 phases with at least 3-5 data points

• Criteria for demonstrating a functional relation

• Three demonstrations of effect

• Visual analysis

• Level, trend, variability, overlap, immediacy of effect, and consistency of data patterns across similar phases

Challenges of Identifying EBP for Students with VI

• Heterogeneity (co-occurring disabilities/ability levels, amount of vision, service delivery settings, etc.) of students

• Complexity of identifying individualized supports

• Need for accurate task analyses and procedural fidelity checklists

• Need to check procedural fidelity

• Need for interobserver agreement on child responses

• Limited empirical research

What do we do?

• Use data driven decision making • Baseline assessment • Progress monitoring

• Consider guidance from DVI and CEC Position Papers • Consider promising practices identified by Ferrell (2006),

Hatton (2014), Ivy and Hatton (2014), and Parker, Grimmett, and Summers (2008)

• Use resources from other sources • What Works Clearinghouse • National Professional Development Center on ASD • CEC and CEC Division for Research

• Collaborate to conduct and publish research to establish the evidence base

National Reading Panel

Five important components of reading

• Phonemic awareness

• Phonics

• Fluency

• Comprehension

• Vocabulary

Potential Promising Practices

• Systematic Prompting/Constant Time Delay

• Repeated Reading

• Explicit Pre-Teaching of Vocabulary

• Picture Exchange Communication System with Tangible Symbols

Using Constant Time Delay to Teach Braille Words and Contractions

Jennifer Guerra, Jennifer Moss, and

Terra Wilcox

Vanderbilt University

Using Constant Time Delay to Teach Words/Braille Contractions to Beginning

Braille Readers

• Replication/extension of Hooper, Ivy, and Hatton (2014)

• CTD is an EBP for sight words for students with multiple disabilities (Browder et al., 2009) and has been shown to be effective for students with visual impairment (Hooper et al., 2014; Ivy & Hooper, 2015)

• Wormsley (2011) suggests that vocabulary words that are important to students may provide motivation for learning new words. Instead of teaching the alphabet, words that are meaningful and familiar might be more appropriate for students with developmental delays or multiple disabilities who are not learning braille at the expected rate.

• If we can teach young braille readers with delays/multiple disabilities to read highly motivating words with CTD, is CTD effective for teaching Dot-5 contractions?

Experimental Design

• A multiple probe design across behaviors (contractions or word sets) with replication across participants (Hooper et al., 2014).

• This design permits the demonstration of a functional relation between the intervention (independent variable) and outcomes (dependent variables) by introducing the CTD intervention in a time-lagged sequence (Gast & Ledford, 2010) that documents that learning does not occur until the intervention is introduced.

• Because of time-lagged introduction of CTD across behaviors, threats to internal validity, like testing effects, history, or maturation, are reduced (Gast & Ledford, 2010).

Setting

• Data collection occurred in an unused classroom reserved for data collection in the specialized school for students with visual impairments (VI)

• Sessions were one-on-one.

• The researcher, secondary observer, and other research personnel were present during all sessions.

• Participants sat at appropriately sized tables and chairs.

Word/Contraction Selection and Materials

• Each participant learned 9 to 20 braille words/contractions

• Words were chosen based on goal of study and parent/teacher input

• Words then placed into tactilely distinct sets • Braille flash cards created on 3 by 5 inch note cards • Top right corner of cards cut off for easy orientation • Words/contractions brailled in the center of the

flashcard with a space on either side • Equal sized lead-in line (series of cells dot-2 and dot-5)

before the word and lead-out line following the word • Rubber non-slip mat prevented movement of cards

Experimental Procedures

Probe Session The probe session monitors acquisition of words/contractions. Instructor places word card on rubber mat in front of the student and places hand over word (at end of lead in line) and says “Find the end of the lead-in line.” Then says “Read the word.” Beginning and end of study and after every intervention phase. 0 Second Session The 0 second session is an instructional session. The instructor begins teaching the student the words during this condition. Instructor places card in front of the student, places hand over word and then says “Read the word.”, and immediately says “This word is _____” and removes hand so student can read the word. 5 Second Session The 5 session second is also instructional; students demonstrate what they have learned. Instructor places word card in front of the student with hand over word and says “Find the end of the lead-in line; read the word.” Then the instructor waits for 5 sec, giving the student the opportunity to say the word. If the student does not say the word in 5 sec, the instructor says “This word is ____,” and the student reads the word and tracks it after the instructor.

Using Constant Time Delay to Teach Highly Motivating Words to Young Braille Readers

The purpose of Guerra’s study (2014) was to replicate the constant time delay study conducted by Hooper et al. (2014):

• Can a CTD intervention be used to teach 9 to 12 highly motivating braille words to students with VI and developmental delays?

• How much time and how many sessions are needed to use CTD to teach highly motivating braille words to beginning braille readers?

• Do students maintain/retain words that they have learned with CTD?

Participants

• Three beginning braille readers with VI and developmental delays were recruited from a specialized school for students with visual impairments (VI).

• Participants • Used braille as primary literacy medium • Were beginning braille readers • Could attend to a task and wait for approximately 5

seconds • Could verbally imitate • Had hearing within normal limits • Spoke English as primary language

Participants

Student Age Demo Diagnoses Visual Acuity

Braille Skills PreIntervention

Natalie 6 years 2 mo

Hispanic Female

Optic Nerve Hypoplasia

Developmental Delay

No Light Perception

Could read some letters

Tyler 6 years 8 mo

Black Male

Bilateral Anophthalmia

Developmental Delay

No Light Perception

Could read some

alphabetic whole word contractions

Chris 10 years 2 mo

White Male

Retinopathy of Prematurity Multiple Disabilities

Light Perception

Could read some letters

RESULTS

Results

• One participant learned 12 words and two others learned 9 words each.

• Functional relation was documented for all three participants.

• Sessions averaged across participants at 39.5, 59.6, and 82 minutes. Participants achieved mastery in 17, 19, and 29 sessions.

• Maintenance was reported for all participants at the following averages: 41.6%, 44.4%, and 88.9%

Social Validity

• Using a Likert scale, the students’ teacher was given a questionnaire that consisted of five statements.

• The teacher felt that the words chosen were appropriate and important for each of the students to learn, that the study significantly improved the students’ ability to recognize the words, and that she would consider using CTD in her classroom as part of her literacy program.

• Maintenance data were collected 5 months after the final probe condition.

Discussion

• Three young braille readers with developmental delays learned highly motivating words using constant time delay procedures.

• A functional relation was shown across 3 to 4 word sets with three participants.

• The results of this study suggest that constant time delay may be used to teach highly motivating words to beginning braille readers with developmental delays.

• Meaningful words instead of abstract letters may be more effective/appropriate for early braille readers with developmental delays

Using Constant Time Delay to Teach Dot 5 Contractions to Beginning Braille Readers

The purpose of Wilcox’s (2014) and Moss’ (2015) studies was to extend the study done by Hooper et al. (2014) to teach Dot-5 braille contractions to beginning readers. The following research questions guided this study:

• Can CTD be used to teach Dot 5 contractions to beginning braille readers?

• How much time and how many sessions are needed to teach Dot 5 contractions to beginning braille readers?

• Do students maintain/retain words that they have learned with CTD?

Participants Student Age Demo Diagnoses Visual

Acuity Braille Skills PreIntervention

William 8 yr 3 mo

Black Male

Microphthalmus and corneal

scarring

No Light Percep.

Some alphabetic

whole word contractions

Diana 11 yr White Female

Retinal dystrophy Other medical

conditions include heart problems

and a seizure disorder

No Light Percep.

Some alphabetic

whole word contractions

Samantha 9 yr 1 mo

White Female

Optic atrophy, nystagmus, and ADHD

Light Percep.

A few Dot-5 contractions

Materials and Word Selection

• Dot-5 braille (18 to 20) contractions that students did not know were chosen because teachers wanted the students to learn these contractions.

• Materials • braille word cards measuring 3 by 5 inches

• non-slip rubber mat measuring 9.5 by 12.5 inches

• dependent variable data collection form

• procedural fidelity data collection form

• CTD implementation checklist

• iPad (voice memo app)

• stop watch

Procedural Fidelity, Interobserver Agreement, Maintenance, and Social Validity

• Procedural fidelity and IOA data were taken for 33% to 67% of sessions for every participant and during every condition.

• Procedural fidelity (DH ADDS)

• IOA (DH ADDS)

• Maintenance data were taken once a week for 3-4 weeks after the study. Participants maintained high levels of maintenance, as shown on the graphs.

• Perceptions-based questionnaires were given to teachers; teachers said that they would use the intervention if there had been time left in the school year.

PF Data Below 100%

Results

• Three participants learned Dot-5 (two learned 20 and one learned 18) contractions using the constant time delay procedure.

• The data suggest that a functional relation exists between constant time delay instruction and recognition of Dot-5 braille contractions.

• The functional relation was demonstrated by an immediate increase in correct responses that was replicated across three different contraction sets with three participants.

Strengths

• IOA and PF data collected across conditions; well over minimum standards identified by Horner et al. (2005)

• Appropriate experimental design

• Experimental control and three demonstrations of effect shown

• Learning braille contractions appears to be an important, socially valid outcome

Implications

• Constant time delay appears to be a promising strategy to use with braille readers in the context of a braille rich literacy program, consistent with findings from Hooper et al., 2014 and Ivy and Hooper (2015).

• Ease of use in classroom: CTD can be used by teachers, paraprofessionals, or peer tutors and takes a short time to implement.

• Cost-effective: CTD is relatively inexpensive to implement.

Questions for Future Research

• Should the number of 0 s sessions vary depending on the ability of participants?

• What mastery criterion is achievable and logical for acquisition of braille contractions? Does it vary by participant?

• What criteria/recommendations are needed to facilitate tactile discrimination in contraction sets?

• Can we replicate with students in inclusive settings?

• Can we replicate with students with low vision who read print?

Repeated Reading to Optimize Reading Fluency

Repeated oral reading

• Practice reading out loud to develop habits that promote fluency

• Have students read and reread

• Provide personalized instruction

• Provide personalized feedback

• Use motivating materials and procedures

Slide courtesy of Mackenzie Savaiano

Research with Students with Visual Impairments

• Layton & Koenig (1998)

• Pattillo, S. T., Heller, K. W., & Smith, M. (2004)

• Savaiano, M. E., & Hatton, D. D. (2014). Repeated reading to improve reading speed and comprehension of students with visual impairments.

• Forster (2009) unpublished dissertation

Slide courtesy of Mackenzie Savaiano

Repeated Reading: Preliminary Procedures

• Reading inventory • Baseline wpm • Independent reading level choosing materials

• Developing reading materials • Highly motivating • Appropriate reading level • Assuring passages are at same reading level

• Setting a goal • Words per minute (wpm) or words correct per minute

(wcpm) • Determine number of readings or time per session • Administer comprehension measures Slide courtesy of Mackenzie Savaiano

Repeated Reading: Procedures

• Talk to students to motivate them to improve reading rate

• Assemble materials

• One reading passage per session in accessible format

• Stopwatch

• Calculator

• Time readings

• Calculate wpm or wcpm (# words/# seconds x 60 = wpm)

• Assess fidelity of implementation

• Praise students for participating

• Repeat procedure until goal for day is met, or time or maximum number of readings is met

Slide courtesy of Mackenzie Savaiano

Using Repeated Reading to Increase Oral Reading Fluency of Braille Readers

Anna Daniel, Michael Tuttle, and

Katherine Whiteley

Vanderbilt University

Increasing Oral Reading Fluency and Comprehension

• Studies have shown that braille-readers read at a slower rate than their sighted peers (Crandell & Wallace, 1974; Wall Emerson, Holbrook, & D’Andrea, 2009; Wormsley, 1996).

• Repeated reading appears to be a promising practice for students with VI (Erickson & Hatton, 2007; Ferrell, 2006).

• Research indicates that repeated-reading has had promising impacts on reading rates of students with visual impairments (Layton & Koenig, 1998; Pattillo, Heller, & Smith, 2004; Savaiano & Hatton, 2013).

What is Repeated Reading?

• Rereading a specific passage until a criterion is met or for a predetermined number of rereadings and then retelling the story or answering questions to assess comprehension

• Repeated trials follow the same pattern, but use different passages at same reading level

• Students develop automaticity as they read and gradually increase oral reading rate and comprehension levels

Increasing Oral Reading Fluency and Comprehension

The purpose of these studies was to modify the repeated reading strategy implemented by Savaiano and Hatton (2013) to improve the oral reading rate and comprehension of students who use braille and to answer the following research questions:

1. Does repeated reading increase oral reading rates of students who read braille?

2. Does repeated reading increase comprehension of students who read braille?

Intervention Procedure

• Inform student of oral reading rate goal

• Explain directions/provide instructional prompt

• Begin timed reading

• Have student read the passage once

• Calculate oral reading rate

• Inform the student if he or she met their goal

• Continue readings (up to three times) until oral reading rate goal is met

• Ask comprehension questions

• Calculate words correct per minute and graph

What is a Miscue?

• Miscues are mistakes made during oral readings

• Insignificant Miscues

• Insertion

• Reversal

• Repetition

• Contraction separation/creation

• Significant Miscues

• Omission

• Substitution

Participants

• Participants were recruited from a specialized school for students with visual impairments.

• Participants:

• used braille as a primary literacy medium,

• read connected text at a second grade level or higher according to the Johns Basic Reading Inventory,

• spoke English as their primary language, and

• were willing to participate in the study.

Participants Student Age Demo Grade Visual

Condition

Near

Visual

Acuity

Sam 13 yrs., 2

months

White

Male

6th Anophthalmos No light

perception

Sue 11 yrs. White

Female

6th Optic Nerve Hypoplasia Possible

light

perception

Caleb 17 yrs. White

Male

11th Optic Atrophy Light

Perception

Shawn 20 White

Male

12th Optic Atrophy Light

Perception

Daniella 18 Black

Female

11th Optic Atrophy Light

Perception

Setting

•Unused room at specialized school for the blind.

•Participants sat at a table next to investigator.

•Secondary observer present for IOA and procedural fidelity.

Materials

•Non-stick braille mat

•Passages and word lists in braille (Johns, 2008)

•Olympus digital recorder

•Phone with timer application

• Informational reading passages in braille from readworks.org or passages were chosen from the Journey’s Leveled Readers levels H – M

•Data collection forms

•Procedural fidelity forms

Experimental Design

• A changing-criterion design was used to detect a functional relation between oral reading rate and the repeated reading intervention. In a changing-criterion design, treatment phases use a stepwise change in criterion rate of the target behavior, where each phase of the design provides a baseline for the following phase.

(Hartmann & Hall, 1976)

Oral Reading Rate

• Recorded as “words correct per minute” (wcpm): the words read deducted by the number of unacceptable errors, divided by the number of seconds the reading lasted, multiplied by 60.

• Acceptable miscues were defined as insertions, repetitions, contractions, and self-corrections.

• Unacceptable miscues were defined as omissions, substitutions, and reversals.

Comprehension

• Comprehension was reported as a percentage. The number of content words retold were divided by the total number of content words for the passage, multiplied by 100.

• Lists of content words were made for each passage.

• Content words included proper nouns, common nouns, adjectives, adverbs, and verbs.

• After reading the passage, participants were asked to retell the story in their own words.

Fuchs, Fuchs, and Maxwell (1988)

Oral Reading Rates: Sam and Sue

Oral Reading Rates: Caleb, Shawn, Daniella

Comprehension: Sam and Sue

Comprehension: Caleb, Shawn, Daniella

Results

• Oral Reading Rate

• Functional relation for Sue

• Comprehension

• No functional relations

Discussion

• Oral reading fluency is a major factor in reading proficiency (NICCHD, 2000)

• RR intervention was easy to implement. • Preparation of equivalent reading passages is time

consuming. • Three separate research groups have reported that

repeated reading is effective for students with low vision who read print (Layton & Koenig, 1998; Pattillo et al., 2004; Savaiano & Hatton, 2013).

• RR appears to be one of few interventions for students with VI with evidence from experimental single subject studies.

• Will it work for students who read braille? • Can procedures be refined to make it more effective?

Repeated Reading: Reading Rockets http://www.readingrockets.org/strategies/timed_repeated_readings/

What Works Clearinghouse

http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/interventionreport.aspx?sid=576

Pre-teaching Keywords to Braille Readers

Allen H. Huang Program in Visual Disabilities

Peabody College, Vanderbilt University December 4, 2014

Literacy Performance, Instruction, and Research

Braille readers lag behind peers in reading skills Braille instruction is necessary: • Primary learning and

literacy medium for students who cannot access print

• Proficient reading and writing are key to academic and vocational success

Current issues: • Easier, more efficient to

teach content auditorially

Research: • Minimal, poor quality Promising practices are emerging: • Repeated reading • Constant time delay • Braille vocabulary

instructional strategies National Reading Panel report: • Pre-instruction of

vocabulary facilitates vocabulary acquisition and comprehension

Keyword Pre-teaching: What do we know?

• Keyword pre-teaching has been found effective for increasing reading comprehension, speed, and fluency in

• Elementary students (Carney et al., 1984)

• Students with learning disabilities (Burns et al., 2004; Burns et al., 2011)

Research Questions

Does pre-teaching social studies keywords

1. Increase the percentage of keywords that are defined correctly,

2. Increase the percentage of keywords that are spelled correctly,

3. Increase braille oral reading rates, and

4. Have differential effects on the dependent measures during braille reading and listening tasks?

Dependent measures:

• Keyword definition acquisition

• Keyword spelling accuracy

• Braille passage reading rate (words correct per minute)

Method: Participants Audrey

• White female, 13 yrs old

• 8th grade

• Specialized school

– modified academic program

• Retinopathy of prematurity

• MD: VI and intellectual disability

• 95% of braille contractions

Lila

• White female, 13 yrs old

• 8th grade

• Specialized school

• Optic nerve hypoplasia

• MD: VI and learning disability

• 66% of braille contractions

Method: Materials

• School’s 8th grade social studies textbook

• 45 content passages

– 150-250 words

• 5 keywords per passage

– Pre-taught using index cards

• iPad (Speech selection), headphones, splitters

• Digital voice recorder

• Rubber mat

Braille passages

• Contracted braille, EBAE

• Embossed on 11.5 in X 11 in braille paper

Audio passages

• Saved as Word documents in Dropbox

• Accessed via iPad app

Method: Experimental Design

• A-B-A-B withdrawal design with embedded alternating treatments design (ATD) procedure across two contexts (Rispoli et al., 2013)

• Causality established through intra-subject replications

• Three demonstrations of effect

• ATD procedure implemented to examine potential differences in effects when reading braille or listening to passages

Method: Pre-teaching Intervention Engaged participants’ cognitive processes Present card to student: • “Please read the word out loud” • Prompt: Check for spelling, read

the word again Definitions procedure: • Choose from 2 possible

definitions: – One correct, one incorrect

(blatant)

• Use word in sentence from passage

• Prompt: Did definition choice make sense?

• Provide correct definition

If in treatment, start here • Intervention: Pre-teach keywords If in baseline, start here • Introduce reading context

– Reading/listening • If reading: read braille passage • If listening: listen to passage • Request definitions • Request spellings

Results: Visual Analysis

Keyword definitions

• Functional relation for both participants • Consistent, immediate, and dramatic changes in level between conditions,

no overlapping data

Keyword spelling

• Audrey: no functional relation • Inconsistent changes in level, not always immediate, variability changed, data

overlapped

• Lila: no functional relation • Difficult to observe changes in level, variability stayed constant, data overlapped

Reading rate

• Audrey: no functional relation • Changes in level observed, but variable data were observed, overlapping

data observed

• Lila: no functional relation • No consistent changes in level, trend, or variability

Results: Keyword Definitions

Figure 2. Lila’s percent of keywords defined correctly

Figure 1. Audrey’s percent of keywords defined correctly (left)

Results: IOA and PF

Interobserver Agreement

• Collected in 67% (Audrey) and 52% (Lila) of sessions in all conditions and contexts

Procedural Fidelity

• 60% (Audrey) and 44% (Lila) of sessions were observed in all contexts in all conditions

• Average percent fidelity: – Audrey – total: 98

– Conditions: 99.8, 98.1, 99.2, 95

– Lila – total: 99

– Conditions: 100, 98, 100, 99.6

Note:

D = Definitions, S = Spelling,

W = WCPM

Condition

(% sessions

IOA)

Interobserver % Agreement

Audrey Lila

D S W D S W

Baseline 1

Audrey (85.7%)

Lila (85.7%)

100 100 98.5 100 100 99.6

Intervention 1

Audrey (72.7%)

Lila (50%)

97.5 97.5 99.6 100 93.3 99.5

Baseline 2

Audrey (66.7%)

Lila (33.3%)

100 95 99.9 80 100 98.6

Intervention 2

Audrey (33.3%)

Lila (33.3%)

100 100 99.4 100 100 99.5

Results: Social Validity

Data remained consistent over two maintenance sessions; once a week after study ended

Post-study questionnaires

• Participants, parents/guardians, and teachers responded positively regarding use of pre-teaching

Maintenance probes (definition, spelling retention) varied over time

• Audrey: 2 and 4 weeks

• Lila: 3-5 weeks, 6-7 weeks

• 2 weeks: – Audrey recalled 40%, spelled 67%

• 4 weeks: – Audrey recalled 11%, spelled 71%

• 3-5 weeks: – Lila recalled 26%, spelled 39%

• 6-7 weeks: – Lila recalled 21%, spelled 46%

Discussion: Conclusions

Pre-teaching keywords appears to be an effective practice that has promise for students who read braille

• RQ 1: Functional relation between intervention and definition acquisition

• RQ 2, 3: No functional relation between intervention and spelling, reading rate

• RQ 4: No consistent patterns in keyword definitions and reading rate data were observed between listening and reading contexts

Discussion: Implications

• Intervention supports students’ content reading requirements

• Useful in core curriculum and expanded core curriculum areas

• Materials and procedures are easy to implement in “real world” settings

• Complete mastery of all braille contractions not required

• Effective with students with intellectual and learning disabilities

• Promotes cognitive engagement in lieu of passively providing keywords and definitions

• Effective with both braille reading and listening assignments:

• Educators now have an instructional method that appears to be effective in supporting braille reading comprehension tasks

• Educators may consider providing more opportunities for reading longer braille content to facilitate reading fluency

Implications for Practitioners

• Use the term evidence-based practices conservatively

• Become savvy consumers of the literature to identify promising practices

• Was the article peer reviewed?

• Does the research meet CEC/DR quality indicator standards?

• Consider whether the practice has been successfully implemented by multiple research groups

• Use assessment data to drive selection of instructional strategies and to monitor progress

• Recognize that educators are going to be evaluated on the progress their students make

Implications for the Field

• Faculty members must • provide accurate information about EBP for our field • model the appropriate use of the term • encourage their students to advance knowledge of

promising practices in assignments • encourage students to conduct research to advance the

identification of EBP • collaborate with each other to provide data from multiple

research groups • form partnerships with administrators and practitioners to

advance the identification of EBP for our field • Students must advance EBP through assignments and

research

Implications for the Field

• Administrators/supervisors must • provide professional development on this topic to their staff

members, preferably by collaborating with faculty • Encourage their staff members to implement EBP • Encourage staff members to participate in research to

advance EBP • Practitioners should

• implement promising practices • collect data to document effectiveness • participate in research

• All of us must • Tackle this issue in a supportive, collaborative manner • Recognize that we HAVE to address this issue to advance

our field

Thanks!

• Anna Daniel • Jennifer Guerra • Jonathan Hooper • Sarah Ivy • Danielle Krause • Jennifer Moss • Carlie Rhoads • Mackenzie Savaiano • Michael Tuttle • Terra Wilcox • Katherine Whiteley • Tennessee School for the Blind • Participants and Their Families

References

Browder, D., Ahlgrim-Delzell, L., Spooner, F., Mims, P. J., & Baker, J. N. (2009). Using time delay to teach literacy to students with severe developmental disabilities. Exceptional Children, 75, 343-364. Burns, M. K., Dean, V. J., & Foley, S. (2004). Preteaching unknown keywords with incremental rehearsal to improve

fluency and comprehension with children identified as learning disabled. Journal of School Psychology, 42, 303-314.

Burns, M. K., Hodgson, J., Parker, D. C., & Fremont, K. (2011). Comparison of the effectiveness and efficiency of text previewing and preteaching keywords as small-group reading comprehension strategies with middle-school students. Literacy Research and Instruction, 50, 241-252.

Carney, J.J., Anderson, D., Blackburn, C., & Blessing D. (1984). Preteaching vocabulary and the comprehension of social studies materials by elementary school children. Social Education, 48, 195-196. Council for Exceptional Children (2014). Council for Exceptional Children standards for evidence-based practices in special education. Retrieved March 31, 2015 from www.cec.sped.org. Crandell, J., & Wallace, D. (1974). Speed reading in braille: An empirical study. New Outlook for the Blind, 68, 13-19. Erickson, K. A., & Hatton, D. D. (2007). Literacy and visual impairment. Seminars in Speech and Language, 28, 58-68. Ferrell, K. A. (2006). Evidence-based practices for students with visual disabilities. Communication Disorders Quarterly, 28, 42-48. Forster, E. M. (2009). Investigating the effects of a repeated reading intervention for increasing reading fluency with primary, braille-reading students using curriculum-based measurement within a Response to Intervention framework (Doctoral dissertation). Fuchs, L., Fuchs, D., & Maxwell, L. (1988). The validity of informal reading comprehension measures. Remedial and Special Education, 9, 20–28.

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Hartmann, D., & Hall, R. (1976). The changing criterion design. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 9, 527–532.

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