ProjWrit

8/8/2019 ProjWrit

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/projwrit 1/9

PROJECT WRITING

- style, content and exposition

by Henrik Halkier

Projects belong to a particular genre of texts and they therefore have to conform to a number

of requirements with regard to structure, exposition, and format of presentation. The following

pages will provide a brief and general introduction to basic points regarding projects as texts,

and it is hoped that providing a checklist and demonstrating the rationale behind the

technicalities will make writing easier.

A good project is characterized by

C a precise problem formulation, specifying the key issue(s) the project will be addressing

and the analytical perspective adopted,

C a well-organized structure, containing sections of relevance to the problem formulation

(theory, background information, discussions, etc.) arranged according to the traditions of

the particular academic field,

C arguments and documentation in order to substantiate the conclusions reached,

C a format of presentation that supports these three criteria by including references,

quotations and other para-textual features,

C an appropriate style of writing , i.e. not only well-written from a grammatical and idiomatic

point of view, but also ‘dry’ in the sense of being to the point and trying to persuade its

readers by means of reasoning rather than rhetoric or eloquence.

What exactly constitutes a precise problem formulation will vary between the academic

disciplines and has been covered in the preceding chapters, and questions of style are dealt

with in the various language-oriented courses. This chapter will therefore focus on the more

‘technical’ aspects of the text, namely structure, argumentation and format of presentation.

8/8/2019 ProjWrit


2

Organizing the structure

Any project consists of four textual ingredients: the introduction; the analysis itself; one or

more types of documentation; and a reference section. The function of the individual parts is

summarized in Table 1 below - their relative prominence and specific nature may differ from

one field of study to another but their presence is invariably important.

Table 1: The general structure of projects

ELEMENTS FUNCTION

Introduction

Identification Identify writer(s), type of evaluation, supervisor. Title of project.

Contents Overview of structure of text. This must reflect problem formulation:

sections that are relevant from precisely this perspective should be included,

everything else left out.

Preface Optional. Personal comments on e.g. motives for choice of topic.

Problem

formulation

Precise statement of purpose of project, perspective adopted, comments on

structure of text.

Analysis

Headings and

subheadings

A hierarchy of headings keeps closely related sections of the text together

and indicates changes in themes and/or perspectives.

Simplicity and transparency is essential: too many headings usually reflects

weak organization. Three levels of headings is the maximum, and they must

be differentiated by graphic and/or numerical means.

Sections on

theory

Present or discuss the analytical approach and/or the key concepts employed

in the analysis.

Sections with

background

Provide in brief and concise form information that the reader cannot be

expected to have readily at hand.

Analytical

sections

The core parts of the text that address the questions raised in the problem

formulation.

Footnotes Optional. Detailed background information or more exotic comments on

particular aspects may be placed here - or perhaps left out?

Conclusion(s) Conclusions along the way are required. Projects are not well served by the

suspense of detective stories, especially as the reader’s memory is

surprisingly short.

Documentation

8/8/2019 ProjWrit


3

References Establish relationship between project and the sources on which it is based.

Compulsory in a number of cases (as specified in the following), and

generally essential. Should only be avoided in connection with conclusions

reached by authors of projects in order to ensure maximum credit for goodideas.

Quotations,

figures, tables

Direct rendering of qualitative or quantitative evidence to be discussed as

part of the analysis.

Your interpretation of evidence must be presented as this may not always

be obvious to reader. Because interpretation rather than presentation of raw

data is important the number of direct quotes etc. should be limited.

Quotations: short ones in text, longer ones as separate indented single-

spaced paragraph.

Figures & Tables: must be numbered, can be placed in separate appendices

if large or in large numbers.

Appendices

Bibliography Ensure that reader can identify sources in order to check the use made of

them in the project.

List of

abbreviations

Ensure that reader can decode abbreviations used in project. Avoid profusion

of ‘home-made’ ab.s - produces a compact and less accessible text.

Additional

documentation

If projects revolves around a limited number of texts (e.g. advertisements or

interviews) that cannot be expected to be available in a university library,

these texts should be included here. Large tables and figures may also be

moved outside the main body of text.

Arguments in project writing

The analytical sections are the core parts of any project, and the internal structure of eachsubsection or even paragraph will normally mirror the Q + D/A -> C formula of the entire

project: a question or hypotheses is discussed in the light of relevant documentation and

arguments, and on the basis of this a conclusion is reached.

The nature of the documentation used will vary according to the topic of the project and

the methodologies employed by the project writers. But in every case it is necessary to argue

explicitly for the relevance of any piece of documentation in the context of the question being

discussed. Quotes or figures in themselves prove absolutely nothing: it is only when linked

with a particular question by means of arguments that they become useful. In other words: the

8/8/2019 ProjWrit


4

connection between question and documentation must be carefully specified. Is a quote or a

figure used as an example of a particular phenomenon, as a comparison, as an analogy? And if

it can be documented that two phenomena often co-exist, what, then, is the precise nature of

the link between them?

Most projects will to a certain extent, or even exclusively, be based on secondary

sources, i.e. texts written by academics that analyze questions of interest to the project.

Secondary sources are valuable from two perspectives. Firstly, they will provide a range of

possible interpretations and answers that may help project writers formulate their own

hypotheses or give them something to criticize, refute, or validate. Secondly, they will present

or refer to primary sources, i.e. various types of documentation, in order to substantiate their

conclusions; these can be re-used by project writers for their own purposes. It is, however,

important to remember that secondary sources

C may be written in order to illuminate questions that are not necessarily 100% identical with

the problem formulation of the project,

C can entail theoretical assumptions or particular world views that may differ from that of the

project writers,

C

may use primary sources in ways that are not warranted (being published by prestigious

journals or publishers does not guarantee intellectual rigour).

When using secondary sources, critical scrutiny is a key prerequisite.

Under all circumstances it is of the utmost importance that the text achieves maximum

transparency, i.e. constantly highlights the relationship between the project and the primary

and secondary sources on which it is based. References are used to achieve this, and in a

number of situations they are compulsory:

C

direct quotes (‘hidden’ quotes are illicit plagiarism and will be dealt with accordingly),

C extensive indirect summaries, e.g. when a subsection is based on or inspired by particular

texts, (again ‘hidden’ summaries is an unacceptable display of intellectual dishonesty); here

references can be gathered in one reference at the beginning or end of the section for

economy of space,

C tables and figures,

C academic interpretations, e.g. “contrary to this, the sociologist Andy Goram argues that

....” (reference),

C any non-trivial documentation, i.e. examples or figures that cannot be assumed to be

8/8/2019 ProjWrit


5

1 For a similar argument from a German perspective, see Kraut (1980, 179-83). [Yes, an example

...]

common knowledge,

C controversial information, i.e. statements that are questioned within the existing academic

literature or which run counter to the general perception of particular issues.

In many cases just stating where a particular point of view or piece of documentation can be

found will suffice. Sometimes, however, the reader is entitled to additional information,

namely when the project writers have interpreted primary or secondary sources in order to use

them as e.g. analogies or examples for their own purposes. This can be integrated in the main

body of text or, if possible, form part of the system of references itself if this involves

footnotes.1

Finally, conclusions must be warranted by the preceding discussion and spelt out

clearly. A conclusion is both a brief summary of what has been said before and rounding up of

ideas. The best and most convincing conclusions tend to be brief, to the point, and forceful.

Sometimes the right conclusion is that, on the basis of the information available no conclusion

can be reached. This may lead on to pointing out the directions for more documentation or

new research.

Format of presentation

It would, of course, be convenient if we could present the standard format for project

presentation. In real life traditions differ between various fields of academic writing, partly

due to inexplicable conventions and idiosyncrasies, and partly because of the specific needs

within a particular academic field.

Undoubtedly, the greatest differences concern the elements that ensures the transparency

of the project as a text, namely references and bibliography. Three different systems are

outlined below. While it is important for students to be acquainted with all of them in order to

be able to encode academic texts using the various formats, any project will have to conform

to one of these. In some fields of study a particular system prevails, and some supervisors may

have their own preferences - or they may adopt a liberal attitude. If in doubt, ask.

The adjoining Table 2 gives a brief outline of three systems of references. Other systems

are also prominent - many texts still use the ‘traditional’ approach in combination with an

8/8/2019 ProjWrit


6

elaborate system of latin abbreviations for later references - but the three have been selected in

order to provide a range of options that are still relatively simple and manageable.

Table 2: Three systems of referencing for project writing

TRADITIONAL (Modern Humanities Research Association)

References Placed in footnotes or endnotes. First-time reference gives full bibliographic details, later

references as brief as possible.

Examples of first-time

references

Books:F. X. Goodenough, The Politics of Corporatism, (Oxford, 2001), pp. 14-15.

W. Hateley and E. Presley, The Pragmatics of Punctuation, 2nd ed., (Houndmills, 2000),

p. 7.

K. Dalgleish (ed.), Robert Burns Revisited , (Glasgow, 1997)

The Works of Samuel Johnson, R. L. McAdam ed. (New Haven, 1968), p. XI.

Department of Trade and Industry, DTI - The Department for Enterprise , (London,

1988).

Scottish Executive: Day Care Services, Scotland 2002,

http://www.scotland.gov.uk/stats/bulletins/00265-00.asp (10.7.03)

Articles in edited volumes:

D. Saunders, “Burns, the Striker”, in Robert Burns Revisited , ed. K. Dalgleish, (Glasgow,

1997) pp. 79-98.

Articles in journals:

M. Hughes, “Exchange Students and Intercultural Communication”, Culture &

Communication, 12, pp. 147-92.

“Clinton - The Revenge”, Newsweek , 12.10.02.

“President Bush Announces Combat Operations in Iraq Have Ended”,

http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/05/iraq/20030501-15.html (10.7.03)

Other materials:

Interviews to be listed with all relevant information on interviewees.

Examples of

later references

Only one title by author quoted:

Goodenough, p. 79.

More than one title by author quoted:

Goodenough, The Politics of Corporatism, p. 79.

Goodenough, Organized Interest in the UK , pp. 3-7.

Bibliography Not necessary as complete bibliographic data have been given in first reference.

Sometimes included as courtesy to reader.

AUTHOR-DATE SYSTEM

References Placed in brackets in main body of text, giving name of author, date of publication, and

pages if relevant.

If two or more works by one author have the same publication date, they aredistinguished by adding letters after the date.

http://www.scotland.gov.uk/stats/bulletins/00265-00.asp


8/8/2019 ProjWrit


7

Examples ... the growth of juvenile delinquency in the inner cities took the Conservatives by surprise

(Gamble 1999, 283-84).

Some have argued (Hateley and Presley 2000; Goodenough 2001b) that the changingsocio-linguistic patterns ...

Bibliography Compulsory as translation of author-date references to full bibliographic format.

Graphic presentation distinguishes between various types of texts, cf the examples

below.

Examples Books:

Goodenough, F. X. (2001b): The Politics of Corporatism, Oxford: Oxford UP.

Hateley, W. and Presley, E. (2000): The Pragmatics of Punctuation, 2nd ed.,

Houndmills: Macmillan.

Dalgleish, K. (ed.) (1997): Robert Burns Revisited , Glasgow: Collins.

Department of Trade and Industry (1988): DTI - The Department for Enterprise , London:

HMSO.

Scottish Executive: Day Care Services, Scotland 2002,http://www.scotland.gov.uk/stats/bulletins/00265-00.asp (10.7.03)

Articles in edited volumes:

Saunders, D. (1997): “Burns, the Striker”, in K. Dalgleish (ed.): Robert Burns Revisited ,

Glasgow: Collins, pp. 79-98.

Articles in journals:

Hughes, M. (1992): “Exchange Students and Intercultural Communication”, Culture &

Communication, 12, pp. 147-92.

“Clinton - The Revenge”, Newsweek 12.10.02.

“President Bush Announces Combat Operations in Iraq Have Ended”,

http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/05/iraq/20030501-15.html (10.7.03)

Other materials:

Interviews to be listed with all relevant information on interviewees.

A HYBRID APPROACH

References Author-date information in footnotes.

If two or more works by one author have the same publication date, they are

distinguished by adding letters after the date.

Examples ... the growth of juvenile delinquency in the inner cities took the Conservatives by

surprise.1

Some have argued2 that the changing socio-linguistic patterns ...

_________________________

1) Gamble 1999, pp. 283-84.

2) Originally Saunders (1997), later developed by Goodenough (2001b).

Bibliography Compulsory as translation of author-date references to full bibliographic format.

Graphic presentation distinguishes between various types of texts, cf the examples given

above under the Author-date system.



8/8/2019 ProjWrit


8

The pros and cons of the three systems are as follows. The author-date system avoids

foot- or endnotes, but the integration of references in the main body of text is a mixed

blessing: on the one hand references cannot easily be overlooked, on the other hand a large

number and/or very long and complex references may interfere with the understanding of the

argument of the text itself. The traditional system does not require a separate bibliography -

which is good news for the writer but sometimes rather confusing for the reader. The hybrid

approach produces brief references without interfering with the main body of text, but

requires both footnotes and a separate bibliography.

Apart from referencing, there are few restrictions on the lay-out of projects. With the

endless range of possibilities currently available in most word-processing programmes, it is

perhaps worth recalling the two basic principles that should guide the design process, namely

C readability: avoid single spacing and very small types in the main body of text,

C simplicity: the graphic features should support the structure of the text by indication the

hierarchy of sections and subsections, or emphasize a few key words in the main body of

text. Too many italicized words and too many fancy design features can be distracting

rather than helpful.

8/8/2019 ProjWrit


9

FURTHER READING

Algren-Ussing, Helle (1990): Metode i projektarbejdet - Problemorientering og

Gruppearbejde, Aalborg: Aalborg Universitetsforlag.

Gundelach, Peter (1997): Rapportskrivning - Vejledning og praktiske råd , København:

Gyldendal.

Halkier, Henrik (2002): “Fra information til rapport”, chapter 11 in Finn Frandsen, Henrik

Halkier & Winni Johansen: Net>værk - Introduktion til international erhvervskommunikation,

Herning: Systime.

Katzenelson, Boje (1988): Vejledning i affattelse af universitetsopgaver og videnskabelige

arbejde med særlig henblik på psykologi, 2nd ed., København: Dansk Psykologisk Forlag.

Petersen, Verner C. (1989): Rapportskrivning - fra viden og indsigt til layout og typografi,

Herning: Systime.

Documents

ProjWrit