Stage 4: English Program – The Art of Rhetoric

Year 8 2013

"Never doubt that a small group of thoughtful, committed citizens can change the world. Indeed, it is the only thing that ever has." -

Margaret Mead, anthropologist, author, intellectual 1901-1978

A focus on the art of rhetoric: informing and persuading through speaking and writing.

Year 8 (Stage 4) English Unit : Term 3Concept: Rhetoric

Length of unit: 10 weeks"Never doubt that a small group of thoughtful, committed citizens can change the world. Indeed, it is the only thing that ever has." - Margaret

Mead, anthropologist, author, intellectual 1901-1978

Concept: The focus of this unit is on the art of rhetoric. Students will explore through responding and composing how words can be used to persuade and inform. A range of texts from different times and contexts will be examined. By composing and responding with feeling, logic and conviction, students will develop an understanding of the significance of language to people of all cultures and times. Students will also consider how storytelling is a powerful tool for persuading and informing. Stories invite empathy and understanding of difference and diversity, and enable students to realise that our lives and cultures are comprised of many intertwined threads. The skills of writing and speaking to persuade and inform, and the skill of listening for meaning and understanding will be explicitly taught.

Key learning ideas: The main features of rhetoric in speeches and writing The structure and form of rhetorical writing and speaking. How language features and form can be used to persuasively promote points of view and position a responder. How narrative rhetoric has the power to invite empathy and understanding.

Overarching question: How and why do speakers and writers use language and form to present their point of view forcefully?

Assessment modes: Writing and speaking

Assessment Outcomes: 3, 4 & 5

Assessment for and as learning: Analysing features of written and spoken speeches; composing persuasive short speeches and delivering a persuasive story as a Pecha Kucha (the cross-disciplinary task), balloon debate, and self and peer evaluation of original speech.

Formative Assessment task: Original speech (presented or recorded as a podcast) and listening task (25 marks)

New NSW Syllabus (AC) Outcomes and Content:

3 EN4-3B: A student uses and describes language forms, features and structures of texts appropriate to a range of purposes, audiences and contexts.

Engage personally with texts: language and structures of texts in meaningful, contextualised and authentic ways; ideas and information in a range of texts; identify, discuss and reflect on the ideas and information in a range of texts

Develop and apply contextual knowledge: describe and analyse purpose, audience and context of texts; recognise and use appropriate metalanguage in discussing a range of language forms, features and structures; understand the effect of nominalisation in the writing of informative and persuasive texts (ACELA1546) ; understand how to apply learned knowledge consistently in order to spell accurately and to learn new words including nominalisations (ACELA1549); understand how rhetorical devices are used to persuade and how different layers of meaning are developed through the use of metaphor, irony and parody (ACELA1542)

Understand and apply knowledge of language forms and features: understand how modality is achieved through discriminating choices in modal verbs, adverbs, adjectives and nouns (ACELA1536); understand how coherence is created in complex texts through devices like lexical cohesion, ellipsis, grammatical theme and text connectives (ACELA1809); understand how cohesion in texts is improved by strengthening the internal structure of paragraphs through the use of examples, quotations and substantiation of claims (ACELA1766)

Respond to and compose texts: analyse and evaluate the ways that text structures and language features vary according to the purpose of the text and the ways that referenced sources add authority to a text (ACELY1721, ACELY1732)

4 EN4-4B: A student makes effective language choices to creatively shape meaning with accuracy, clarity and coherence. Engage personally with texts: recognise and appreciate the ways a wide range of texts communicate by using effective language

choices Develop and apply contextual knowledge: explore and analyse the ways purpose, audience and context affect a composer's choices of

content, language forms and features and structures of texts to creatively shape meaning Understand and apply knowledge of language forms and features: experiment with text structures and language features to refine and

clarify ideas to improve the effectiveness of students' own texts (ACELY1810) Respond to and compose texts: create imaginative, informative and persuasive texts that raise issues, report events and advance

opinions, using deliberate language and textual choices, and including digital elements as appropriate (ACELY1736) ; plan, draft and publish imaginative, informative and persuasive texts, selecting aspects of subject matter and particular language, visual, and audio features to convey information and ideas (ACELY1725)

5 EN4-5C: A student thinks imaginatively, creatively, interpretively and critically about information, ideas and arguments to respond to and

compose texts. Engage personally with texts: describe and explain qualities of language in their own and others' texts that contribute to the enjoyment

that can be experienced in responding to and composing texts ; share, reflect on, clarify and evaluate opinions and arguments about aspects of literary texts(ACELT1627)

Develop and apply contextual knowledge: critically consider the ways in which meaning is shaped by context, purpose, form, structure, style, content, language choices and their own personal perspective

Understand and apply knowledge of language forms and features: investigate and understand the ways web and digital technologies influence language use and shape meaning

Respond to and compose texts: express considered points of view and arguments on areas such as sustainability and the environment accurately and coherently in speech or writing with confidence and fluency ; discuss aspects of texts, for example their aesthetic and social value, using relevant and appropriate metalanguage (ACELT1803)

Suggested Texts A resource booklet of extracts from famous speeches has been created for Core and da Vinci classes. The King’s Speech – The last speech - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AHY2UzOonig and the actual speech:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=opkMyKGx7TQ Lord of The Rings – Aragon’s ‘It is Not This Day speech’ - http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zdMN_1b2nEA Pirates of the Caribbean - Pirate King Elizabeth’s ‘Hoist the Colours’ speech - http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fINeo6sWqGI Lord of the Rings –Sam’s speech ‘The ones that really mattered’ - http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Soe8ayi3ScE Dust Echoes - http://www.abc.net.au/dustechoes/dustEchoesFlash.htm

Websites and YouTube Clips: http://www.history.com/speeches/john-f-kennedy-rallies-hope-for-berlin http://www.history.com/speeches http://www.guardian.co.uk/theguardian/series/greatspeeches http://thespeechsite.com/en/famous.shtml ‘40 inspirational speeches in 2 minutes’: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d6wRkzCW5qI http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TQmz6Rbpnu0 Rhetoric: http://www.putlearningfirst.com/language/20rhet/20rhet.html and http://humanities.byu.edu/rhetoric/silva.htm Techniques: http://www.americanrhetoric.com/rhetoricaldevicesinsound.htm and

http://www.americanrhetoric.com/rhetoricaldevicesinsound.htm Visuword: http://www.visuwords.com/ - online thesaurus Cyber Grammar: http://www.cybergrammar.co.uk/index.php Wordle - http://www.wordle.net/

Freemind: http://freemind.sourceforge.net/wiki/index.php/Download - mind mapping Prezi: http://prezi.com/ Rhetoric: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhetoric Novelist Chimamanda Adichie’s narrative speech: http://www.ted.com/talks/chimamanda_adichie_the_danger_of_a_single_story.html Choosing powerful images: http://www.powerpointninja.com/graphics/what-makes-an-image-good-for-presentations-part-i/ Pecha Kuchas: http://www.speakingaboutpresenting.com/content/fast-ignite-presentation/; http://www.pechakucha.org/ Weeks 1-2 - Focus: What are the key features of rhetoric?

Introduction to Rhetoric The YouTube clip- ‘40 inspirational speeches in 2 minutes’ - http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d6wRkzCW5qI - will be used to

introduce the concept of rhetoric. Students to visit http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhetoric and http://www.putlearningfirst.com/language/20rhet/20rhet.html, and prepare a

30 second report or rap for the class that captures what is rhetoric.

Key features of RhetoricStudents will then view and analyse a range of film extracts of famous speeches:

The King’s Speech – The last speech - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AHY2UzOonig and the actual speech: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=opkMyKGx7TQ

Lord of The Rings – Aragon’s ‘It is Not This Day speech’ - http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zdMN_1b2nEA Pirates of the Caribbean - Pirate King Elizabeth’s ‘Hoist the Colours’ speech - http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fINeo6sWqGI (Extension)The Great Dictator: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6FMNFvKEy4c

They will discuss the following: What makes them inspirational The message and the key ideas How language features are used to persuade and position people to respond in a desired way How delivery: expression, pace, pitch, stress, intonation, etc. are used to deliver a persuasive speech. The use of rhetorical appeals: ethos (credibility), logos (intellectual power) and pathos (emotional power).

Features of Rhetoric

To assess prior knowledge, students use Wordle to brainstorm features of rhetorical speeches. Glossary of rhetorical techniques to be provided and discussed. (Glossary provided) Spelling of key terms in week 1

Power of Verbs and the Imperative Voice Activity using the three speeches based on the use of forceful verbs and the imperative voice. (Activity sheet 1 provided) Vocabulary and spelling based on forceful verbs in week 2.

Rhetoric in 30 seconds Students deliver a 30 second speech on something they feel passionate about or a speech that could be used to inspire the class to excel in

the yearly exams or one for their sporting team.

Homework Students to find a speech or extract from a speech – real or one from a film – that inspires them. They must provide five reasons why it is

inspirational. The speech and the reasons could be posted to a class blog or Voicethread. Class to vote on the best one. Weeks 3-4 - Focus: How do context, purpose and audience influence the content and language of rhetoric?

Significance of context, audience and purpose Students to analyse, discuss and respond to the following texts focusing on:- The influence of context, audience and purpose on the content and language- The composers’ capacity to engage and persuade an audience through the use of rhetorical appeals: ethos (credibility), logos (intellectual

power) and pathos (emotional power).Elizabeth 1 - Delivered by Elizabeth to the land forces assembled at Tilbury - http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=35djJpYpP7k Henry V St Crispin’s Speech 1599 – Shakespeare - http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dDZVxbrW7Ow Abraham Lincoln - Gettysburg, Pennsylvania November 19, 1863Chief Joseph, “Surrender Speech” - October 5, 1877; Montana Territory

Impact of emotive language, pronouns and modality Notes and activities focusing on the use of emotive language, personal pronouns and modality to persuade and position responders using

the four texts. (Activity Sheet 2)

Composing an original speech inspired by a recent or current event Students to research an event that interests them and compose a 60-second speech with a specific purpose and audience that is connected

to this event. E.g. Julia Gillard’s defeat by Rudd; the Lions vs. the Wallabies; Disability Care; War in Afghanistan, etc. A transcript of the speech is to be drafted. The transcript of the speech is to be assessed by two other students and changes to be made based on the peer feedback. Speech to be recorded and submitted as an assessment for learning task.

Spelling Spelling based on the features of emotive language and modality.

Homework Students to polish, refine and record speeches at home. Weeks 5-6 - Focus: How can language features and form, and delivery be used to persuasively promote points of view and position

a responder?The Power of Rhetoric

Class discussion and analysis of the purpose, content and language features of John. F. Kennedy’s inauguration speech delivered in Washington on January 20 1961 - http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HEPHihPw-kE. This is to be used to model the group analysis of the next three speeches.

Groups to be allocated one of the three speeches. The team is to become the experts on the speech and its rhetorical features. They must answer the following questions: (Activity Sheet 3)

1. When was this speech delivered and who is the audience?2. What is the purpose of the speech?3. How are the rhetorical appeals of ethos (credibility), logos (intellectual power) and pathos (emotional power) employed?4. How are language features and structure used to inform and persuade?5. What is the key message?6. Why is this speech significant?

The speeches are:Severn Suzuki’s speech delivered at UN Earth Summit 1992 - http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uZsDliXzyAY Princess Diana Speech - Responding To Landmines, June 12, 1997 - http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_-p7FN9pglYApple CEO Steve Jobs to graduating students at Stanford University, June 12, 2005 - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UF8uR6Z6KLc

Effective delivery of speeches (Activity Sheet 4) Focus on how to deliver a speech effectively:

Body language: facial expressions, gestures, stance and eye contactIntonation and stressPitch and paceEnunciationEmphasis

Nominalisation and text connectives Exercises and notes on how nominalisation elevates the sophistication of a speech and writing. Exercises on how text connectives promote cohesion in speeches and writing.

Original Speeches Students to begin drafting an original speech that is informative and persuasive. This speech will become a component of the summative

task. It must be based on an issue or event that the students are passionate about. A transcript is to be drafted that is peer evaluated.

Spelling Spelling based on nominalisation.

Homework: Draft, refine and deliver the draft of the speech to family members. Students to record their speech and listen for any discordant sections or issues.

Weeks 7-8 - Focus: How and why do stories have the power to invite empathy and understanding?Narrative Rhetoric“Stories matter. Many stories matter. Stories have been used to dispossess and to malign, but stories can also be used to empower and to humanize. Stories can break the dignity of a people, but stories can also repair that broken dignity.”

Garth Boomer once said that ‘Stories are the life-blood of a nation.’ Stories have the power to entertain, delight, teach, inform and persuade. We are innately drawn to stories. Aboriginal Dreamtime stories were used to teach ethics, morals and traditions. Many modern day speakers use storytelling to convey significant messages. Narrative rhetoric synthesises dialectically the aesthetic literary form and the persuasive argument. The use of the rhetorical appeal of ethos (credibility), logos (intellectual power) and pathos (emotional power) are features of narrative rhetoric.

Persuasive stories Since the beginning of time, humanity has used stories to reinforce important values and convey key messages. The Bible used Jesus’s parables to teach a moral or spiritual lesson by analogy or similarity. The epic tale Gilgamesh conveyed the significance of courage, moderation and loyalty.

Listen to the TED talk by Novelist Chimamanda Adichie - http://www.ted.com/talks/chimamanda_adichie_the_danger_of_a_single_story.html and discuss as a class what Adichie is saying about the importance of hearing multiple stories. (Transcript provided)

Visit the website Dust Echoes and play at least three of the stories that convey important moral messages - http://www.abc.net.au/dustechoes/dustEchoesFlash.htm. These three stories are recommended: ‘The Curse’, ‘Moon Man’, ‘Bat and Butterfly’ and ‘Mimis’. The transcripts that are included in the study guides can be downloaded. Ask the students to identify the message and discuss how one of the stories conveys this message.

Original Persuasive Story (Activity sheet 6)The students are provided with an activity sheet that enables them to plan their persuasive story. Once they have planned them, they are then create a Pecha Kucha (20 images X 20 seconds – the images advance automatically) to deliver the persuasive narrative. Go to http://www.pechakucha.org/ to share with the students some exciting Pecha Kuchas. Remind your students that they need to choose potent and evocative images as the images are as important as the story. Tell them to access http://www.powerpointninja.com/graphics/what-makes-an-image-good-for-presentations-part-i/ that explains how to choose images for a presentation. http://www.speakingaboutpresenting.com/content/fast-ignite-presentation/ - provides an outline of how to create a Pecha Kucha.

Sentence Structure of Rhetorical Speeches (Activity sheet 7)The students are to complete the activity sheet that introduces the main sentence types and structures that are found in rhetorical speeches: declarative sentences, rhetorical questions, anaphora, exclamatory sentences and imperative sentences.

Spelling Spelling based on persuasive words.

Homework: Plan and work on the persuasive narrative, and create the Pecha Kucha. Weeks 9-10 - Focus: How do you deliver and evaluate a rhetorical speech?

Summative Task: Delivery and evaluation of an original speechStudents to deliver and evaluate speeches. Students to complete a self-evaluation after they have delivered their speech and as the speeches are being delivered the teacher and the students will evaluate the quality speeches. (See assessment task and self and peer evaluation sheets provided.)

Spelling Week 1

Word Look Cover Write Meaning

1. Rhetoric

2. Persuasion

3. Oratory

4. Hyperbole

5. Repetition

6. Imagery

7. Metaphorical

8. Onomatopoeia

9. Intonation

10. Juxtaposition

EXTENSION WORDS: Add your own words

Features of Rhetoric (Extension)

Ethos Logos PathosCredibility – connect to audience’s moral and/or

ethical beliefs

Intellectual power – reasonable and logical

proof or premise

Emotional power – the most immediate appeal

Provide a description of the following and an example of at least 10:Features of Rhetoric

Figures of Speech: Tropes – signification and symbolism

Figures of speech: Schemes – arrangement of words

Reference to one thing as another: Metaphor Simile Synecdoche Metonymy Personification Analogy Apostrophe

Sentence Structure: Declarative Rhetorical question Exclamatory Balanced sentence Parallelism Antithesis Imperative Connectives

Word play/lexical density: Syllepsis (zeugma) Onomatopoeia Emotive words Puns or paronomasia Allusion

Omission: Ellipsis Asyndeton

Exaggeration: Hyperbole Litotes Meiosis

Repetition: Anaphora Alliteration Consonance Assonance Chiasmus Epistrophe Anadiplosis

Semantic inversions: Rhetorical question Irony Oxymoron Paradox Anastrophe Antithesis

GLOSSARY

- Alliteration: two or more words beginning with the same letter. The effect is rhythmic and maybe comic. ‘Pay the price’ is alliteration.

- Allusion: reference to a related object of circumstance. You can have a religious allusion.- Ambiguity: a statement accidentally has two meanings. - Analogy: a comparison between two things that are similar in some way, often used to

help explain something or make it easier to understand. - Anaphora: the repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive phrases,

clauses or lines e.g. I have... I have... I have...- Anastrophe: the reversal of normal word order e.g. to market went she. - Anecdote: a short, interesting or amusing story about a particular person or event. - Antithesis: a seeming contradiction of ideas, words, clauses, or sentences. The effect is

the emphasis the opposition of ideas.- Apostrophe: rhetorical words spoken to an imaginary person, object or idea.- Assonance: repetition of vowel sounds.- Atmosphere/mood: the emotional feelings inspired by a work.- Bias: an unfair preference for or dislike of something.- Circumlocution: the use of more words than necessary to express something, especially

to avoid saying it directly. - Cliché: an over-used concept, idea, storyline, or common expression.- Collective noun, collective pronoun: words such as ‘team’, ‘pair’, and ‘we’ which refer

to a collective groups of individuals (engaging the audience) or individual items.- Colloquialism: a word or phrase used every day in plain and relaxed speech, but rarely

found in formal writing e.g. ‘don’t’ and isn’t.- Conjunction: a word that joins two simple sentences together. For example: but, and,

however.- Consonance: repetition of initial consonant sounds. - Declarative sentence: a statement used to convey information. - Didactic: literature or other types of art that are instructional or informative e.g. the

Bible. Opposite of non-didactic (more concerned with artistic qualities and techniques than conveying a message, even if it is instructive).

- Ellipsis: the avoiding of using words in order to be direct and not repetitive, or (...).- Emotive language: language that causes an emotional reaction in the reader.- Euphemism: a more gentle or polite way of saying something.- Euphony: language that is smooth and pleasant to listen to.- Figurative language: language with figures of speech. - Figure of speech: any words consisting of language techniques.

o Alliterationo Personificationo Simileo Metaphor

o Ironyo Hyperboleo Onomatopoeia o Metonymyo Oxymoron

- Generalisation: a statement made about everyone or everything because of just one piece of evidence.

- Hyperbole: extreme exaggeration that is not meant to be taken seriously. The effect is a strong impression, although not to be taken literally.

- Irony: a contrast between what is expected and what actually exists or happens.o Dramatic irony: the audience knows something that the characters do not. o Verbal irony: when the speaker means something totally different to what

they are saying.o Cosmic irony: when some unknown force brings about dire and dreadful

events.o Irony of situation: when what is expected to happed is different from what

actually happens.- Imagery: a picture painted with words.

o Visual (sight) imageryo Auditory (sound) imagery o Tactile (touch) imageryo Thermal (hot and cold) imageryo Olfactory (smell) imageryo Gustatory (taste) imageryo Kinaesthetic sensation (movement) imagery

- Imperative Voice: Forcefully using the verb at the start of a sentence to order or direct.- Intertextuality: showing the relationship between two or more texts that quote, allude, or

somehow connect to each other. - Invective: speech or writing that attacks, insults, or denounces a person, topic or

institution, usually involving negative emotional language. - Levels of language:

o Formal: used on important occasions, extensive vocabulary, no abbreviations or contractions.

o Informal: casual language.o Colloquial: everyday language, abbreviations.o Slang: used by certain groups, those outside the group don’t understand it all,

changes rapidly.o Jargon: used by professional and sports groups, those outside the group don’t

understand it all, regarded as acceptable to use only within the group.- Metaphor: something is described as another thing that it isn’t. An extended metaphor is

a metaphor that continues into the following sentences.- Metonymy: the name of one object is replaced by another which is closely related to it. - Modality: the degree of certainty expressed by the author.

o High modality: high certainty.

o Low modality: low certainty. - Mood: a feeling or emotional state in literature. - Motif: a recurring object, concept or structure in a work of literature. - Neologism: made-up words that are not part of everyday vocabulary e.g. climature.- Onomatopoeia: when the sound of a word matches its image.- Oxymoron: apparently contradictory words placed near each other.- Paradox: a statement that seems to be a contradiction but which, on closer inspection,

can be seen to make sense.- Parody: to imitate something somebody or something comically.- Pathos: a writer or speaker’s attempt to inspire an emotional reaction in the audience;

usually a deep feeling of suffering, but sometimes joy, pride, anger, humour, patriotism, and other emotions.

- Personification: to give an object or idea human attributes.- Point of view:

o First person: I, me, my, we, us, our.o Second person: you, your, yours.o Third person: he, she, it, they.o Third person omniscient.

- Pun / paronomasia: a play on words on words which are alike in sound but different in meaning. The effect is humorous.

- Register: the appropriateness of the language used in a particular situation according to situation of context e.g. formal, informal.

- Repetition: the occurrence of something which has occurred before.- Rhetoric: persuasive argument through writing or speech, or eloquent and charismatic

language.- Rhetorical question: a question that is not expected to receive an answer.- Sarcasm: hurtful or spiteful language. - Simile: comparing things using ‘like’ or ‘as’.- Subjective language: opinion. - Superlative: the form of an adjective indicating the greatest degree of the quality that the

adjective describes e.g. ‘best’ is the superlative form of ‘good’.- Symbolism: using a specific object or colour to represent something.- Syntax: the ordering of words into meaningful verbal patterns such as phrases, clauses

and sentences. Poets often manipulate syntax, changing conventional word order, to place certain emphasis on particular words.

- Tautology: a statement that is needlessly repetitive. - Tone: the feeling in a piece of writing, of the writer, character or reader. - Understatement/litotes: something that is stated with too little emphasis.- Vernacular: the everyday or common language of a geographic area or the native

language. - Voice: an author or narrator’s distinctive style or manner of expression.- Volitive: a verb form that expresses a wish, command, or the speaker’s will.

Activity 1: Power of Verbs and the Imperative Voice

Language is a convincing weapon when it is used forcefully. Verbs can be used to demonstrate conviction and strength, to stir emotions and to instruct others to act. Verbs describe an action or a state, and are the grammatical drivers of sentences. When verbs are used to deliver a command or a direction it is referred to as the imperative voice.

Activities

1. After you listen to these speeches, read the transcript and highlight the forceful verbs that convey the emotions and intent of the speaker in the following three speeches.

2. Circle where the imperative voice has been used.

Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King – Aragorn (Battle of Morannon):

Sons of Gondor! Of Rohan! My brothers. I see in your eyes the same fear that would take the heart of me. A day may come when the courage of Men fails, when we forsake our friends and break all bonds of fellowship, but it is not this day. An hour of wolves and shattered shields when the Age of Men comes crashing down, but it is not this day! This day we fight! By all that you hold dear on this good earth, I bid you stand, Men of the West!

Pirates of the Caribbean: At the World’s End - Elizabeth

It’s not over…It’s only a fool’s chance… You’re right. Then what shall we die for? You will listen to me. Listen! The Brethren will still be looking here to us. To the Black Pearl to lead. And what will they see? Frightened bilge rats aboard a derelict ship? No. No, they will see free men, and freedom! And what the enemy will see is the flash of our cannons, they will hear the ring of our swords and they will know what we can do! By the sweat of our brows, and the strength of our backs, and the courage of our hearts. Gentleman, hoist the colours. Hoist the colours!

3. Identify which speech you consider to be the most persuasive and justify your choice in 150 words minimum. Refer to the use of rhetoric and the actual delivery.

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King King George V1’s Speech 3rd September 1939

Activity 2: Emotive words, pronouns and modality

Language can be designed to influence our point of view, invite empathy and understanding, and provoke an emotional response. The following three language features are often found in rhetorical speeches.

1. Emotive words express personal feelings and are deliberately used to engage us emotionally. The use of emotive language is referred to as ‘slanting’. They can convey the speaker’s anger, contempt, sadness, respect, and so on for a subject, an event or an individual. E.g. In the sentence ‘They were killed’ verb ‘killed’ is changed to ‘slaughtered’ to convey anger and pain. When we refer to emotive words, we are analysing the connotative meaning – the deeper meaning that arouses feelings.

2. Personal pronouns such as ‘I’ and inclusive pronouns such as ‘we’ convey an intimacy and sincerity. E.g. ‘We are fighting for our people.’

3. Modality refers to how certain we are about something. It can vary from low to high modality. High modality is when we are definite and intending to be persuasive. E.g. ‘We might fight’ to ‘We will fight.’ Modality can be expressed through the following:

a. Verbs, such as: should, can, may, might, better, etc.b. Adjectives, such as: certain, possible, clear, likely, definite, etc.c. Adverbs, such as: seriously, possibly, certainly, definitely, etc.d. Nouns, such as: possibility, probability, certainty, etc.

Extract of Major’s speech from the novel Animal Farm by George Orwell

“Is it not crystal clear, then, comrades, that all the evils of this life of ours spring from the tyranny of human beings? Only get rid of Man, and the produce of our labour would be our own. Almost overnight we could become rich and free. What then must we do? Why, work night and day, body and soul, for the overthrow of the human race! That is my message to you, comrades: Rebellion! I do not know when that Rebellion will come, it might be in a week or in a hundred years, but I know, as surely as I see this straw beneath my feet, that sooner or later justice will be done. Fix your eyes on that, comrades, throughout the short remainder of your lives! And above all, pass on this message of mine to those who come after you, so that future generations shall carry on the struggle until it is victorious.

And remember, comrades, your resolution must never falter. No argument must lead you astray. Never listen when they tell you that Man and the animals have a common interest, that the prosperity of the one is the prosperity of the others. It is all lies. Man serves the interests of no creature except himself. And among us animals let there be perfect unity, perfect comradeship in the struggle. All men are enemies. All animals are comrades… Comrades," he said, "here is a point that must be settled. The wild creatures, such as rats and rabbits--are they our friends or our enemies? Let us put it to the vote. I propose this question to the meeting: Are rats comrades?

I have little more to say. I merely repeat, remember always your duty of enmity towards Man and all his ways. Whatever goes upon two legs is an enemy. Whatever goes upon four legs, or

has wings, is a friend. And remember also that in fighting against Man, we must not come to resemble him. Even when you have conquered him, do not adopt his vices. No animal must ever live in a house, or sleep in a bed, or wear clothes, or drink alcohol, or smoke tobacco, or touch money, or engage in trade. All the habits of Man are evil. And, above all, no animal must ever tyrannise over his own kind. Weak or strong, clever or simple, we are all brothers. No animal must ever kill any other animal. All animals are equal….”

Activity

1. Read the speech by Old Major in the novel Animal Farm. He is trying to persuade the animals to rise up against the humans who have treated them cruelly. Highlight in three different colours examples of emotive words, personal pronouns and evidence of high modality.

2. Select three of these emotive words and complete the following:a. What part of speech are they? (E.g. verb)

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iii. ………………………………………………………………………………………

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b. What emotions do they convey and how are the animals expected to feel when they

hear these words:

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3. Analyse how Major uses personal and inclusive pronouns to persuade the animals to accept his point or view.

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Activity 3: The Power of Rhetoric

Your team’s task is to provide expert advice on the rhetorical features of the allocated speech. Prepare the team’s presentation by answering the following questions:

1. When was this speech delivered and who is the audience? Research the context and times on the net.

2. What is the purpose of the speech?

3. How are the rhetorical appeals of ethos (credibility), logos (intellectual power) and pathos (emotional power) employed?

4. How are language features and structure used to inform and persuade?

a. Ethos:

b. Logos:

c. Pathos:

5. What is the key message?

6. Why is this speech significant?

Activity Sheet 4: Delivering an Effective SpeechMany powerful speeches have been delivered throughout history. Those that remain memorable usually conveyed significant ideas, persuasive language features and were delivered with passion. This is referred to as rhetoric – the art of persuading and informing.

Martin Luther King’s famous speech ‘I have a Dream’ is considered a powerful piece of rhetoric. He employed a range of persuasive techniques such as repetition of the powerful concept of equality and over 50 metaphors. Listen and view actual speech on YouTube at:

Short version: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nFcbpGK9_aw Full version: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HRIF4_WzU1w

Take note special of: The way he modulates his voice and infuses it with passion and conviction. How he uses metaphors, repetition and emotive words to convey the meaning and his

message.

Key features of the effective delivery of speeches:

Feature DescriptionAttention grabber Your opening should immediately capture the interest of the

audience. You could use an anecdote.Clarity An effective speech is clear and easy to follow and understand. Each

word should be pronounced distinctly. Use pauses so that you don’t use too many ‘ums’ and ‘ahs’. Pay close attention to the structure of your speech.

Pace Vary the speed of delivery. Generally speak slowly, but there can be times when you want to convey your passion for a cause so you speak faster.

Pitch and stress Vary the volume and tone of your voice. You could start softly and then build the volume. You could place emphasis – stress - on certain words.

Eye contact It is important to connect with your audience so try to look directly at people. Use palm cards or learn your speech so that you are not reading your speech.

Body language You need to show that you are confident. Keep your shoulders back and use your hands and face to express emotions.

Connectives Use connectives that allow your audience to follow your arguments, such as ‘furthermore’, ‘moreover’, ‘in contrast’, ‘in comparison’, etc.

Repetition To ensure that your audience follows your argument state the main idea clearly in the introduction of your speech, link the arguments and evidence of the body to it in explicit ways, and restate the argument again in your conclusion.

Audience Centred Use personal and inclusive pronouns, such as ‘we’, ‘I’ and ‘our’, and directly address the audience using the second person ‘you’. Use rhetorical questions that challenge the audience to think and engage with your subject.

Presentation aids You could use visuals or a power point to reinforce your argument.

TED talk by Novelist Chimamanda Adichie http://www.ted.com/talks/chimamanda_adichie_the_danger_of_a_single_story.html

Transcript

I'm a storyteller. And I would like to tell you a few personal stories about what I like to call "the danger of the single story." I grew up on a university campus in eastern Nigeria. My

mother says that I started reading at the age of two, although I think four is probably close to the truth. So I was an early reader, and what I read were British and American children's books.

I was also an early writer, and when I began to write, at about the age of seven, stories in pencil with crayon illustrations that my poor mother was obligated to read, I wrote exactly the kinds of

stories I was reading: All my characters were white and blue-eyed, they played in the snow, they ate apples, and they talked a lot about the weather, how lovely it was that the sun had come out. Now, this despite the fact that I lived in Nigeria. I had never been outside Nigeria. We didn't have snow, we ate mangoes, and we never talked about the weather, because there was no need to.

My characters also drank a lot of ginger beer because the characters in the British books I read drank ginger beer. And for many years afterwards, I would have a desperate desire to taste ginger beer. But that is another story.

What this demonstrates, I think, is how impressionable and vulnerable we are in the face of a story, particularly as children. Because all I had read were books in which characters were foreign, I had become convinced that books by their very nature had to have foreigners in them and had to be about things with which I could not personally identify. Things changed when I discovered African books. There weren't many of them available, and they weren't quite as easy to find as the foreign books.

But because of writers like Chinua Achebe and Camara Laye I went through a mental shift in my perception of literature. I realized that people like me, girls with skin the color of chocolate, whose kinky hair could not form ponytails, could also exist in literature. I started to write about things I recognized.

Now, I loved those American and British books I read. They stirred my imagination. They opened up new worlds for me. But the unintended consequence was that I did not know that people like me could exist in literature. So what the discovery of African writers did for me was this: It saved me from having a single story of what books are.

I come from a conventional, middle-class Nigerian family. My father was a professor. My mother was an administrator. And so we had, as was the norm, live-in domestic help, who would often come from nearby rural villages. So the year I turned eight we got a new house boy. His name was Fide. The only thing my mother told us about him was that his family was very poor. My mother sent yams and rice, and our old clothes, to his family. And when I didn't finish my dinner my mother would say, "Finish your food! Don't you know? People like Fide's family have nothing. " So I felt enormous pity for Fide's family.

Then one Saturday we went to his village to visit, and his mother showed us a beautifully patterned basket made of dyed raffia that his brother had made. I was startled. It had not occurred to me that anybody in his family could actually make something. All I had heard about them was how poor they were, so that it had become impossible for me to see them as anything else but poor. Their poverty was my single story of them.

Years later, I thought about this when I left Nigeria to go to university in the United States. I was 19. My American roommate was shocked by me. She asked where I had learned to speak English so well, and was confused when I said that Nigeria happened to have English as its official language. She asked if she could listen to what she called my "tribal music, " and was consequently very disappointed when I produced my tape of Mariah Carey. (Laughter) She assumed that I did not know how to use a stove.

What struck me was this: She had felt sorry for me even before she saw me. Her default position toward me, as an African, was a kind of patronizing, well-meaning pity. My roommate had a single story of Africa: a single story of catastrophe. In this single story there was no possibility of Africans being similar to her in any way, no possibility of feelings more complex than pity, no possibility of a connection as human equals.

I must say that before I went to the U.S. I didn't consciously identify as African. But in the U.S. whenever Africa came up people turned to me. Never mind that I knew nothing about places like Namibia. But I did come to embrace this new identity, and in many ways I think of myself now as African. Although I still get quite irritable when Africa is referred to as a country, the most recent example being my otherwise wonderful flight f rom Lagos two days ago, in which there was an announcement on the Virgin flight about the charity work in "India, Africa and other countries."

So after I had spent some years in the U.S. as an African, I began to understand my roommate's response to me. If I had not grown up in Nigeria, and if all I knew about Africa were from popular images, I too would think that Africa was a place of beautiful landscapes, beautiful animals, and incomprehensible people, fighting senseless wars, dying of poverty and AIDS, unable to speak for themselves and waiting to be saved by a kind, white foreigner. I would see Africans in the same way that I, as a child, had seen Fide's family.

This single story of Africa ultimately comes, I think, from Western literature. Now, here is a quote from the writing of a London merchant called John Locke, who sailed to West Africa in 1561 and kept a fascinating account of his voyage. After referring to the black Africans as

"beasts who have no houses," he writes, "They are also people without heads, having their mouth and eyes in their breasts."

Now, I've laughed every time I've read this. And one must admire the imagination of John Locke. But what is important about his writing is that it represents the beginning of a tradition of telling African stories in the West: A tradition of Sub-Saharan Africa as a place of negatives, of difference, of darkness, of people who, in the words of the wonderful poet Rudyard Kipling, are "half devil, half child."

And so I began to realize that my American roommate must have throughout her life seen and heard different versions of this single story, as had a professor, who once told me that my novel was not "authentically African." Now, I was quite willing to contend that there were a number of things wrong with the novel, that it had failed in a number of places, but I had not quite imagined that it had failed at achieving something called African authenticity. In fact I did not know what African authenticity was. The professor told me that my characters were too much like him, an educated and middle-class man. My characters drove cars. They were not starving. Therefore they were not authentically African.

But I must quickly add that I too am just as guilty in the question of the single story. A few years ago, I visited Mexico from the U.S. The political climate in the U.S. at the time was tense, and there were debates going on about immigration. And, as often happens in America, immigration became synonymous with Mexicans. There were endless stories of Mexicans as people who were fleecing the healthcare system, sneaking across the border, being arrested at the border, that sort of thing.

I remember walking around on my first day in Guadalajara, watching the people going to work, rolling up tortillas in the marketplace, smoking, laughing. I remember first feeling slight surprise. And then I was overwhelmed with shame. I realized that I had been so immersed in the media coverage of Mexicans that they had become one thing in my mind, the abject immigrant. I had bought into the single story of Mexicans and I could not have been more ashamed of myself. So that is how to create a single story, show a people as one thing, as only one thing, over and over again, and that is what they become.

There is a word, an Igbo word, that I think about whenever I think about the power structures of the world, and it is "nkali" which translates to Like stories too are defined by the principle of nkali: How they are told, who tells them, when they're told, how many stories are that told are really dependent on power.

Start the story with the arrows of the Native Americans, and not with the arrival of the British, and you have an entirely different story. Start the story with the failure of the African state, and not with the colonial creation of the African state, and you have an entirely different story.

I recently spoke at a university where a student told me that it was such a shame that Nigerian men were physical abusers like the father character in my novel. I told him that I had just read a novel that young Americans were serial murderers. Now, obviously I said this in a fit of mild irritation.

But it would never have occurred to me to think that just because I had read a novel in which a character was a serial killer that he was somehow representative of all Americans. This is

not because I am a better person than that student, but because of America's cultural and economic power, I had many stories of America. I had read Tyler and Updike and Steinbeck and Gaits kill. I did not have a single story of America.

When I learned, some years ago, that writers were expected to have had really unhappy childhoods to be successful, I began to think about how I could invent horrible things my parents had done to me. But the truth is that I had a very happy childhood, full of laughter and love, in a very close-knit family.

But I also had grandfathers who died in refugee camps. My cousin Polle died because he could not get adequate healthcare. One of my closest friends, Okoloma, died in a plane crash because our fire trucks did not have water. I grew up under repressive military governments that devalued education, so that sometimes my parents were not paid their salaries. And so, as a child, I saw jam disappear from the breakfast table, then margarine disappeared, then bread became too expensive, then milk became rationed. And most of all, a kind of normalized political fear invaded our lives.

All of these stories make me who I am. But to insist on only these negative stories is to flatten my experience and to overlook the many other stories that formed me. The single story creates stereotypes, and the problem with stereotypes is not that they are untrue, but that they are incomplete. They make one story become the only story.

Of course, Africa is a continent full of catastrophes: There are immense ones, such as the horrific rapes in Congo and depressing ones, such as the fact that 5,000 people apply for one job vacancy in Nigeria. But there are other stories that are not about catastrophe, and it is very important, it is just as important, to talk about them.

I've always felt that it is impossible to engage properly with a place or a person without engaging with all of the stories of that place and that person. The consequence of the single story is this: It robs people of dignity. It makes our recognition of our equal humanity difficult. It emphasizes how we are different rather than how we are similar.

So what if before my Mexican trip I had followed the immigration debate from both sides, the U.S. and the Mexican? What if my mother had told us that Fide's family was poor and hardworking? What if we had an African television network that broadcast diverse African stories all over the world? What the Nigerian writer Chinua Achebe calls "a balance of stories."

What if my roommate knew about my Nigerian publisher, Mukta Bakaray, a remarkable man who left his job in a bank to follow his dream and start a publishing house? Now, the conventional wisdom was that Nigerians don't read literature. He disagreed. He felt that people who could read would read if you made literature affordable and available to them.

Shortly after he published my first novel I went to a TV station in Lagos to do an interview, and a woman who worked there as a messenger came up to me and said, "I really liked your novel. I didn't like the ending. Now you must write a sequel, and this is what will happen ..." And she went on to tell me what to write in the sequel. I was not only charmed, I was very moved. Here was a woman, part of the ordinary masses of Nigerians, who were not supposed to be readers. She had not only read the book, but she had taken ownership of it and felt justified in telling me what to write in the sequel.

Now, what if my roommate knew about my friend Fumi Onda, a fearless woman who hosts a TV show in Lagos, and is determined to tell the stories that we prefer to forget? What if my roommate knew about the heart procedure that was performed in the Lagos hospital last week? What if my roommate knew about contemporary Nigerian music, talented people singing in English and Pidgin, and Igbo and Yoruba and Ijo, mixing influences from Jay-Z to Fela to Bob Marley to their grandfathers. What if my roommate knew about the female lawyer who recently went to court in Nigeria to challenge a ridiculous law that required women to get their husband's consent before renewing their passports? What if my roommate knew about Nollywood, full of innovative people making films despite great technical odds, films so popular that they really are the best example of Nigerians consuming what they produce? What if my roommate knew about my wonderfully ambitious hair braider, who has just started her own business selling hair extensions? Or about the millions of other Nigerians who start businesses and sometimes fail, but continue to nurse ambition?

Every time I am home I am confronted with the usual sources of irritation for most Nigerians: our failed infrastructure, our failed government, but also by the incredible resilience of people who thrive despite the government, rather than because of it. I teach writing workshops in Lagos every summer, and it is amazing to me how many people apply, how many people are eager to write, to tell stories.

My Nigerian publisher and I have just started a non-profit called Farafina Trust, and we have big dreams of building libraries and refurbishing libraries that already exist and providing books for state schools that don't have anything in their libraries, and also of organizing lots and lots of workshops, in reading and writing, for all the people who are eager to tell our many stories. Stories matter. Many stories matter. Stories have been used to dispossess and to malign, but stories can also be used to empower and to humanize. Stories can break the dignity of a people, but stories can also repair that broken dignity.

The American writer Alice Walker wrote this about her Southern relatives who had moved to the North. She introduced them to a book about the Southern life that they had left behind: "They sat around, reading the book themselves, listening to me read the book, and a kind of paradise was regained. " I would like to end with this thought: That when we reject the single story, when we realize that there is never a single story about any place, we regain a kind of paradise. Thank you.

Activity 6: Narrative Rhetoric

“Stories matter. Many stories matter. Stories have been used to dispossess and to malign, but stories can also be used to empower and to humanize. Stories can break the dignity of a people, but stories can also repair

that broken dignity” (Chimamanda Adichie).

Garth Boomer once said that ‘Stories are the life-blood of a nation.’ Stories have the power to entertain, delight, teach, inform and persuade. Aboriginal Dreamtime stories were used to teach ethics, morals and traditions. Many modern day speakers use storytelling to convey significant messages. In traditional storytelling you create an idea, a setting and characters but when you are using narrative to persuade you need to be precise and concise. The following steps can be used to plan your persuasive narrative:

Step 1: The idea and message

Identify your significant idea and the message that you wish to convey and want your audience to remember. E.g. The idea could be sustainability and the message that caring for the environment starts with the individual and their actions. Outline your idea and message.

Step 2: Set the scene

To use narrative to persuade an audience you need to set the scene to convey a certain tone and establish the required mood. The tone and mood could be sad and remorseful but end optimistically. You establish the tone and mood in the opening lines and then ‘play’ with the audiences’ emotions through language choices, such as emotive words, imperative voice and the inclusive first person. Compose your opening lines to set your tone and mood.

Step 3: Narrative structure

Stories have a range of structures from orientation, rising action, climax and denouement; however, when you construct a persuasive narrative you need a simple structure, such as: situation (where it is set), complication (what has happened), people (who and how people reacted) and conclusion (personal recommendation). Overview the structure of your persuasive narrative.

Situation:

Complication:

People:

Conclusion:

Step 4: Details

Stories are authenticated by details and examples. You could include statistics, a reference to a real individual or personal experience that authenticates the story, etc. It is important that you do background research for you story. E.g. For sustainability, you could refer to the statistics regarding deforestation in Padang, West Sumatra and the impact of this on the Mentawai people in April 2013 when extensive flooding displaced 7000 people. Outline the details you will use. The details establish ethos (credibility) and logos (intellectual power).

Step 5: The language

If you are to be successful in reaching and moving your audience then you need to ensure that your story appeals to their emotions (pathos). Imagery, nominalistion and forceful verbs are your most powerful weapons! Avoid using adjectives and rely on striking muscular verbs. Nominalisation – transforming your verbs into nouns – is equally powerful. E.g. Instead of saying that ‘humanity is destroying the forests’, the noun ‘destruction’ could be used to convey more layers of meaning. Imagery can be created through symbolism, figurative devices and emotive words. You could select an extended metaphor to cohesively unite your story. Use the box below to list some emotive words, nominalisations and figurative devices that you could use. Before you start, use Google to find images connected to your key idea so your senses and imagination are provoked.

Step 6: Conclusion and recommendation

Your concluding lines should be striking, succinct and memorable. Record some possible concluding lines for your story.

Activity Sheet 7: Sentence Structures of Rhetorical Speeches

Rhetorical speeches use a range of sentence structures and types to ensure that the message is clear and that the audience is persuaded to accept the point of view. Some of these sentences structures are:

Structures Explanation ExampleDeclarative statement Short, simple statements that

convey conviction.‘The seas are rising.’

Rhetorical question A question used to make a point that does not require an answer.

‘Do we ignore the rising sea levels?’

Exclamatory sentence An emphatic statement that conveys emotion.

We cannot ignore global warming!

Imperative sentence A command that begins with a forceful verb.

Pay attention to the Earth’s warning signs.

Anaphora Repeating the same word at the start of two or more sentences.

No longer can we ignore the rising temperatures. No longer can we ignore the unstable weather conditions.

Activity

Select a topic that you are interested in or passionate about such as rugby, global warming, surfing or bullying. Provide sentences matching the structures that you could use to convey your point of view about your chosen topic.

Structures ExamplesDeclarative statement

Rhetorical question

Exclamatory sentence

Imperative sentence

Anaphora