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Professional development,teaching, and lifelonglearning: the implications forhigher educationGill NichollsPublished online: 11 Nov 2010.

To cite this article: Gill Nicholls (2000) Professional development, teaching, andlifelong learning: the implications for higher education, International Journal ofLifelong Education, 19:4, 370-377, DOI: 10.1080/02601370050110419

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LIFELONG EDUCATION, VOL. 19, NO. 4 (JULY–AUGUST 2000) , 370–377

Professional development, teaching, and lifelonglearning: the implications for higher education

GILL NICHOLLSUniversity of Surrey, UK

This article will address three issues relating to professional development and lifelong learning.The context of the discussion is teaching, research and learning with respect to theresearcher}teacher within higher education in the UK. A de� nition of professional developmentis given, and used to explain how it may contribute to the process of teaching, research andlearning. Considering teaching as part of scholarship helps the discussion. Underpinning thediscussion is the premise that professional development is essential to the role of theresearcher}teacher, and has signi� cant implications for lifelong learning for those involved inhigher education.

Introduction

Lifelong learning is a phrase that continually appears in the literature from a variety of

areas including the government, academics, and the media. The concept and provision

of lifelong learning is by its very nature highly complex and multifaceted. It is argued

here that professional development is one aspect of lifelong learning, and that

practitioners have to understand the need to continually learn, whether this be formally

or informally. As Jarvis states ‘ there are profound implications for their (the

practitioners) continuing learning, since they are learning incidentally and informally

in practice all the time’. He goes on to say that formal continuing learning programmes

need to be relevant to what they actually do and must contain opportunities for testing

ideas and theories (1999: 169). Bearing these comments in mind the main focus for the

discussion here will be the researcher}teacher in higher education (HE) in Britain. It

will concentrate on the type of learning that is considered in Jarvis’ view to be ‘more

formal, guided and the type of learning that occurs when practitioners and practitioner-

researchers undertake a programme of continuing professional education’ (1999: 169).

This more formal learning will be refered to as professional development. Although the

context of the discussion will focus on the UK perspective, some implications of the

discussion will have signi� cant relevance to an international audience.

There are three areas which will be addressed in this article. First, the meaning of the

concept, ‘professional development’ will be clari� ed. It is explained how it will be used

in the discussion and will be placed � rmly within the context of lifelong learning.

Secondly the role of teaching and learning for the researcher}teacher in BE will be

considered. (Note that the term ‘teacher’ speci� cally used as ‘ lecturer ’ often implies

only one way to give out information.) The notion will be put forward that teachers’

teaching has a signi� cant role to play in their own learning and that with higher

Gill Nicholls is a Professor of Education at the School of Educational Studies, University of Surrey, Guildford,Surrey GU2 5XH.

International Journal of Lifelong Education ISSN 0260-137 0 print}ISSN 1464-519 X online # 2000 Taylor and Francis Ltdhttp:}}www.tandf.co.uk}journals

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professional development, teaching and lifelong learning 371

education the responsibility for this must lie with the researcher}teachers themselves. It

will be argued that it is more timely now than ever in higher education to think in terms

of the ‘ scholarship of teaching’.

Professional development in the context of lifelong learning

It is important to this discussion to clarify some of the meanings of the various terms

associated with professional development, as they have come to mean a variety of things

to those associated with education. Watkins and Drury (1994) suggest that there are

four groups of strategies for the development of professionals over the next decade :

E developing a new mind set ;

E learning to promote and market one’s skills, networking and cultivating

relationships ;

E developing self-insight and taking personal charge ; and

E developing a range of competencies.

Here it is useful to examine the term ‘professional’ when applied to teachers. The

concept is complex. Garrett (1997) suggested approach to the term is :

E A professional will have undergone a lengthy period of professional training in

a body of abstract knowledge (Goode 1960, Hughes 1985, Coulson 1986), and

will have experience in the relevant � eld, in this case teaching.

E A professional is controlled by a code of ethics and professional values (Barber

1963, 1978, Hughes 1985, Coulson 1986).

E A professional is committed to the core business of the organization, i.e. the

quality of student learning (Coulson 1986).

These key dimensions, and the four strategies, by which they can be developed de� ne

the role of professional development. A re� nement for the purposes of this article might

be that professional development is taken as meaning the enhancement of the

knowledge, skills and understanding of individuals or groups in learning contexts that

maybe identi� ed by themselves or their institutions.

Debates in higher education, both, nationally and internationally have increasingly

placed teaching at the centre of e¶ ective student learning, with the premise that good

teaching leads to e¶ ective learning. There is nothing new in this statement alone,

however, what is important to recognize, is that it is a relatively new dimension in higher

education, where research has through tradition always been the key word and centre

of activity. These debates were brought to a head in the UK by the Dearing Report,

followed by the Green Paper, The Learning Age (1998) and responses to Dearing

such as Higher Education for the 21st Century (1998). These have spelt out the

government’s aims and commitment to lifelong learning and the need to create a better

balance between teaching, research and scholarship within higher education. The

document states that this will be achieved ‘through the promotion of e¶ ective learning

and teaching and enhancing the professional skills and status of teachers ’ (1998: 19). A

consequence of these aims and commitments has been the creation of the Institute of

Learning and Teaching (ILT). These debates and consequent actions such as the

inception of the ILT focus on the UK perspective, however with the changing nature

of higher education globally, there are lessons to be learnt for a more international

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372 gill nicholls

perspective from the UK experience. Surely it is the case that contact with the teaching

and learning situation on an almost daily basis has always contributed to the

development of higher education researcher}teachers’ academic and pedagogic

knowledge and skills. Practitioners have been involved in lifelong learning by the nature

of their positions and job. Equally professional development is part of lifelong learning,

and studying the subject and related issues is a privilege for those involved in education

and educational studies. Yet, in a learning society we are forced to ask questions relating

to professional development and its role in lifelong learning. A consequence of the

Dearing Report has been the need for the UK higher education sector to consider and

enter the debate about learning from learning and how this is equates to scholarship. It

is suggested here that ‘ learning from learning’ is a key facet of development. What is

important to the present argument is that if such a process does not occur, then the

individual is not engaged in developing and lifelong learning.

These parameters set the scene for discussion but they do not make explicit the

connection between professional development, teaching and the role of lifelong learning.

A signi� cant amount of research (for examples see Bolam 1987, Brown and Earley 1990

and Dean 1996) has examined the role of professional development and the professional,

but the role of teachers’ learning has not always been made explicit and explained.

Professional development in higher education is a way of improving the quality of

learning and teaching of the researcher}teacher, and to develop a culture for lifelong

learning. This can be achieved through raising the pro� le and status of teaching, and

the teacher as suggested in the Dearing report. Opportunities for individuals to extend

their knowledge base, skills and teaching activities must be provided. This is made clear

in Higher Education for the 21st Century. The document states that ‘all institutions of higher

education give high priority to developing and implementing learning and teaching

strategies which focus on the promotion of students’ learning’ (1998: 19). Despite these

statements this remains a contentious issue, with research being given a greater

importance and status than teaching, by the presence of the Research Assessment

Exercise (RAE). This dilemma is acknowledged here, but is not the focus of the

discussion.

This leaves lifelong learning and its role within professional development to be

discussed. Hargreaves and Fullan (1992: 36) suggest that ‘ teacher development as

knowledge and skill development’, is key to successful lifelong learning, both of the

teachers and their students. If this is the case, lifelong learning can be considered as

being involved with the development of a range of interactions between educational

institutions and their host communities, in this case researchers}teachers, students and

higher education institutions (HEIs). All are, or should be, concerned to develop a

learning community, where learning is valued, both for the teachers and the students.

This must include professional development of those who help to provide learning at all

levels. At the level of the individual teacher, systems}authorities should o¶ er

opportunities for teachers to participate in professional development work in prep-

aration for lifelong learning, and therefore, develop the concept of lifelong learning.

The premise here is that the provision of some forms of lifelong learning are heavily

dependent on the skills, knowledge and professional competency of the teaching

profession. The challenge will be to extend and broaden the frameworks of teaching and

learning activities in higher education. This must incorporate teachers and teacher

educators, as they will be at the ‘chalk face ’ of change. By change, it means a changing

population of learners. Hargreaves and Fullan (1992) have shown how teacher

development is enhanced when the importance of the working environment is

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professional development, teaching and lifelong learning 373

considered. Garrett (1997) also states that the development cannot be alienated from

the context of practice. The context may vary across institutions and within schools or

faculties, all of which are in� uenced by structures and strategies, that are both formal

and informal, internally or externally imposed.

The development of professionals can therefore be taken as a long-term process. One

which is progressive and goes over the working lifetime of a professional. It is planned

and prioritized but often such priorities may be in con� ict, i.e. that of the individual

needs, and those of the institution. However, lifelong learning goes beyond the working

life of a professional and that professional development is only oriented towards the

working lifetime of a professional (in this case the researcher}teacher) and that

professional development is one element of lifelong learning. If such a premise is to be

accepted, there is a need to consider the role of learning for the professional, and how

this may a¶ ect the role of teaching in higher education.

The role of teaching and learning for the researcher/teacher in

HE

Practice, in this case teaching, does not happen in a vacuum. It depends on a variety of

social, political, and ideological contexts. The practice of teaching in higher education

and the role of learning for the professional researcher}teacher is equally dependent on

the whole educational context, particularly at this point in time when universities are

facing periods of rapid change. Government statements and documents, such as the

Department for Education and Employment’s (DfEE) Induction of new teachers (1998)

and the Institute for Learning and Teaching, are examples of the present demands for

change. Any attempt by HEIs to change teaching and learning activities, of both

students and teachers cannot ignore these documents and proposed changes. Yet

consideration must be given to the learning environment of the professional, in

preparation of the imposed change. For higher education, this means considering how

teaching is going to a¶ ect the role of learning for the researcher in the pursuit of new

knowledge, and the teacher (who is often the same person) applying his or her

theoretical knowledge to a teaching situation. As a member of a university, individuals

are not only expected to practice an art or science, but also act as a ‘professor ’ of

knowledge (Garrett 1995: 49). If this is the case, are the learning needs the same, and

can one be classi � ed as ‘ learning’ and the other as ‘development of skills ’, or is one

aspect connected implicitly to the other?

The resolution of such questions rests on how we perceive the need to change the

researcher}teacher, and what the perceived changes entail in terms of professional

development and learning. The present climate in higher education suggests that all

new teachers (lecturers) will have to obtain some formal teaching quali� cation. The

nature of this quali� cation is open to interpretation and discussion. This presents us with

a dilemma. If researchers have to be ‘professionally developed’ as teachers, are we

applying a ‘de� cit ’ model of professional development? Are we suggesting that

something is lacking in the new researcher}teacher and therefore needs to be corrected,

in this case teaching skills, and their application to learning situations? Do these have

to be corrected or improved before researcher}teachers can deliver quality teaching and

subsequent learning outcomes? As Huberman (1995: 27) points out ‘ these de� cits are

determined by others, notably by administrators ’. In this context teachers are seen as

the objects, rather than the subjects, of their professional growth. Yet surely what we

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should be striving for, if teaching standards in higher education are to improve and

change, is to understand how researcher}teachers learn and change and the role

teaching plays in that change. The interesting concept here for higher education with

respect to the proposed initiatives, is that these changes in the � rst instance will be

taking place in the workplace. Evidence relating to teacher professional learning and

development within the workplace is frequently absents from the literature. What we

need to understand is the relationship between speci� c dimensions of the higher

education workplace environments and researcher}teacher learning within the frame-

work of lifelong learning.

Teaching as scholarship

Possible ways forward can be found in the theories related to adult learning and change

in organization. These theories suggest relationships between speci� c dimensions of

workplace and learning and the most relevant of these view learning and environment

as multidimensional concepts. This in turn obliges us to consider the types of

environment that allow the researcher}teacher to learn, and the condition under which

that learning can be promoted.

An analysis of the literature (for example, Brook� eld 1991, Merriam and Ca¶ arelle

1991 and Jarvis 1999) suggests that these are � ve distinct themes relating to adult

learners, which are exempli� ed below:

1. Adults learn and have the potential to learn throughout their lives (Jarvis

1992).

2. Adult learning may occur across settings and circumstances (Marsick and

Watkins 1990).

3. Adult learners enter learning situation with prior knowledge, beliefs and skills

(Knowles 1984) and these may a¶ ect their learning (Moll 1990).

4. Adult learners are problem oriented, and learning occurs when the problem is

related in a meaningful way to the adult’s life situation, what Jarvis (1987)

refers to as the impetus for learning coming from con� ict between personal

‘biography’ and current experience. This suggests that learning will not take

place unless a problem implicates routine practice or taken-for-granted

knowledge.

5. Adults can play a very active role in their own learning. Knowles (1984)

suggests that adults are also pro active and self directed in searching for new

learning opportunities.

If adults are capable of learning in this way, consideration must be given to the type of

learning that should be promoted in the case of a researcher}teacher. Rice (1992: 73)

suggests that teaching should be re-established as a valued form of scholarship:

The scholarship of teaching has a distinctive synoptic capacity, that is the ability

to draw the strands of a � eld together in a way that provides both coherence and

meaning, to place what is known in context and open the way for connections to

be made between knower and the known. (Rice 1992 : 73)

In this way the researcher}teacher draws on data, ideas or theories taken from the

research work they are currently involved in and present them in a coherent and

meaningful way to themselves, and their students, as well as establishing e¶ ective ways

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professional development, teaching and lifelong learning 375

of teaching the material. Such a view has been substantiated by Glew (1992) who

showed that research can transform the teaching}learning experience, re� ecting the

contribution research can make to teaching and learning. But what of the contribution

teaching has to make to research and learning? Some of the literature on this theme (for

example, Elton 1995 and Garrett 1995) suggests that there is a symbiotic relationship

between research and teaching in that it creates an environment in which the researcher

has to plan the presentation of the research in a simple and coherent way for the purpose

of teaching. The literature also suggests that this helps expose weakness in the research

through the delivery of the material, and therefore requires the researcher}teacher to

modify their presentation. This is good practice if the researcher understands the process

of teaching and learning that they have been involved in. Improved teaching and

learning will probably only occur if the researcher has the knowledge and skills to re� ect

on these processes and change accordingly. In his most recent publication Jarvis (1999)

clearly and coherently argues that practitioners must engage in developing theory from

practice if they are to learn from learning and develop a meaningful practice. If this

form of engagement occurs, then, the quality of teaching and learning will truly

improve.

If teaching is to improve and be valued, there needs to be a relationship between

professional development, learning and the scholarship of teaching, or as Boyatzis et al.

(1995) suggest, the scholarship of learning. However, there is a problem here, in that

assessment has centred around the quality of learning, with no prescriptive model of

good teaching being o¶ ered to ensure its achievement. Teaching in this context has been

taken to cover a range of activities that involve the learner either passively or actively

in some form of activity, on the assumption that learning will be associated with that

activity. The connection between the ‘ teaching’ and the learner is often not understood

by the researcher}teacher. What is required, therefore, is for academics to understand

the teaching and learning process. Is this the connection between professional

development and learning? After all, researcher}teachers, through the university

process aim to help students learn by changing the way they think. Is it not then

reasonable to expect the researcher}teacher to be well versed in the same process, i.e.

changing the way they think about the teaching}learning process? It is arguable that

development of this kind, is a powerful route to professional learning.

Concluding comments

This article has attempted to make connections between professional development,

lifelong learning and the position of the professional within it, in this case the

researcher}teacher within higher education. The implications of the connections that

have been made are used to demonstrate how the development of the teacher and

teaching skills rely on professional development, but cannot occur without learning and

understanding. That is the understanding of both pedagogic and knowledge based

issues. The argument has concentrated on the assumption ‘that improving individual

teachers will improve higher education, and thereby student’s learning’. The article has

argued that this assumption needs to be reconsidered and reconceptualized within the

context of adult education, lifelong learning and teaching. Increasingly, adult learners

are being taught at a distance by means of techniques that are not always within the

teaching strategies of practising researcher}teachers. As teachers, therefore, they also

have to learn, and this has to be part of the teachers’ professional development. It should

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focus on what Boud and Miller (1996) call ‘animated learning’. This concentrates on

the inter-relationship between teaching and learning. Such inter-relationships are

explored through situation-speci � c instances where the participants are asked to detail

their practices in as rich a manner as possible : to talk and to write themselves into

accounts of teaching and learning grounded in personal experience. This allows the

practitioner to think about theory and practice in a clear but pragmatic way and thus

creating a distinction and connection between professional development and personal

learning.

With the growing signi� cance and importance of the inter-relationship between

teaching, learning and research, it is necessary for those involved in teaching in higher

education to start thinking about teaching and research as being complementary forms

of scholarship. For this to occur, it has been argued that professional development has

a strong part to play. It should enable researcher}teachers to learn about the teaching

process as well as develop their own strategies for teaching, based on an understanding

related to the scholarship of teaching. This then places the role of professional

development � rmly in the framework of lifelong learning, but at the same time draws a

distinction between them. In the realms of higher education the status of teaching, both

as a professional activity and as a sphere of research, must be raised. This will then

highlight and facilitate discussions related to the relationship between teaching,

learning and research. One of the most crucial questions needing to be addressed now

is ‘how can teaching help develop research into practice and improve the quality of

learning’ ? Elton’s (1977: 2) statement on the topic of professional development is still

valid and possibly even more pertinent today: ‘One is left with the impression that sta¶

development in higher education is many faceted and that it is still looking for a sense

of direction’. With the prospect of teacher training being introduced into higher

education, now is the time to explore the relationship between teaching, learning,

research, professional development and the notion of lifelong learning.

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