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Cocaine Cocaine

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What is cocaine?What is cocaine?

Cocaine belongs to a group of drugs Cocaine belongs to a group of drugs known as ‘stimulants’. Stimulants speed known as ‘stimulants’. Stimulants speed up the activity of the central nervous up the activity of the central nervous system‑the messages going to and from system‑the messages going to and from the brain. the brain. AmphetaminesAmphetamines (or ‘speed’) and (or ‘speed’) and nicotinenicotine  are also stimulants. are also stimulants.

Cocaine most commonly comes in the Cocaine most commonly comes in the form of a white, odourless powder called form of a white, odourless powder called ‘cocaine hydrochloride’. It has a bitter, ‘cocaine hydrochloride’. It has a bitter, numbing taste. The powder is extracted numbing taste. The powder is extracted from the leaves of the coca bush, found from the leaves of the coca bush, found mainly in Peru and Bolivia . The extract is mainly in Peru and Bolivia . The extract is then processed with various chemicals.then processed with various chemicals.

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How is it used?How is it used? Cocaine is inhaled (snorted) through the nose, or injected. It is Cocaine is inhaled (snorted) through the nose, or injected. It is

also smoked through a process known as ‘freebasing’‑where also smoked through a process known as ‘freebasing’‑where the cocaine is converted to an alkaloid form. Cocaine the cocaine is converted to an alkaloid form. Cocaine hydrochloride cannot be smoked, since the drug is destroyed at hydrochloride cannot be smoked, since the drug is destroyed at high temperatures.high temperatures.

‘‘Crack’ is a very pure form of freebase cocaine sold in the form Crack’ is a very pure form of freebase cocaine sold in the form of small crystals or rocks. Crakc is smoked in pipes or in of small crystals or rocks. Crakc is smoked in pipes or in cigarettes, mixed with tobacco or cigarettes, mixed with tobacco or marijuanamarijuana. Crack has rarely . Crack has rarely been seen in Australia .been seen in Australia .

Like other illegally manufactured drugs, such as ‘speed’, there Like other illegally manufactured drugs, such as ‘speed’, there are no controls on factors such as the strength and hygiene of are no controls on factors such as the strength and hygiene of cocaine. Cocaine may be mixed, or ‘cut’, with other substances cocaine. Cocaine may be mixed, or ‘cut’, with other substances such as sugar, baking soda and talcum powder to increase such as sugar, baking soda and talcum powder to increase profits. This increases the risk of experiencing harmful or profits. This increases the risk of experiencing harmful or unpleasant effects.unpleasant effects.

Cocaine was used as a local anaesthetic for eye, ear and throat Cocaine was used as a local anaesthetic for eye, ear and throat surgery. Recently cocaine has been replaced with synthetic surgery. Recently cocaine has been replaced with synthetic anaesthetics (e.g. lidocaine), anaesthetics (e.g. lidocaine), but it continues to have limited but it continues to have limited use in certain surgical procedures.use in certain surgical procedures.

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Like other illegally manufactured drugs, such Like other illegally manufactured drugs, such as ‘speed’, there are no controls on factors as ‘speed’, there are no controls on factors such as the strength and hygiene of cocaine. such as the strength and hygiene of cocaine. Cocaine may be mixed, or ‘cut’, with other Cocaine may be mixed, or ‘cut’, with other substances such as sugar, baking soda and substances such as sugar, baking soda and talcum powder to increase profits. This talcum powder to increase profits. This increases the risk of experiencing harmful or increases the risk of experiencing harmful or unpleasant effects.unpleasant effects.

Cocaine was used as a local anaesthetic for Cocaine was used as a local anaesthetic for eye, ear and throat surgery. Recently cocaine eye, ear and throat surgery. Recently cocaine has been replaced with synthetic has been replaced with synthetic anaesthetics (e.g. lidocaine), but it continues anaesthetics (e.g. lidocaine), but it continues to have limited use in certain surgical to have limited use in certain surgical procedures.procedures.

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Street namesStreet names

C, coke, flake, nose C, coke, flake, nose candy, snow, dust, candy, snow, dust, white, white lady, white, white lady, toot, crack, rock, toot, crack, rock, freebase freebase

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Cocaine use in AustraliaCocaine use in Australia

According to the Australian Institute of Health According to the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare’s and Welfare’s 2001 National Drug Household 2001 National Drug Household SurveySurvey 11 of Australians aged 14 and over: of Australians aged 14 and over:

4.4 per cent of Australians reported having 4.4 per cent of Australians reported having used cocaine at some stage in their life. used cocaine at some stage in their life.

Of those who had ever used cocaine, the Of those who had ever used cocaine, the average initiation age was 22.6. average initiation age was 22.6.

1 Australian Institute of Health and Welfare 1 Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) 2002 (AIHW) 2002 2001 National Drug Household 2001 National Drug Household Survey First ResultsSurvey First Results, AIHW, Canberra , AIHW, Canberra

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Effects of cocaineEffects of cocaine

The effects of any drug (including The effects of any drug (including cocaine) vary from person to person. It cocaine) vary from person to person. It depends on many factors, including an depends on many factors, including an individual’s size, weight and health, how individual’s size, weight and health, how much and how the drug is taken, much and how the drug is taken, whether the person is used to taking it whether the person is used to taking it and whether other drugs are taken. It and whether other drugs are taken. It also depends on the environment in also depends on the environment in which the drug is used‑for example, which the drug is used‑for example, whether the person is alone, with others whether the person is alone, with others or at a party.or at a party.

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Immediate effectsImmediate effects

Many people have Many people have experienced the experienced the following effects following effects shortly after taking shortly after taking cocaine:cocaine:

physiological arousalphysiological arousal, , including increased including increased body temperature and body temperature and heart rate heart rate

exhilaration exhilaration anxiety anxiety feelings of well-beingfeelings of well-being decreased hunger decreased hunger panic panic

poor concentration poor concentration and judgement and judgement

indifference to pain indifference to pain and fatigue and fatigue

feelings of great feelings of great physical strength and physical strength and mental capacity mental capacity

enlarged pupilsenlarged pupils sexual arousalsexual arousal unpredictable and/or unpredictable and/or

violent behaviour violent behaviour

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When inhaled, the effects of cocaine peak after 15 When inhaled, the effects of cocaine peak after 15 to 30 minutes, and then diminish.to 30 minutes, and then diminish.In greater quantitiesIn greater quantities

Using large quantities of Using large quantities of cocaine repeatedly over a cocaine repeatedly over a period of hours can lead to:period of hours can lead to:

extreme agitation extreme agitation anxiety anxiety paranoia paranoia hallucinations hallucinations dizziness dizziness nausea and vomiting nausea and vomiting tremors tremors unpredictable unpredictable

violent/aggressive violent/aggressive behaviour behaviour

loss of concentration loss of concentration

loss of coordination loss of coordination loss of interest in sex loss of interest in sex loss of ambition and loss of ambition and

motivation motivation heart pain heart pain heart attack heart attack paranoid psychosis paranoid psychosis increased body increased body

temperature temperature rapid, irregular and shallow rapid, irregular and shallow

breathing. breathing.

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OverdoseOverdose

The dosage and method of use that can cause The dosage and method of use that can cause cocaine overdose varies from person to person. cocaine overdose varies from person to person. The effects of overdose are very intense and, The effects of overdose are very intense and, generally, short in nature. Although uncommon, generally, short in nature. Although uncommon, deaths have been recorded from cocaine deaths have been recorded from cocaine overdose due to:overdose due to:

seizures seizures heart attack heart attack brain haemorrhage brain haemorrhage kidney failure kidney failure stroke stroke repeated convulsions repeated convulsions

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Long-term effectsLong-term effects

People who have used cocaine over longer periods People who have used cocaine over longer periods tend to take cocaine in high quantities‑‘binges’ tend to take cocaine in high quantities‑‘binges’ interrupted by ‘crashes’.interrupted by ‘crashes’.

A ‘binge’ is where the drug is taken repeatedly A ‘binge’ is where the drug is taken repeatedly over several hours or days. The person may over several hours or days. The person may attempt to end the binge by taking a depressant attempt to end the binge by taking a depressant drug such as drug such as alcoholalcohol, , benzodiazepinesbenzodiazepines or or heroinheroin. . The binge is followed by the ‘crash’‑a period The binge is followed by the ‘crash’‑a period characterised by intense depression, lethargy and characterised by intense depression, lethargy and hunger.hunger.

The unpleasant effects of cocaine increase with The unpleasant effects of cocaine increase with more frequent, long-term use. This often results more frequent, long-term use. This often results in the person discontinuing their use for a period in the person discontinuing their use for a period of time. Most of the following symptoms will of time. Most of the following symptoms will dissipate once cocaine use ceases:dissipate once cocaine use ceases:

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Most of the following symptoms will Most of the following symptoms will dissipate once cocaine use ceases:dissipate once cocaine use ceases:

restlessness restlessness nausea nausea hyper-excitability hyper-excitability insomnia insomnia weight loss weight loss

psychosis psychosis paranoia paranoia exhaustion exhaustion hallucinations hallucinations depression/inability depression/inability

to experience to experience pleasure pleasure (anhedonia). (anhedonia).

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Dangers in method of useDangers in method of use

There are a number of dangers relating to the There are a number of dangers relating to the method of using cocaine:method of using cocaine:

Repeated snorting damages the lining of the nose Repeated snorting damages the lining of the nose and nasal passages, and can also damage the and nasal passages, and can also damage the structure separating the nostrils. structure separating the nostrils.

Cocaine is often mixed with substances that are Cocaine is often mixed with substances that are poisonous when injected. This may cause poisonous when injected. This may cause collapsed veins, abscesses and damage to the collapsed veins, abscesses and damage to the heart, liver and brain. In addition, because people heart, liver and brain. In addition, because people who use cocaine often don’t know the exact who use cocaine often don’t know the exact purity and strength of the drug they are taking, purity and strength of the drug they are taking, chances of overdose and death are also chances of overdose and death are also increased. increased.

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If injected into the skin, either by intent or If injected into the skin, either by intent or accident, cocaine causes severe accident, cocaine causes severe vasoconstriction, which may prevent blood vasoconstriction, which may prevent blood flowing to the tissue, potentially resulting in flowing to the tissue, potentially resulting in severe tissue damage. This can occur after severe tissue damage. This can occur after just one injection of cocaine. just one injection of cocaine.

There is increased risk of transmission of There is increased risk of transmission of blood-borne viruses and infections such as blood-borne viruses and infections such as HIVHIV, , hepatitis Bhepatitis B and and hepatitis Chepatitis C. .

Smoking cocaine can cause breathing Smoking cocaine can cause breathing difficulties, chronic cough, chest pain and difficulties, chronic cough, chest pain and lung damagelung damage

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Long-term injection can Long-term injection can result in:result in:

blood vessels becoming blocked by blood vessels becoming blocked by substances mixed with cocaine, which can substances mixed with cocaine, which can lead to major damage to bodily organs lead to major damage to bodily organs

inflamed blood vessels and abscesses. inflamed blood vessels and abscesses. HIV and hepatitis: sharing needles, HIV and hepatitis: sharing needles,

syringes and other injecting equipment syringes and other injecting equipment can greatly increase the risk of contracting can greatly increase the risk of contracting blood-borne viruses such as blood-borne viruses such as hepatitis Bhepatitis B, , hepatitis Chepatitis C and and HIVHIV  (Human  (Human Immunodeficiency Virus - the virus that Immunodeficiency Virus - the virus that causes AIDS). causes AIDS).

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Cocaine and other drugsCocaine and other drugs Cocaine is often mixed with other drugs to enhance Cocaine is often mixed with other drugs to enhance

its desirable effects or to help the person cope with its desirable effects or to help the person cope with the undesirable effects of cocaine. These the undesirable effects of cocaine. These substances may include substances may include alcoholalcohol, , cannabiscannabis, , heroinheroin or or benzodiazepinesbenzodiazepines. The consequences of mixing . The consequences of mixing cocaine with other substances are often cocaine with other substances are often unpredictable. Mixing cocaine with alcohol unpredictable. Mixing cocaine with alcohol produces a substance in the blood called produces a substance in the blood called ‘cocaethylene’, which can be more toxic to the ‘cocaethylene’, which can be more toxic to the body than the cocaine itself. Injecting cocaine and body than the cocaine itself. Injecting cocaine and heroin at the same time can affect the area of the heroin at the same time can affect the area of the brain that controls breathing, increasing the brain that controls breathing, increasing the chances of coma and death.chances of coma and death.

Generally, health risks increase when mixing Generally, health risks increase when mixing cocaine with other drugs, especially when large cocaine with other drugs, especially when large quantities are taken.quantities are taken.

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Tolerance and Tolerance and dependencedependence

ToleranceTolerance Initial tolerance to cocaine develops rapidly Initial tolerance to cocaine develops rapidly

with continual heavy use. After this initial with continual heavy use. After this initial level is reached, people who use cocaine level is reached, people who use cocaine don’t appear to develop tolerance for don’t appear to develop tolerance for increasing amounts. Regular users may in increasing amounts. Regular users may in fact develop a ‘reverse tolerance’, whereby fact develop a ‘reverse tolerance’, whereby they experience the effects of the drug they experience the effects of the drug more intensely. Tolerance to cocaine may more intensely. Tolerance to cocaine may not be obvious due to the tendency to mix not be obvious due to the tendency to mix cocaine with other drugs such as heroin and cocaine with other drugs such as heroin and alcohol.alcohol.

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DependenceDependence

Physical dependence upon a drug occurs when a Physical dependence upon a drug occurs when a person’s body is used to functioning with the drug person’s body is used to functioning with the drug present in the system. Physical dependence on present in the system. Physical dependence on cocaine has not yet been established.cocaine has not yet been established.

Psychological dependencePsychological dependence occurs when using a occurs when using a drug becomes more important than other activities drug becomes more important than other activities in a person’s life. Because of its in a person’s life. Because of its powerful euphoric powerful euphoric effectseffects, cocaine users may develop a strong , cocaine users may develop a strong psychological dependence upon it. Even after long psychological dependence upon it. Even after long periods of abstinence, strong cravings can persist.periods of abstinence, strong cravings can persist.

A person who has become dependent upon cocaine A person who has become dependent upon cocaine may find it difficult to stop using it. Those who have may find it difficult to stop using it. Those who have stopped using cocaine may be prone to relapse.stopped using cocaine may be prone to relapse.

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WithdrawalWithdrawal

Withdrawal symptoms occur when a Withdrawal symptoms occur when a person dependent on a drug stops person dependent on a drug stops using it or significantly cuts down the using it or significantly cuts down the amount they are using. Cocaine amount they are using. Cocaine withdrawal generally occurs in three withdrawal generally occurs in three phases:phases:

1. ‘Crash’, which describes symptoms 1. ‘Crash’, which describes symptoms experienced immediately after the experienced immediately after the person stops using cocaine‑usually in person stops using cocaine‑usually in the first two to four days the first two to four days

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1. ‘Crash’, which describes symptoms 1. ‘Crash’, which describes symptoms experienced immediately after the experienced immediately after the person stops using cocaine‑usually in person stops using cocaine‑usually in the first two to four days. Symptoms the first two to four days. Symptoms include:include:

agitation agitation depression depression intense craving for the drug intense craving for the drug extreme fatigue extreme fatigue

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2. Withdrawal, which can last up to ten 2. Withdrawal, which can last up to ten weeks and is characterised by:weeks and is characterised by:

depression depression lack of energy lack of energy anxiety anxiety intense craving intense craving angry outbursts angry outbursts

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3. Extinction, which can last indefinitely, and includes 3. Extinction, which can last indefinitely, and includes symptoms of episodic cravings for cocaine, usually in symptoms of episodic cravings for cocaine, usually in response to conditioned cues. These cravings may surface response to conditioned cues. These cravings may surface months or years after the person has stopped using months or years after the person has stopped using cocaine.cocaine.

Other withdrawal symptoms that may be experienced Other withdrawal symptoms that may be experienced include:include:

lack of motivation lack of motivation inability to feel any pleasure inability to feel any pleasure nausea/vomiting nausea/vomiting shaking shaking irritability/agitation irritability/agitation muscle pain muscle pain long, but disturbed sleep. long, but disturbed sleep.

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Treatment optionsTreatment options

There are a number of drug treatment There are a number of drug treatment options available in Australia . While options available in Australia . While abstinence may be a suitable treatment abstinence may be a suitable treatment aim for some people, many programs aim for some people, many programs recognise that for others this may not be recognise that for others this may not be possible or realistic. Most programs adopt possible or realistic. Most programs adopt strategies that have an overall aim of strategies that have an overall aim of reducing the harms and risks related to reducing the harms and risks related to the person’s drug use.the person’s drug use.

Some treatment options include Some treatment options include counseling, withdrawal (detoxification) and counseling, withdrawal (detoxification) and pharmacotherapy. Residential and ‘out-pharmacotherapy. Residential and ‘out-patient’ programs are available.patient’ programs are available.

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Pregnancy and Pregnancy and breastfeedingbreastfeeding

PregnancyPregnancy Research indicates that effects of cocaine use during Research indicates that effects of cocaine use during

pregnancy may cause bleeding, miscarriage, premature pregnancy may cause bleeding, miscarriage, premature labour and stillbirth.labour and stillbirth.

Cocaine increases the heart rate in both the mother and Cocaine increases the heart rate in both the mother and baby, and the supply of blood and oxygen to the baby is baby, and the supply of blood and oxygen to the baby is reduced. This means the baby is more likely to be small and reduced. This means the baby is more likely to be small and grow slowly both before and after birth. If cocaine is used grow slowly both before and after birth. If cocaine is used close to birth, the baby may be born intoxicated, showing close to birth, the baby may be born intoxicated, showing symptoms of hyperactivity and agitation. Withdrawal symptoms of hyperactivity and agitation. Withdrawal symptoms can occur in the babies of mothers who use symptoms can occur in the babies of mothers who use cocaine regularly. These include sleepiness and lack of cocaine regularly. These include sleepiness and lack of responsiveness.responsiveness.

To date, research is inconclusive as to whether children of To date, research is inconclusive as to whether children of mothers who use cocaine experience any long-term mental mothers who use cocaine experience any long-term mental or physical effects. Some studies suggest that or physical effects. Some studies suggest that malformations of malformations of the genito-urinary tract, heart, limbs the genito-urinary tract, heart, limbs and/or face occur in the babies of women who use cocaine and/or face occur in the babies of women who use cocaine

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BreastfeedingBreastfeeding

It is likely that cocaine will reach the baby It is likely that cocaine will reach the baby through breast milk. The effect this has on through breast milk. The effect this has on the baby will depend on factors such as the baby will depend on factors such as the amount and strength of cocaine used, the amount and strength of cocaine used, and the time between using cocaine and and the time between using cocaine and feeding the baby. Symptoms may include feeding the baby. Symptoms may include the baby being irritable, unsettled and the baby being irritable, unsettled and difficult to feed.difficult to feed.

See your doctor or other health See your doctor or other health professional if you are taking or planning professional if you are taking or planning to take any substances while pregnant or to take any substances while pregnant or breastfeeding, including prescribed and breastfeeding, including prescribed and over-the-counter medications over-the-counter medications

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Cocaine and drivingCocaine and driving

It is illegal for anyone to drive under the It is illegal for anyone to drive under the influence of any drug (including cocaine). influence of any drug (including cocaine). Breaking this law carries penalties including Breaking this law carries penalties including disqualification from driving, heavy fines disqualification from driving, heavy fines and/or imprisonment. Due to the nature of and/or imprisonment. Due to the nature of its psychological and physical effects, it is its psychological and physical effects, it is dangerous to drive a vehicle after taking dangerous to drive a vehicle after taking cocaine. If cocaine is combined with other cocaine. If cocaine is combined with other drugs, such as drugs, such as alcoholalcohol, the risk of accident , the risk of accident is further increased.is further increased.

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Cocaine and social problemsCocaine and social problems

Cocaine users can become preoccupied with Cocaine users can become preoccupied with purchasing, preparing, using and recovering purchasing, preparing, using and recovering from the effects of use of cocaine, from the effects of use of cocaine, neglecting other areas of their life. All areas neglecting other areas of their life. All areas of a person’s life, including family, work, of a person’s life, including family, work, and personal relationships, can be affected and personal relationships, can be affected by drug use. For example, arguments over by drug use. For example, arguments over drug use can cause family and relationship drug use can cause family and relationship problems that may lead to break-up. problems that may lead to break-up. Some Some effects of cocaine, such as anxiety, paranoia effects of cocaine, such as anxiety, paranoia and irrational behaviour, may further and irrational behaviour, may further exacerbate these problems.exacerbate these problems.

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Reducing the risksReducing the risks Australian drug policy is based on harm Australian drug policy is based on harm

minimisation. This is about reducing drug-minimisation. This is about reducing drug-related harm to both the community and related harm to both the community and individual drug users.individual drug users.

Harm-minimisation strategies range from Harm-minimisation strategies range from encouraging ‘non-use’ through to providing the encouraging ‘non-use’ through to providing the means for people to use drugs with fewer risks.means for people to use drugs with fewer risks.

For further ‘tips’ on how to reduce the risks of For further ‘tips’ on how to reduce the risks of using cocaine, call the using cocaine, call the alcohol and drug information servicealcohol and drug information service in your in your State or Territory.State or Territory.

Remember there is no safe level of drug Remember there is no safe level of drug use.use.

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What to do in a crisisWhat to do in a crisis If someone overdoses or has an adverse reaction If someone overdoses or has an adverse reaction

while using cocaine it is very important that they while using cocaine it is very important that they receive professional help as soon as possible. A quick receive professional help as soon as possible. A quick response can save their life.response can save their life.

Call an ambulance. Dial 000. Don't delay because you Call an ambulance. Dial 000. Don't delay because you think you or the person might get into trouble. think you or the person might get into trouble. Ambulance officers are not obliged to involve the Ambulance officers are not obliged to involve the police. police.

Stay with the person until the ambulance arrives. Find Stay with the person until the ambulance arrives. Find out if anyone at the scene knows mouth-to-mouth out if anyone at the scene knows mouth-to-mouth resuscitation or cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR). resuscitation or cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR).

Ensure the person has adequate air by keeping Ensure the person has adequate air by keeping crowds back and opening windows. Loosen tight crowds back and opening windows. Loosen tight clothing. clothing.

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If the person is unconscious, don’t leave them on If the person is unconscious, don’t leave them on their back—they could choke. Turn them on their their back—they could choke. Turn them on their side and into the recovery position. Gently tilt their side and into the recovery position. Gently tilt their head back so their tongue does not block the head back so their tongue does not block the airway. airway.

If the person has stopped breathing, give mouth-to-If the person has stopped breathing, give mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. If there is no pulse, apply CPR. mouth resuscitation. If there is no pulse, apply CPR.

Provide the ambulance officers with as much Provide the ambulance officers with as much information as you can‑how much cocaine was information as you can‑how much cocaine was taken, how long ago, and any pre-existing medical taken, how long ago, and any pre-existing medical conditions. conditions.

Arrange with friends before cocaine is taken about Arrange with friends before cocaine is taken about what to do in a crisis. what to do in a crisis.

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What to do……What to do……

If the person is unconscious, don’t leave them on If the person is unconscious, don’t leave them on their back—they could choke. Turn them on their their back—they could choke. Turn them on their side and into the recovery position. Gently tilt their side and into the recovery position. Gently tilt their head back so their tongue does not block the head back so their tongue does not block the airway. airway.

If the person has stopped breathing, give mouth-to-If the person has stopped breathing, give mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. If there is no pulse, apply CPR. mouth resuscitation. If there is no pulse, apply CPR.

Provide the ambulance officers with as much Provide the ambulance officers with as much information as you can‑how much cocaine was information as you can‑how much cocaine was taken, how long ago, and any pre-existing medical taken, how long ago, and any pre-existing medical conditions. conditions.

Arrange with friends before cocaine is taken about Arrange with friends before cocaine is taken about what to do in a crisis. what to do in a crisis.

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Coca eradicationCoca eradication

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Coca eradicationCoca eradication is a controversial strategy is a controversial strategy strongly promoted by the strongly promoted by the United StatesUnited States governmentgovernment as part of its "as part of its "War on DrugsWar on Drugs" to eliminate the " to eliminate the cultivation of cultivation of cocacoca, a plant whose leaves are not only , a plant whose leaves are not only traditionally used by traditionally used by indigenousindigenous cultures but also, in cultures but also, in modern society, in the manufacture of modern society, in the manufacture of cocainecocaine. This . This prohibitionistprohibitionist strategy is being pursued in the coca- strategy is being pursued in the coca-growing regions of growing regions of ColombiaColombia ( (Plan ColombiaPlan Colombia), ), PeruPeru, , and and BoliviaBolivia, where it is highly controversial because , where it is highly controversial because of its environmental and its socioeconomic impact. of its environmental and its socioeconomic impact. Furthermore, indigenous cultures living in the Furthermore, indigenous cultures living in the AltiplanoAltiplano, such as the , such as the AymarasAymaras, considers the coca , considers the coca leave to be a traditional product (which they dub the leave to be a traditional product (which they dub the "millenary leaf"), which they use to fool the feeling "millenary leaf"), which they use to fool the feeling of hunger, sleepiness and head-aches linked to of hunger, sleepiness and head-aches linked to altitude and other altitude and other altitude sicknessesaltitude sicknesses. The growers . The growers of coca are named of coca are named CocalerosCocaleros and part of the coca and part of the coca production for traditional use is legal in Peru and production for traditional use is legal in Peru and Bolivia.Bolivia.

prof. azaprof. aza Coca eradication in BoliviaCoca eradication in Bolivia

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Environmental impactEnvironmental impact Plots denuded of coca plants by mechanical means (burning Plots denuded of coca plants by mechanical means (burning

or cutting) or chemical or cutting) or chemical herbicidesherbicides, such as , such as MonsantoMonsanto's 's RoundupRoundup, are abandoned and cause serious problems with , are abandoned and cause serious problems with erosionerosion in seasonal rains. in seasonal rains.

In addition, the U.S. has also been involved in the In addition, the U.S. has also been involved in the application of the application of the fungusfungus Fusarium oxysporumFusarium oxysporum to wipe out to wipe out coca[coca[citation neededcitation needed]; that fungus poses serious hazards ]; that fungus poses serious hazards both to humans and to other plant species. In 2000, the both to humans and to other plant species. In 2000, the Congress of the United StatesCongress of the United States approved use of approved use of FusariumFusarium as as a biological control agent to kill coca crops in Colombia (and a biological control agent to kill coca crops in Colombia (and another fungus to kill another fungus to kill opium poppiesopium poppies in in AfghanistanAfghanistan), but ), but these plans were canceled by then-President these plans were canceled by then-President ClintonClinton, who , who was concerned that the unilateral use of a biological agent was concerned that the unilateral use of a biological agent would be perceived by the rest of the world as would be perceived by the rest of the world as biological warfarebiological warfare. The Andean nations have since banned . The Andean nations have since banned its use throughout the region. (The use of biological agents its use throughout the region. (The use of biological agents to kill crops may be illegal under the to kill crops may be illegal under the Biological Weapons ConventionBiological Weapons Convention of 1975.) of 1975.)

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Source: DEA Intelligence Division, December Source: DEA Intelligence Division, December 20012001

On On June 25June 25, , 20032003, the Superior Administrative , the Superior Administrative Court of the Colombian department of Court of the Colombian department of CundinamarcaCundinamarca ordered a stop to the spraying of ordered a stop to the spraying of glyphosateglyphosate herbicides until the government herbicides until the government complies with the environmental management complies with the environmental management plan for the eradication program. It also plan for the eradication program. It also mandated a series of studies to protect public mandated a series of studies to protect public health and the environment.health and the environment.[1][1] The Colombian The Colombian State Council, the country's maximum State Council, the country's maximum administrative authority, later overruled the administrative authority, later overruled the court's decision to stop fumigations. court's decision to stop fumigations. [2][2]

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Socioeconomic impactSocioeconomic impact In the In the sierrasierra of Peru, Bolivia, and northern of Peru, Bolivia, and northern ArgentinaArgentina, coca , coca

has been consumed (by chewing and brewing in has been consumed (by chewing and brewing in infusioninfusion) ) for thousands of years as a stimulant and cure for for thousands of years as a stimulant and cure for altitude sicknessaltitude sickness; it also has symbolic value. The sale and ; it also has symbolic value. The sale and consumption of coca (but not pure cocaine) is legal and consumption of coca (but not pure cocaine) is legal and legitimate in these countries.legitimate in these countries.

With the growth of the Colombian With the growth of the Colombian drug cartelsdrug cartels in the 1980s, in the 1980s, coca leaf became a valuable agricultural commodity, coca leaf became a valuable agricultural commodity, particularly in Peru and Bolivia, where the quality of coca is particularly in Peru and Bolivia, where the quality of coca is higher than in Colombia. To supply the foreign markets, the higher than in Colombia. To supply the foreign markets, the cartels expanded the cultivation to areas where coca was cartels expanded the cultivation to areas where coca was not a traditional crop. Many poor not a traditional crop. Many poor campesinoscampesinos, driven from , driven from the central highlands by lack of land or loss of jobs, the central highlands by lack of land or loss of jobs, migrated to the lowlands and valleys of the eastern migrated to the lowlands and valleys of the eastern AndesAndes, , where they turned to the cultivation of coca.where they turned to the cultivation of coca.

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To counter this development, the U.S. government, To counter this development, the U.S. government, through its foreign aid agency through its foreign aid agency USAIDUSAID, has promoted , has promoted a policy of crop substitution, whereby coca a policy of crop substitution, whereby coca cultivation is replaced by cultivation is replaced by coffeecoffee, , bananabanana, , pineapplepineapple, , palm heartpalm heart, and other crops suitable for a tropical , and other crops suitable for a tropical climate. Prices for these products are extremely low, climate. Prices for these products are extremely low, however; moreover, many remote coca-growing however; moreover, many remote coca-growing areas lack the infrastructure to get such perishable areas lack the infrastructure to get such perishable products to market on time. The price of coca, on products to market on time. The price of coca, on the other hand, has remained high; and, when dried, the other hand, has remained high; and, when dried, coca stores well and is easily transportable. To date, coca stores well and is easily transportable. To date, virtually all the crop substition programs virtually all the crop substition programs implemented in Peru and Bolivia have failed, implemented in Peru and Bolivia have failed, primarily because the campesinos are not primarily because the campesinos are not guaranteed an adequate price for alternative guaranteed an adequate price for alternative products.products.

prof. azaprof. aza

The Chapare and Yungas coca-growing The Chapare and Yungas coca-growing zones in Bolivia. Source: US General zones in Bolivia. Source: US General

Accountability OfficeAccountability Office

prof. azaprof. aza

Geopolitical issuesGeopolitical issues Given the above-mentioned considerations, many Given the above-mentioned considerations, many

critics of coca eradication believe the fundamental critics of coca eradication believe the fundamental goal of the U.S. government is to constrict the flow goal of the U.S. government is to constrict the flow of income to the Colombian of income to the Colombian MarxistMarxist rebel rebel movement, movement, FARCFARC, which is heavily funded by the , which is heavily funded by the illegal drug trade, rather than combating drugs illegal drug trade, rather than combating drugs per seper se. Few if any such critics have anything . Few if any such critics have anything favorable to say about the illicit drug trade, but favorable to say about the illicit drug trade, but they point out that under the current coca they point out that under the current coca eradication policies, poor campesinos bear the eradication policies, poor campesinos bear the brunt of efforts to combat it, while North American brunt of efforts to combat it, while North American and European chemical companies (which supply and European chemical companies (which supply chemicals needed in the manufacture of cocaine) chemicals needed in the manufacture of cocaine) and banks (which annually and banks (which annually launderlaunder hundreds of hundreds of billions of dollars in illegal revenues) continue to billions of dollars in illegal revenues) continue to profit from the trade.profit from the trade.

prof. azaprof. aza

Article 26Article 26 of the of the Single Convention on Narcotic DrugsSingle Convention on Narcotic Drugs, a treaty promulgated with U.S. backing in , a treaty promulgated with U.S. backing in 19611961, , states that "The Parties shall so far as possible states that "The Parties shall so far as possible enforce the uprooting of all coca bushes which grow enforce the uprooting of all coca bushes which grow wild. They shall destroy the coca bushes if illegally wild. They shall destroy the coca bushes if illegally cultivated."cultivated."

The US-based The US-based Drug Enforcement AdministrationDrug Enforcement Administration, , along with local governments, has frequently clashed along with local governments, has frequently clashed with with cocaleroscocaleros in attempts to eradicate coca across in attempts to eradicate coca across the Andes. This map shows the the Andes. This map shows the ChapareChapare region in region in Bolivia, which has historically been heavily targeted Bolivia, which has historically been heavily targeted for coca eradication. for coca eradication. Human rightsHuman rights NGOsNGOs such as such as Human Rights WatchHuman Rights Watch have accused the US of have accused the US of human rights abuseshuman rights abuses in the "coca war", including the in the "coca war", including the use of paramilitary use of paramilitary death squadsdeath squads against against cocaleroscocaleros [3][3]

prof. azaprof. aza

ResultsResults In November 2003, the US Office of National Drug Control In November 2003, the US Office of National Drug Control

Policy (ONDCP) claimed the area planted with coca in Peru Policy (ONDCP) claimed the area planted with coca in Peru and Bolivia combined fell by 35 km² in the year up to June, and Bolivia combined fell by 35 km² in the year up to June, which would suggest that a crop eradication program in which would suggest that a crop eradication program in neighboring Colombia was not driving production over the neighboring Colombia was not driving production over the borders. According to its estimates, the area cultivated with borders. According to its estimates, the area cultivated with coca in Bolivia rose from 244 km² in 2002 to 284.5 km² in coca in Bolivia rose from 244 km² in 2002 to 284.5 km² in June 2003, but this increase was more than offset in Peru, June 2003, but this increase was more than offset in Peru, where the area fell from 366 km² to 311.5 km².where the area fell from 366 km² to 311.5 km².

However, the U.S. figures were very different from However, the U.S. figures were very different from preliminary estimates in September 2003 by the head of preliminary estimates in September 2003 by the head of the UN Office on Drugs and Crime in Colombia, which the UN Office on Drugs and Crime in Colombia, which indicated that output in Peru and Bolivia may have risen by indicated that output in Peru and Bolivia may have risen by as much 21 %, or 150 km², so far this year. The White as much 21 %, or 150 km², so far this year. The White House office said its estimate was based on sampling from House office said its estimate was based on sampling from high resolution satellite imagery. The United Nations used a high resolution satellite imagery. The United Nations used a different technique and had not yet put out any formal different technique and had not yet put out any formal estimate for 2003.estimate for 2003.

prof. azaprof. aza

At the start of 2003, there were 1,740 km² of coca in worldwide At the start of 2003, there were 1,740 km² of coca in worldwide cultivation, and Colombia represented more than 60% of that total. cultivation, and Colombia represented more than 60% of that total. Critics of the Colombian eradication program had predicted that it Critics of the Colombian eradication program had predicted that it would lead to higher coca production in Peru and Bolivia. [4]would lead to higher coca production in Peru and Bolivia. [4]

However, a March 2005 report by the ONDCP indicated that despite However, a March 2005 report by the ONDCP indicated that despite record aerial spraying of over 1,300 km² of coca in Colombia in 2004, record aerial spraying of over 1,300 km² of coca in Colombia in 2004, the total area under coca cultivation remained "statistically the total area under coca cultivation remained "statistically unchanged" at 1,140 km². In response to the report, the Washington unchanged" at 1,140 km². In response to the report, the Washington Office on Latin America (WOLA), an NGO that monitors the impact of Office on Latin America (WOLA), an NGO that monitors the impact of US foreign policy in Latin America, observed that the aerial spraying US foreign policy in Latin America, observed that the aerial spraying strategy appeared to have hit its limits. According to WOLA, the new strategy appeared to have hit its limits. According to WOLA, the new ONDCP data suggested a continued "balloon effect" as aggressive ONDCP data suggested a continued "balloon effect" as aggressive spraying in some areas has not deterred new cultivation elsewhere. spraying in some areas has not deterred new cultivation elsewhere. Official estimates coca cultivation in Peru for 2005 have yet to be Official estimates coca cultivation in Peru for 2005 have yet to be released, but the State Department’s own reporting suggests that released, but the State Department’s own reporting suggests that cultivation in Peru has increased. "The stable cultivation in 2004 cultivation in Peru has increased. "The stable cultivation in 2004 throws into doubt US officials’ predictions of a major impact on US throws into doubt US officials’ predictions of a major impact on US drug prices and purity," commented John Walsh, WOLA Senior drug prices and purity," commented John Walsh, WOLA Senior Associate for Drug Policy. President Álvaro Uribe has however vowed Associate for Drug Policy. President Álvaro Uribe has however vowed to press ahead with U.S.-financed fumigation of coca crops. [5] to press ahead with U.S.-financed fumigation of coca crops. [5] http://www.guardian.co.uk/worldlatest/story/0,1280,-4907643,00.htmlhttp://www.guardian.co.uk/worldlatest/story/0,1280,-4907643,00.html