1. Define and Describe Product Lifecycles and their Management

Product lifecycle management (PLM) is the process of managing the entire lifecycle of a product from its conception, through design and manufacture, to service and disposal. PLM integrates people, data, processes and business systems and provides a product information backbone for companies and their extended enterprise.

Product lifecycle management is one of the four cornerstones of a corporation's information technology structure. All companies need to manage communications and information with their customers (CRM), their suppliers (SCM), their resources within the enterprise (ERP-) and their planning (SDLC-) In addition, manufacturing engineering companies must also develop, describe, manage and communicate information about their products.

BenefitsDocumented benefits of product lifecycle management include

• Reduced time to market • Improved product quality • Reduced prototyping costs • Savings through the re-use of original data • A framework for product optimization • Reduced waste • Savings through the complete integration of engineering workflows

Product Lifecycle Management (PLM) is more to do with managing descriptions and properties of a product through its development and useful life, mainly from a business/engineering point of view; whereas Product life cycle management (PLCM) is to do with the life of a product in the market with respect to business/commercial costs and sales measures.

Areas of PLM

Within PLM there are four primary areas;

1. Product and Portfolio Management (PPM)

2. Product Design (CAx) 3. Manufacturing Process Management (MPM) 4. Product Data Management (PDM)

2.Define and Describe Project Lifecycles and their Management

The Project Life Cycle refers to a logical sequence of activities to accomplish the project’s goals or objectives. Regardless of scope or complexity, any project goes through a series of stages during its life. There is first an Initiation or Birth phase, in which the outputs and critical success factors are defined, followed by a Planning phase, characterized by breaking down the project into smaller parts/tasks, an Execution phase, in which the project plan is executed, and lastly a Closure or Exit phase, that marks the completion of the project. Project activities must be grouped into phases because by doing so, the project manager and the core team can efficiently plan and organize resources for each activity, and also objectively measure achievement of goals and justify their decisions to move ahead, correct, or terminate. It is of great importance to organize project phases into industry-specific project cycles. Why? Not only because each industry sector involves specific requirements, tasks, and procedures when it comes to projects, but also because different industry sectors have different needs for life cycle management methodology. And paying close attention to such details is the difference between doing things well and excelling as project managers.

Diverse project management tools and methodologies prevail in the different project cycle phases. Let’s take a closer look at what’s important in each one of these stages:

1) InitiationIn this first stage, the scope of the project is defined along with the approach to be taken to deliver the desired outputs. The project manager is appointed and in turn, he selects the team members based on their skills and experience. The most common tools or methodologies used in the initiation stage are Project Charter, Business Plan, Project Framework (or Overview), Business Case Justification, and Milestones Reviews.

2) PlanningThe second phase should include a detailed identification and assignment of each task until the end of the project. It should also include a risk analysis and a definition of a criteria for the successful completion of each deliverable. The governance process is defined, stake holders identified and reporting frequency and channels agreed. The most common tools or methodologies used in the planning stage are Business Plan and Milestones Reviews.

3) Execution and controllingThe most important issue in this phase is to ensure project activities are properly executed and controlled. During the execution phase, the planned solution is implemented to solve the problem specified in the project's requirements. In product and system development, a design

resulting in a specific set of product requirements is created. This convergence is measured by prototypes, testing, and reviews. As the execution phase progresses, groups across the organization become more deeply involved in planning for the final testing, production, and support. The most common tools or methodologies used in the execution phase are an update of Risk Analysis and Score Cards, in addition to Business Plan and Milestones Reviews.

4)ClosureIn this last stage, the project manager must ensure that the project is brought to its proper completion. The closure phase is characterized by a written formal project review report containing the following components: a formal acceptance of the final product by the client, Weighted Critical Measurements (matching the initial requirements specified by the client with the final delivered product), rewarding the team, a list of lessons learned, releasing project resources, and a formal project closure notification to higher management. No special tool or methodology is needed during the closure phase.

3.Describe the Stages of Product Lifecycle Management

Product Life Cycle Management is the succession of strategies used by management as a product goes through its product life cycle. The conditions in which a product is sold changes over time and must be managed as it moves through its succession of stages.

Product life cycleThe product life cycle goes through many phases, involves many professional disciplines, and requires many skills, tools and processes. Product life cycle (PLC) has to do with the life of a product in the market with respect to business/commercial costs and sales measures; whereas product lifecycle management (PLM) has more to do with managing descriptions and properties of a product through its development and useful life, mainly from a business/engineering point of view. To say that a product has a life cycle is to assert four things: 1) that products have a limited life, 2) product sales pass through distinct stages, each posing different challenges, opportunities, and problems to the seller, 3) profits rise and fall at different stages of product life cycle, and 4) products require different marketing, financial, manufacturing, purchasing, and human resource strategies in each life cycle stage.

The different stages in a product life cycle are:

1.Market introduction stage

I:* costs are high

II:* slow sales volumes to start

III:* little or no competition - competitive manufacturers watch for acceptance/segment growth losses

IV:* demand has to be created

V:* customers have to be prompted to try the product

VI: makes no money at this stage

2.Growth stage

I:* costs reduced due to economies of scale

II:* sales volume increases significantly

III:* profitability begins to rise

IV:* public awareness increases

V:* competition begins to increase with a few new players in establishing market

VI:* increased competition leads to price decreases

3.Mature stage

I:* Costs are lowered as a result of production volumes increasing and experience curve effects

II:* sales volume peaks and market saturation is reached

III:* increase in competitors entering the market

IV:* prices tend to drop due to the proliferation of competing products

V:* brand differentiation and feature diversification is emphasized to maintain or increase market share

VI: Industrial profits go down

4.Saturation and decline stage

I costs become counter-optimal

II sales volume decline or stabilize

III prices, profitability diminish

IV profit becomes more a challenge of production/distribution efficiency than increased sales

4.Describe the main Characteristics of Product Lifecycle Management 5. Describe the three main Elements of Product Lifecycle ManagementPLM can be thought of as both (a) a repository for all information that affects a product, and (b) a communication process between product stakeholders: principally marketing, engineering, manufacturing and field service. The PLM system is the first place where all product information from marketing and design comes together, and where it leaves in a form suitable for production and support.

A few analysts use "PLM" as an umbrella term that includes engineering CAD (for "information authoring"). But product-related authoring tools can include word processors; spreadsheet and graphics programs; and even requirements analysis and market assessment tools. PLM systems, on the other hand, are necessarily broad to encompass the entire reach of a product lifecycle, and therefore are primarily focused on data management, rather than data authoring.

The essential elements of PLM are:

• Management of design and process documents

• Product structure (bill of material) management

• Central data vault (electronic file repository)

• Part and document classification and metadata ("attribute") management

• Materials content identification for environmental compliance

• Product-focused project task assignment

• Workflow and process management for approving changes

• Multi-user secured access, including "electronic signature"

• Data export for loading downstream ERP systems

6. Describe Collaborative Product Development using PLMCollaborative Product Development (Collaborative Product Design) (CPD) is a business strategy, work process and collection of software applications that facilitates different organizations to work together on the development of a product. It is also known as collaborative Product Definition Management (cPDM).

IntroductionExactly what technology comes under this title does vary depending on who you ask; however, it usually consists of the PLM areas of: Product Data Management (PDM); Product visualization; team collaboration and conferencing tools; and supplier sourcing software. It is generally accepted as not including CAD geometry authoring tools, but does include data translation technology.

Technologies and methods usedClearly general collaborative software such as email and chat (instant messaging) is used within the CPD process. One important technology is application and desktop sharing, allowing one person to view what another person is doing on a remote machine. For CAD and product visualization applications an ‘appshare’ product that supports OpenGL graphics is required. Another common application is Data sharing via Web based portals.

Specific to product dataWith product data an important addition is the handling of high volumes of geometry and metadata. Exactly what techniques and technology is required depends on the level of collaboration being carried out and the commonality (or lack of) the partner sites’ systems.

Specific to PLM and CAx CollaborationCollaboration using PLM and CAx tools requires technology to support the needs of:

1. People. Personnel of different disciplines and skill levels; 2. Organizations: Organizations throughout an enterprise or extended enterprise with

different rules, processes and objectives; 3. Data: Data from different sources in different formats.

Appropriate technologies are required to support collaboration across these boundaries

If the collaborating parties have the same PDM and CAD systems the task usually involves the direct access and transfer of data between sites. The PDM system will have data storage at more than one site for the large graphics files, file may be copied between sites, how they are synchronized being controlled by the server(s). For the management server and metadata there are a number of options. There could be a single server that is accessed from all locations or multiple PDM servers that communicate with one another. In both cases the PDM software controls access for groups defining what data they can see and edit.

With different CAD systems the approach varies slightly depending on whether the ownership, and therefore authorship of components changes or not. If geometry only has to be viewed then a Product visualization neutral file format (e.g.JT) can be used for tasks such as viewing, markup (redlining) or multi-cad digital mock-up (DMU). It maybe that authorship does not change but components from one group needs to be placed in the assembly of another group so that they can construct their parts, so called work in context. This requires transfer of geometry from one format to another by means of a visualization format or full data translation. Between some systems there is the possibility of ‘data interoperability’ were geometry from one format can be associatively copied to another. If the ownership of a particular file is being transfer then full data translation is required using some form of CAD data exchange technology. For the translation process Product Data Quality (PDQ) checkers are often employed to reduce problems in transferring the work. If different PDM/EDM systems are in use then either data structures or metadata can be transferred using STEP or communication between databases can be achieved with tools based around XML data transfer

7..Describe the concept of a Digital Factory

The digital factory concept offers an integrated approach to enhance the product and production engineering processes and simulation is a key technology within this concept. Different types of simulation, such as discrete event or 3D-motion simulation can be applied in virtual models on various planning levels and stages to improve the product and process planning on all levels. The focus and key factor is the integration of the various planning and simulation processes. In an advanced stage simulation technology can be applied in the digital factory concept to enhance the operative production planning and control as an integrated process from the top level to the factory floor control.

8..Describe how a product is prototyped to mass manufactured using Digital Manufacturing

9..Describe how PLM works with other Enterprise systems like ERP, SCM and CRM

10..Describe some market-leader systems in the PLM arena.

11.What are the issues to be considered by CxOs when implementing PLM systems?

12..Describe how PLM systems work even after delivery of products from factory

a. Product Portfolio Management

Do you find you are often faced with the challenge to do more with less? Would a feature decision support system help maximize the value of your product or project portfolio?

The demand to deliver more features with fewer resources in a shorter lead time makes doing the right thing essential. Strong Product or IT Portfolio Management assures a good balance of products or projects and optimal resource allocation to align development decisions with your overall business strategy. The goals with successful Portfolio Management include maximizing the value of the portfolio, ensuring a good balance between different types of products/projects, running the right number of projects, allocating and reallocating resources, and aligning development decisions with the overall strategy.

Product Management and Portfolio Management enables you to:

• Analyze the cost and value of your projects, products, or features • Evaluate projects according to criteria such as strategic value, customer benefit, cost, risk and net present value • Enforce your own process for evaluation and selection of projects, products, features, and markets • Understand how projects, customers, products, markets, risks, and gaps are related to each other • Continually monitor progress and allocate and reallocate resources to projects • Integrate portfolio management with market analysis, gap analysis, competitor analysis, requirements management and release planning.

b. NPD New product development / New product introduction

In business and engineering, new product development (NPD) is the term used to describe the complete process of bringing a new product or service to market. There are two parallel paths involved in the NPD process: one involves the idea generation, product design, and detail engineering; the other involves market research and marketing analysis. Companies typically see new product development as the first stage in generating and commercializing new products within the overall strategic process of product life cycle management used to maintain or grow their market share.

The process

1. Idea Generation is often called the "fuzzy front end" of the NPD process o Ideas for new products can be obtained from basic research using a SWOT

analysis (OPPORTUNITY ANALYSIS), Market and consumer trends, company's R&D department, competitors, focus groups, employees, salespeople, corporate spies, trade shows, or Ethnographic discovery

methods (searching for user patterns and habits) may also be used to get an insight into new product lines or product features.

2. Idea Screening o The object is to eliminate unsound concepts prior to devoting resources to

them. o The screeners must ask at least three questions:

Will the customer in the target market benefit from the product? What is the size and growth forecasts of the market segment/target

market? 3. Concept Development and Testing

o Develop the marketing and engineering details Who is the target market and who is the decision maker in the

purchasing process? What product features must the product incorporate? What benefits will the product provide? How will consumers react to the product?

4. Business Analysis o Estimate likely selling price based upon competition and customer

feedback 5. Beta Testing and Market Testing

o Produce a physical prototype or mock-up o Test the product (and its packaging) in typical usage situations

6. Technical Implementation o New program initiation o Resource estimation o Requirement publication o Engineering operations planning o Department scheduling o Supplier collaboration o Logistics plan o Resource plan publication o Program review and monitoring o Contingencies - what-if planning

7. Commercialization (often considered post-NPD) o Launch the product o Produce and place advertisements and other promotions

c. Planned obsolescence

Planned obsolescence or built-in obsolescence is the process of a product becoming obsolete and/or non-functional after a certain period or amount of use in a way that is planned or designed by the manufacturer Planned obsolescence has potential benefits for a producer because the product fails and the consumer is under pressure to purchase again, whether from the same manufacturer (a replacement part or a newer model), or from a competitor which might also rely on planned obsolescence. The purpose of planned obsolescence is to hide the real cost per use from the consumer, and charge a higher price than they would otherwise be willing to pay (or would be unwilling to spend all at once).

For an industry, planned obsolescence stimulates demand by encouraging purchasers to buy again sooner if they still want a functioning product. Built-in obsolescence is in many different products, from vehicles to light bulbs, from buildings to software. There is, however, the potential backlash of consumers who learn that the manufacturer invested money to make the product obsolete faster; such consumers might turn to a producer (if any exists) that offers a more durable alternative.

Planned obsolescence was first developed in the 1920s and 1930s when mass production had opened every minute aspect of the production process to exacting analysis.

Estimates of planned obsolescence can influence a company's decisions about product engineering. Therefore the company can use the least expensive components that satisfy product lifetime projections. Such decisions are part of a broader discipline known as value engineering.

The use of planned obsolescence is not always easy to pinpoint, and it is complicated by related problems, such as competing technologies or creeping featurism which expands functionality in newer product versions.

d. Reverse Engineering

Reverse engineering (RE) is the process of discovering the technological principles of a device, object or system through analysis of its structure, function and operation. It often involves taking something (e.g., a mechanical device, electronic component, or software program) apart and analyzing its workings in detail to be used in maintenance, or to try to make a new device or program that does the same thing without copying anything from the original.

Reverse engineering has its origins in the analysis of hardware for commercial or military advantage. The purpose is to deduce design decisions from end products with little or no additional knowledge about the procedures involved in the original production. The same techniques are currently being researched for application to legacy software systems, not for industrial or defense ends, but rather to replace incorrect, incomplete, or otherwise unavailable documentation.

e. NDT: Nondestructive testing

Non-destructive testing (NDT) is an analysis technique used in scientific fields to determine the state or function of a system by comparing a known input with a measured output, without the use of invasive approaches like disassembly or failure testing. Because NDT does not require the disabling or sacrifice of the system of interest, it is a highly-valuable technique that saves both money and time in product evaluation, troubleshooting, and research. Common NDT methods include acoustic testing, liquid penetrant testing, and radiographic testing. NDT can be used with any isolated input / output system, and is a commonly-used tool in forensic engineering, mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, civil engineering, systems engineering, and medicine.

MethodsNDT methods usually rely on use of electromagnetic radiation to examine samples. Initially, this includes most kinds of microscopy to examine external surfaces in detail. The examination is often reasonably obvious especially when different light sources are used. Thus glancing light on a fracture surface will reveal details not immediately obvious to sight. The inner parts of a product can be examined using other kinds of radiation which can penetrate the material, such as X-rays or ultrasound. Contrast between a defect and the bulk is always an important consideration, and may be enhanced by using liquids for example to penetrate fatigue cracks, provided that the liquid has absolutely no effect on the sample being examined.

F..CAD/CAM/CAI: Computer-aided engineering / design/mfgr

.Computer-aided engineering (often referred to as CAE) is the use of information technology to support engineers in tasks such as analysis, simulation, design, manufacture, planning, diagnosis, and repair.

OverviewSoftware tools that have been developed to support these activities are considered CAE tools. CAE tools are being used, for example, to analyze the robustness and performance of components and assemblies. The term encompasses simulation, validation, and optimization of products and manufacturing tools. In the future, CAE systems will be major providers of information to help support design teams in decision making.

In regard to information networks, CAE systems are individually considered a single node on a total information network and each node may interact with other nodes on the network.

CAE systems can provide support to businesses. This is achieved by the use of reference architectures and their ability to place information views on the business process. Reference architecture is the basis from which information model, especially product and manufacturing models.

The term CAE has also been used by some in the past to describe the use of computer technology within engineering in a broader sense than just engineering analysis. It was in this context that the term was coined by Dr. Jason Lemon, founder of SDRC in the late 70's. This definition is however better known today by the terms CAx and PLM.

CAE fields and phasesCAE areas covered include:

• Stress analysis on components and assemblies using FEA (Finite Element Analysis);

• Thermal and fluid flow analysis Computational fluid dynamics (CFD); • Kinematics; • Mechanical event simulation (MES). • Analysis tools for process simulation for operations such as casting, molding, and

die press forming. • Optimization of the product or process.

In general, there are three phases in any computer-aided engineering task:

• Pre-processing – defining the model and environmental factors to be applied to it. (typically a finite element model, but facet, voxel and thin sheet methods are also used)

• Analysis solver (usually performed on high powered computers) • Post-processing of results (using visualization tools)

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Computer-aided manufacturing

Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) is the use of computer-based software tools that assist engineers and machinists in manufacturing or prototyping product components. CAM is a programming tool that makes it possible to manufacture physical models using computer-aided design (CAD) programs. CAM creates real life versions of components designed within a software package. CAM was first used in 1971 for car body design and tooling.

OverviewTraditionally, CAM has been considered as a numerical control (NC) programming tool wherein three-dimensional (3D) models of components generated in CAD software are used to generate CNC code to drive numerically controlled machine tools.

Although this remains the most common CAM function, CAM functions have expanded to integrate CAM more fully with CAD/CAM/CAE PLM solutions.

As with other “Computer-Aided” technologies, CAM does not eliminate the need for skilled professionals such as Manufacturing Engineers and NC Programmers. CAM, in fact, both leverages the value of the most skilled manufacturing professionals

through advanced productivity tools, while building the skills of new professionals through visualization, simulation and optimization tools.

Computer-aided design

Computer-aided design (CAD) is the use of computer technology for the design of objects, real or virtual. The design of geometric models for object shapes, in particular, is often called computer-aided geometric design (CAGD).

However CAD often involves more than just shapes. As in the manual drafting of technical and engineering drawings, the output of CAD often must convey also symbolic information such as materials, processes, dimensions, and tolerances, according to application-specific conventions.

CAD may be used to design curves and figures in two-dimensional ("2D") space; or curves, surfaces, or solids in three-dimensional ("3D") objects. [1]

CAD is an important industrial art extensively used in many applications, including automotive, shipbuilding, and aerospace industries, industrial and architectural design, prostethics, and many more. CAD is also widely used to produce computer animation for special effects in movies, advertising, technical manuals. The modern ubiquity and power of computers means that even perfume bottles and shampoo dispensers are designed using techniques unheard of by shipbuilders of 1960s. Because of its enormous economic importance, CAD has been a major driving force for research in computational geometry, computer graphics (both hardware and software), and discrete differential geometry.[

G..PLC: Programmable Logic Controllers

A programmable logic controller (PLC) or programmable controller is a digital computer used for automation of electromechanical processes, such as control of machinery on factory assembly lines, amusement rides, or lighting fixtures. PLCs are used in many industries and machines, such as packaging and semiconductor machines. Unlike general-purpose computers, the PLC is designed for multiple inputs and output arrangements, extended temperature ranges, immunity to electrical noise, and resistance to vibration and impact. Programs to control machine operation are typically stored in battery-backed or non-volatile memory. A PLC is an example of a real time system since output results must be produced in response to input conditions within a bounded time, otherwise unintended operation will result.

H…NC: Numerical(ly) Control(led Machines)

Numerical control (NC) refers to the automation of machine tools that are operated by abstractly programmed commands encoded on a storage medium, as opposed to manually controlled via handwheels or levers or mechanically automated via cams alone. The first NC machines were built in the 1940s and 50s, based on existing tools that were modified with motors that moved the controls to follow points fed into the system on paper tape. These early servomechanisms were rapidly augmented with analog and digital computers, creating the modern computer

numerical controlled (CNC) machine tools that have revolutionized the design process.

In modern CNC systems, end-to-end component design is highly automated using CAD/CAM programs. The programs produce a computer file that is interpreted to extract the commands needed to operate a particular machine, and then loaded into the CNC machines for production. Since any particular component might require the use of a number of different tools - drills, saws, etc. - modern machines often combine multiple tools into a single "cell". In other cases, a number of different machines are used with an external controller and human or robotic operators that move the component from machine to machine. In either case the complex series of steps needed to produce any part is highly automated and produces a part that closely matches the original CAD design.

I….FEM/ FEA: Finite Element Modelling and Analysis

The finite element method (FEM) (sometimes referred to as finite element analysis) is a numerical technique for finding approximate solutions of partial differential equations (PDE) as well as of integral equations. The solution approach is based either on eliminating the differential equation completely (steady state problems), or rendering the PDE into an approximating system of ordinary differential equations, which are then numerically integrated using standard techniques such as Euler's method, Runge-Kutta, etc.

In solving partial differential equations, the primary challenge is to create an equation that approximates the equation to be studied, but is numerically stable, meaning that errors in the input data and intermediate calculations do not accumulate and cause the resulting output to be meaningless. There are many ways of doing this, all with advantages and disadvantages. The Finite Element Method is a good choice for solving partial differential equations over complex domains (like cars and oil pipelines), when the domain changes (as during a solid state reaction with a moving boundary), when the desired precision varies over the entire domain, or when the solution lacks smoothness. For instance, in a frontal crash simulation it is possible to increase prediction accuracy in "important" areas like the front of the car and reduce it in its rear (thus reducing cost of the simulation); Another example would be the simulation of the weather pattern on Earth, where it is more important to have accurate predictions over land than over the wide-open sea.

J….Concurrent Engineering Workflow

Concurrent Engineering is a work methodology based on the parallelization of tasks (ie. concurrently)

IntroductionThe concurrent engineering method is still a relatively new design management system, but has had the opportunity to mature in recent years to become a well-defined systems approach towards optimizing engineering design cycles. Because of this, concurrent engineering has garnered much attention from industry and has been implemented in a multitude of companies, organizations and universities, most notably in the aerospace industry.

The basic premise for concurrent engineering revolves around two concepts. The first is the idea that all elements of a product’s life-cycle, from functionality, producibility, assembly, testability, maintenance issues, environmental impact and finally disposal and recycling, should be taken into careful consideration in the early design phases [2]. The second concept is that the preceding design activities should all be occurring at the same time, or concurrently. The overall goal being that the concurrent nature of these processes significantly increases productivity and product quality, aspects that are obviously important in today's fast-paced market. This philosophy is key to the success of concurrent engineering because it allows for errors and redesigns to be discovered early in the design process when the project is still in a more abstract and possibly digital realm. By locating and fixing these issues early, the design team can avoid what often become costly errors as the project moves to more complicated computational models and eventually into the physical realm.

One of the most important reasons for the huge success of concurrent engineering is that by definition it redefines the basic design process structure that was common place for decades. This was a structure based on a sequential design flow, sometimes called the ‘Waterfall Model’. Concurrent engineering significantly modifies this outdated method and instead opts to use what has been termed an iterative or integrated development method. The difference between these 2 methods is that the ‘Waterfall’ method moves in a completely linear fashion by starting with user requirements and sequentially moving forward to design, implementation and additional steps until you have a finished product. The problem here is that the design system does not look backwards or forwards from the step it is on to fix possible problems. In the case that something does go wrong, the design usually must be scrapped or heavily altered. On the other hand, the iterative design process is more cyclic in that, as mentioned before, all aspects of the life cycle of the product are taken into account, allowing for a more evolutionary approach to design. The difference between the two design processes can be seen graphically in Figure 1.

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K…CFD: Computational fluid dynamics

Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is one of the branches of fluid mechanics that uses numerical methods and algorithms to solve and analyze problems that involve fluid flows. Computers are used to perform the millions of calculations required to simulate the interaction of liquids and gases with surfaces defined by boundary conditions. Even with high-speed supercomputers only approximate solutions can be achieved in many cases. Ongoing research, however, may yield software that improves the accuracy and speed of complex simulation scenarios such as transonic or turbulent flows. Initial validation of such software is often performed using a wind tunnel with the final validation coming in flight test.

L…MRO: Maintenance, Repair and Operations Management

Maintenance, repair and operations is fixing any sort of mechanical or electrical device should it become out of order or broken (known as repair or unscheduled maintenance) as well as performing the routine actions which keep the device in working order (known as scheduled maintenance) or prevent trouble from arising

(preventive maintenance). MRO may be defined as, "All actions which have the objective of retaining or restoring an item in or to a state in which it can perform its required function. The actions include the combination of all technical and corresponding administrative, managerial, and supervision actions."

In telecommunication, and engineering in general, the term maintenance has the following meanings:

1. Any activity – such as tests, measurements, replacements, adjustments and repairs — intended to retain or restore a functional unit in or to a specified state in which the unit can perform its required functions.

2. For material — all action taken to retain material in a serviceable condition or to restore it to serviceability. It includes inspection, testing, servicing, classification as to serviceability, repair, rebuilding, and reclamation.

3. For material — all supply and repair action taken to keep a force in condition to carry out its mission

4. For material — the routine recurring work required to keep a facility (plant, building, structure, ground facility, utility system, or other real property) in such condition that it may be continuously used, at its original or designed capacity and efficiency for its intended purpose.

Manufacturers and Industrial Supply Companies often refer to MRO as opposed to Original Equipment Manufacture (OEM). OEM includes any activity related to the direct manufacture of goods, where MRO refers to any maintenance and repair activity to keep a manufacturing plant running.

Industrial supply companies can generally be sorted into two types:

• the ones who cater to the MRO market generally carry a broad range of items such as fasteners, conveyors, cleaning goods, plumbing, and tools to keep a plant running.

• OEM supply companies generally provide a smaller range of goods in much larger quantities with much lower prices, selling materials that will be regularly consumed in the manufacturing process to create the finished item.

M…PDM: Product Data Management

Product data management (PDM) is the business function within product lifecycle management that is responsible for the creation, management and publication of product data.

Product data management (PDM) The use of software or other tools to track and control data related to a particular product. The data tracked usually involves the technical specifications of the product, specifications for manufacture and development, and the types of materials that will be required to produce the good. The use of product data management allows a company to track the various costs

associated with the creation and launch of a product. Product data management is part of product life cycle management, and is primarily used by engineers.

Within PDM the focus is on managing and tracking the creation, change and archive of all information related to a product. The information being stored and managed (on one or more file servers) will include engineering data such as Computer-aided design (CAD) models, drawings and their associated documents.

Product data management (PDM) serves as a central knowledge repository for process and product history, and promotes integration and data exchange among all business users who interact with products — including project managers, engineers, sales people, buyers, and quality assurance teams.

The central database will also manage metadata such as owner of a file and release status of the components. The package will: control check-in and check-out of the product data to multi-user; carry out engineering change management and release control on all versions/issues of components in a product; build and manipulate the product structure bill of materials (BOM) for assemblies; and assist in configurations management of product variants.

This enables automatic reports on product costs, etc. Furthermore, PDM enables companies producing complex products to spread product data into the entire PLM launch-process. This significantly enhances the effectiveness of the launch process.

Product data management is focused on capturing and maintaining information on products and/or services through its development and useful life. Typical information managed in the PDM module include

• Part number • Part description • Supplier/vendor • Vendor part number and description • Unit of measure • Cost/price • Schematic or CAD drawing • Material data sheets

PDM Advantages:

• Track and manage all changes to product related data • Accelerate return on investment with easy setup; • Spend less time organizing and tracking design data; • Improve productivity through reuse of product design data; • Enhance collaboration.

N..CPD: Collaborative Product Development

Collaborative Product Development (Collaborative Product Design) (CPD) is a business strategy, work process and collection of software applications that facilitates different organizations to work together on the development of a product. It is also known as collaborative Product Definition Management (cPDM).

Exactly what technology comes under this title does vary depending on who you ask; however, it usually consists of the PLM areas of: Product Data Management (PDM); Product visualization; team collaboration and conferencing tools; and supplier sourcing software. It is generally accepted as not including CAD geometry authoring tools, but does include data translation technology.

Q…VR: Virtual Reality

Virtual reality (VR) is a technology which allows a user to interact with a computer-simulated environment, whether that environment is a simulation of the real world or an imaginary world. Most current virtual reality environments are primarily visual experiences, displayed either on a computer screen or through special or stereoscopic displays, but some simulations include additional sensory information, such as sound through speakers or headphones. Some advanced, haptic systems now include tactile information, generally known as force feedback, in medical and gaming applications. Users can interact with a virtual environment or a virtual artifact (VA) either through the use of standard input devices such as a keyboard and mouse, or through multimodal devices such as a wired glove, the Polhemus boom arm, and omnidirectional treadmill. The simulated environment can be similar to the real world, for example, simulations for pilot or combat training, or it can differ significantly from reality, as in VR games. In practice, it is currently very difficult to create a high-fidelity virtual reality experience, due largely to technical limitations on processing power, image resolution and communication bandwidth. However, those limitations are expected to eventually be overcome as processor, imaging and data communication technologies become more powerful and cost-effective over time.

Virtual Reality is often used to describe a wide variety of applications, commonly associated with its immersive, highly visual, 3D environments. The development of CAD software, graphics hardware acceleration, head mounted displays, database gloves and miniaturization have helped popularize the notion. In the book The Metaphysics of Virtual Reality, Michael Heim identifies seven different concepts of Virtual Reality: simulation, interaction, artificiality, immersion, telepresence, full-body immersion, and network communication. The definition still has a certain futuristic romanticism attached. People often identify VR with Head Mounted Displays and Data Suits.

R..Product visualizationVisualization of how a car deforms in an asymmetrical crash using finite element analysis.

Visualization is any technique for creating images, diagrams, or animations to communicate a message. Visualization through visual imagery has been an effective way to communicate both abstract and concrete ideas since the dawn of man. Examples from history include cave paintings, Egyptian hieroglyphs, Greek geometry, and Leonardo da Vinci's revolutionary methods of technical drawing for engineering and scientific purposes.

Visualization today has ever-expanding applications in science, education, engineering (e.g. product visualization), interactive multimedia, medicine , etc. Typical of a visualization application is the field of computer graphics. The invention of computer graphics may be the most important development in visualization since the invention of central perspective in the Renaissance period. The development of animation also helped advance visualization.

S..Immersive Virtual Digital Prototyping

Immersion is the state of consciousness where an immersant's awareness of physical self is diminished or lost by being surrounded in an engrossing total environment; often artificial This state is frequently accompanied by spatial excess, intense focus, a distorted sense of time, and effortless action. The term is widely used to describe immersive virtual reality, installation art and video games, but it is not clear if people are using the same word consistently. The term is also cited as a frequently-used buzzword, in which case its meaning is intentionally vague, but carries the connotation of being particularly engrossing.

The sensation of total immersion in virtual reality (VR) can be so described: "You lose your critical distance to the experience and get emotionally involved. It could be not only a game you are a part of, but any kind of experience. ... You feel as if it is very real but know it is not." Interactive computer art first became a compositional art medium when Myron Krueger made videoplace (1970). Visitors could enter a computer-generated graphic world, interact with other participants of both human and creature form. This full-body, telecommunication computer experience was the first of its kind. Krueger also coined the term artificial reality.

T..Digital Mock-Up

Digital MockUp or DMU is a concept that allows the description of a product, usually in 3D, for its entire life cycle. Digital Mockup is enriched by all the activities that contribute to describing the product. The product design engineers, the manufacturing engineers, and the support engineers work together to create and manage the DMU. One of the objectives is to have an important knowledge of the future or the supported product to replace any physical prototypes with virtual ones, using 3D computer graphics techniques. As an extension it is also frequently referred to as Digital Prototyping or Virtual Prototyping. These two specific definitions refer to the production of a physical prototype, but they are part of the DMU concept. DMU

allows engineers to design and configure complex products and validate their designs without ever needing to build a physical model.

Among the techniques and technologies that make this possible are:

• the use of light-weight 3D models with multiple levels of detail using lightweight data structures such as JT XVL and PDF allow engineers to visualize, analyze, and interact with large amounts of product data in real-time on standard desktop computers.

• direct interface to between Digital Mockups and PDM systems. • active digital mockup technology that unites the ability to visualize the assembly

mockup with the ability to measure, analyze, simulate, design and redesign.

U……HCI: Human Computer Interface

Human–computer interaction (HCI) is the study of interaction between people (users) and computers. It is often regarded as the intersection of computer science, behavioral sciences, design and several other fields of study. Interaction between users and computers occurs at the user interface (or simply interface), which includes both software and hardware, for example, general-purpose computer peripherals and large-scale mechanical systems, such as aircraft and power plants. The following definition is given by the Association for Computing Machinery

"Human-computer interaction is a discipline concerned with the design, evaluation and implementation of interactive computing systems for human use and with the study of major phenomena surrounding them."

Because human-computer interaction studies a human and a machine in conjunction, it draws from supporting knowledge on both the machine and the human side. On the machine side, techniques in computer graphics, operating systems, programming languages, and development environments are relevant. On the human side, communication theory, graphic and industrial design disciplines, linguistics, social sciences, cognitive psychology, and human performance are relevant. Engineering and design methods are also relevant. Due to the multidisciplinary nature of HCI, people with different backgrounds contribute to its success. HCI is also sometimes referred to as man–machine interaction (MMI) or computer–human interaction (CHI).

V…………Industrial Design

Industrial design is an applied art whereby the aesthetics and usability of mass-produced products may be improved for marketability and production. The role of an Industrial Designer is to create and execute design solutions towards problems of

form, usability, user ergonomics, engineering, marketing, brand development and sales.

The term "industrial design" is often attributed to the designer Joseph Claude Sinel in 1919 (although he himself denied it in later interviews) but the discipline predates that by at least a decade. Its origins lay in the industrialization of consumer products. For instance the Deutscher Werkbund, founded in 1907 and a precursor to the Bauhaus, was a state-sponsored effort to integrate traditional crafts and industrial mass-production techniques, to put Germany on a competitive footing with England and the United States.

W….. Top-down and bottom-up design

.Top-down and bottom-up are strategies of information processing and knowledge ordering, mostly involving software, but also other humanistic and scientific theories (see systemics). In practice, they can be seen as a style of thinking and teaching. In many cases top-down is used as a synonym of analysis or decomposition, and bottom-up of synthesis.

A top-down approach is essentially breaking down a system to gain insight into its compositional sub-systems. In a top-down approach an overview of the system is first formulated, specifying but not detailing any first-level subsystems. Each subsystem is then refined in yet greater detail, sometimes in many additional subsystem levels, until the entire specification is reduced to base elements. A top-down model is often specified with the assistance of "black boxes" that make it easier to manipulate. However, black boxes may fail to elucidate elementary mechanisms or be detailed enough to realistically validate the model.

A bottom-up approach is piecing together systems to give rise to grander systems, thus making the original systems sub-systems of the emergent system. In a bottom-up approach the individual base elements of the system are first specified in great detail. These elements are then linked together to form larger subsystems, which then in turn are linked, sometimes in many levels, until a complete top-level system is formed. This strategy often resembles a "seed" model, whereby the beginnings are small but eventually grow in complexity and completeness. However, "organic strategies" may result in a tangle of elements and subsystems, developed in isolation and subject to local optimization as opposed to meeting a global purpose.

X……..Modular design

In systems engineering, modular design — or "modularity in design" — is an approach that subdivides a system into smaller parts (modules) that can be independently created and then used in different systems to drive multiple functionalities. Besides reduction in cost (due to lesser customization, and less learning time), and flexibility in design, modularity offers other benefits such as augmentation (adding new solution by merely plugging in a new module), and exclusion. Examples of modular systems are cars, computers and high rise buildings. Earlier examples include looms, railroad signaling systems, telephone exchanges, pipe organs and electric power distribution systems. Computers use modularity to overcome changing customer demands and to make the manufacturing process more adaptive to change (see modular programming). Modular design is an attempt to

combine the advantages of standardization (high volume normally equals low manufacturing costs) with those of customization.

A simple example of modular design in cars is the fact that, while many cars come as a basic model, paying extra will allow for "snap in" upgrades such as a more powerful engine or seasonal tyres; these do not require any change to other units of the car such as the chassis, steering or exhaust systems.

"Characterized by: (1) Functional partitioning into discrete scalable, reusable modules consisting of isolated, self-contained functional elements; (2) Rigorous use of well-defined modular interfaces, including object-oriented descriptions of module functionality; (3) Ease of change to achieve technology transparency and, to the extent possible, make use of industry standards for key interfaces.

A downside to modularity (and this depends on the extent of modularity) is that modular systems are not optimized for performance. This is usually due to the cost of putting up interfaces between modules.

Y…………DFSS: Design for Six Sigma

Design for Six Sigma (DFSS) is a separate and emerging business-process management methodology related to traditional Six Sigma. While the tools and order used in Six Sigma require a process to be in place and functioning, DFSS has the objective of determining the needs of customers and the business, and driving those needs into the product solution so created. DFSS is relevant to the complex system/product synthesis phase, especially in the context of unprecedented system development. It is process generation in contrast with process improvement.

DMADV, Define – Measure – Analyze – Design – Verify, is sometimes synonymously referred to as DFSS. The traditional DMAIC (Define – Measure – Analyze – Improve – Control) Six Sigma process, as it is usually practiced, which is focused on evolutionary and continuous improvement manufacturing or service process development, usually occurs after initial system or product design and development have been largely completed. DMAIC Six Sigma as practiced is usually consumed with solving existing manufacturing or service process problems and removal of the defects and variation associated with defects. On the other hand, DFSS (or DMADV) strives to generate a new process where none existed, or where an existing process is deemed to be inadequate and in need of replacement. DFSS aims to create a process with the end in mind of optimally building the efficiencies of Six Sigma methodology into the process before implementation; traditional Six Sigma seeks for continuous improvement after a process already exists

Z…………DTP: Desktop Publishing

Desktop publishing (also known as DTP) combines a personal computer and WYSIWYG page layout software to create publication documents on a computer for either large scale publishing or small scale local multifunction peripheral output and distribution.

The term "desktop publishing" is commonly used to describe page layout skills. However, the skills and software are not limited to paper and book publishing. The

same skills and software are often used to create graphics for point of sale displays, promotional items, trade show exhibits, retail package designs and outdoor signs

AA…….FMS: Flexible Manufacturing Systems

A flexible manufacturing system (FMS) is a manufacturing system in which there is some amount of flexibility that allows the system to react in the case of changes, whether predicted or unpredicted. This flexibility is generally considered to fall into two categories, which both contain numerous subcategories.

The first category, machine flexibility, covers the system's ability to be changed to produce new product types, and ability to change the order of operations executed on a part. The second category is called routing flexibility, which consists of the ability to use multiple machines to perform the same operation on a part, as well as the system's ability to absorb large-scale changes, such as in volume, capacity, or capability.

Most FMS systems comprise of three main systems. The work machines which are often automated CNC machines are connected by a material handling system to optimize parts flow and the central control computer which controls material movements and machine flow.

The main advantages of an FMS is its high flexibility in managing manufacturing resources like time and effort in order to manufacture a new product. The best application of an FMS is found in the production of small sets of products like those from a mass production

BB……….VSM: Value Stream Mapping

Value stream mapping is a Lean technique used to analyze the flow of materials and information currently required to bring a product or service to a consumer. At Toyota, where the technique originated, it is known as "Material and Information Flow Mapping"

Implementation

1. Identify the target product, product family, or service. 2. Draw a current state value stream map, which shows the current steps, delays, and

information flows required to deliver the target product or service. This may be a production flow (raw materials to consumer) or a design flow (concept to launch). There are 'standard' symbols for representing supply chain entities.

3. Assess the current state value stream map in terms of creating flow by eliminating waste.

4. Draw a future state value stream map. 5. Implement the future

Where is it used?Value stream mapping is commonly used in Lean environments to identify opportunities for improvement in lead time.

Although value stream mapping is often associated with manufacturing, it is also used in logistics, supply chain, service related industries, healthcare, software development, and product development.

In a build to the standard form Shigeo Shingo suggests that the value adding steps be drawn across the centre of the map and the non-value adding steps be represented in vertical lines at right angles to the value stream. Thus the activities become easily separated into the value stream which is the focus of one type of attention and the 'waste' steps another type. He calls the value stream the process and the non-value streams the operations. The thinking here is that the non-value adding steps are often preparatory or tidying up to the value-adding step and are closely associated with the person or machine/workstation that executes that value adding step. Therefore each vertical line is the 'story' of a person or workstation whilst the horizontal line represents the 'story' of the product being created