Upload
clifford-alexander
View
303
Download
0
Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
Principles of EcologyPrinciples of Ecology
What is ecology?What is ecology? The study of the interactions between The study of the interactions between
organisms and the living and nonliving organisms and the living and nonliving components of their environmentcomponents of their environment
Involves collecting information about organisms and Involves collecting information about organisms and their environmenttheir environment
Issues dealing with EcologyIssues dealing with Ecology Thinning ozone layerThinning ozone layer Climate changes (greenhouse effect)Climate changes (greenhouse effect) Habitat destructionHabitat destruction PollutionPollution
Levels of OrganizationLevels of Organization BiomeBiome
Large areas characterized by climate conditions and plant lifeLarge areas characterized by climate conditions and plant life Temperate GrasslandTemperate Grassland
EcosystemEcosystem Includes all of the organisms and the non living environment Includes all of the organisms and the non living environment
found in a particular placefound in a particular place Ex. Ponds, bottom of shoe, deep oceans, rain forestsEx. Ponds, bottom of shoe, deep oceans, rain forests
CommunityCommunity All the interacting organisms living in an areaAll the interacting organisms living in an area Ex. All the fish, turtles, plants, algae, and bacteria in a pondEx. All the fish, turtles, plants, algae, and bacteria in a pond
PopulationPopulation A group of the same species that lives in one areaA group of the same species that lives in one area All the painted turtles in a pondAll the painted turtles in a pond
OrganismOrganism An individual living thingAn individual living thing A painted turtleA painted turtle
Biotic and Abiotic FactorsBiotic and Abiotic Factors
Habitat is where an organism livesHabitat is where an organism lives Includes abiotic and biotic factorsIncludes abiotic and biotic factors
Biotic factors include all living things that affect the organismBiotic factors include all living things that affect the organism Ex. Animals, plants, algae, fungi, bacteriaEx. Animals, plants, algae, fungi, bacteria
Abiotic factors are nonliving factors which are the physical Abiotic factors are nonliving factors which are the physical and chemical characteristics of the environmentand chemical characteristics of the environment Ex. Temperature, humidity, pH, salinity, oxygen Ex. Temperature, humidity, pH, salinity, oxygen
concentration, amount of sunlight, availability of nitrogen concentration, amount of sunlight, availability of nitrogen in the soil affects how fast plants can growin the soil affects how fast plants can grow
Biotic and abiotic determine the survival and growth of Biotic and abiotic determine the survival and growth of an organism, productivity of the ecosystem in which an organism, productivity of the ecosystem in which organism livesorganism lives
ProducersProducers
What is the main energy source for life on Earth?What is the main energy source for life on Earth? What are producers?What are producers?
Organisms that capture energy and use it to make foodOrganisms that capture energy and use it to make food Also known as autotrophsAlso known as autotrophs ExamplesExamples
Photosynthesis-light energy is used to power chemical Photosynthesis-light energy is used to power chemical reactionsreactions COCO₂ and H₂O are converted into O₂ and sugars₂ and H₂O are converted into O₂ and sugars Plants, algae, cyanobacteriaPlants, algae, cyanobacteria
Chemosynthesis-convert energy from chemical bonds within Chemosynthesis-convert energy from chemical bonds within inorganic molecules into chemical energyinorganic molecules into chemical energy Use hydrogen sulfide and convert it into carbohydratesUse hydrogen sulfide and convert it into carbohydrates BacteriaBacteria Volcanic vents on deep ocean floors, hot springs, tidal marshesVolcanic vents on deep ocean floors, hot springs, tidal marshes
Types of ConsumersTypes of Consumers
Heterotroph- organisms that rely on other Heterotroph- organisms that rely on other organisms for their energy and food supplyorganisms for their energy and food supply ConsumerConsumer Many types of heterotrophsMany types of heterotrophs
Herbivores eat only plantsHerbivores eat only plants Carnivores eat animalsCarnivores eat animals Omnivores eat both plants and animalsOmnivores eat both plants and animals Detritivores eat plant and animal remains, and Detritivores eat plant and animal remains, and
other dead organic matterother dead organic matter Decomposers break down organic matterDecomposers break down organic matter
Decomposers are essential for autotrophs to obtain Decomposers are essential for autotrophs to obtain their necessary nutrientstheir necessary nutrients
Feeding RelationshipsFeeding Relationships
What happens to the energy in an ecosystem?What happens to the energy in an ecosystem? Flows through ecosystem in one directionFlows through ecosystem in one direction Starts with sun to various consumersStarts with sun to various consumers
Food chain- steps showing the transfer of energy Food chain- steps showing the transfer of energy from organism to organismfrom organism to organism Producer-pri consumer- sec consumer- tertiary Producer-pri consumer- sec consumer- tertiary
consumerconsumer https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0ZOvqYypOuohttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0ZOvqYypOuo
Food web- network of complex interactions, Food web- network of complex interactions, among organisms in community from producers among organisms in community from producers to decomposersto decomposers linking all food chains in an ecosystem togetherlinking all food chains in an ecosystem together
Trophic LevelsTrophic Levels
Trophic levels- levels of Trophic levels- levels of nourishment in a food chainnourishment in a food chain
Each step in food chain or food Each step in food chain or food web=trophicweb=trophic
Ecological pyramids- shows the Ecological pyramids- shows the relative amount of energy available relative amount of energy available at each trophic levelat each trophic level Organisms use about 10% of this Organisms use about 10% of this
energy for life processes, rest is lost energy for life processes, rest is lost as heatas heat
Respiration, movement, reproductionRespiration, movement, reproduction Most ecosystems contain only 3 or Most ecosystems contain only 3 or
4 trophic levels4 trophic levels First level-ProducersFirst level-Producers Second level-HerbivoreSecond level-Herbivore Third level-PredatorsThird level-Predators Biomass- total amount of living Biomass- total amount of living
tissue w/in given trophic leveltissue w/in given trophic level
All organisms need energy to carry out essential All organisms need energy to carry out essential functionsfunctions Ex. Growth, movement, maintenance, repair and Ex. Growth, movement, maintenance, repair and
reproductionreproduction The amount of energy an ecosystem receives and The amount of energy an ecosystem receives and
the amount that is transferred from organism to the amount that is transferred from organism to organism has an important effect on the organism has an important effect on the ecosystem’s structureecosystem’s structure
NicheNiche
Habitat is where an organism livesHabitat is where an organism lives Includes abiotic and biotic factorsIncludes abiotic and biotic factors
What is an ecological niche?What is an ecological niche? All the physical, chemical, and biological factors that a species All the physical, chemical, and biological factors that a species
needs to survive, stay healthy, and reproduceneeds to survive, stay healthy, and reproduce It is a species way of life, or the role the species plays in its It is a species way of life, or the role the species plays in its
environmentenvironment Includes the range of conditions that the species can tolerateIncludes the range of conditions that the species can tolerate How it obtains food, competes with others, fits into food webHow it obtains food, competes with others, fits into food web When is it active and reproducesWhen is it active and reproduces
Competitive exclusion- when two species are competing for Competitive exclusion- when two species are competing for same resources, one species will be better suited to niche, same resources, one species will be better suited to niche, other species will pushed into another niche or become other species will pushed into another niche or become extinctextinct
Ecological equivalents- species that occupy similar niches Ecological equivalents- species that occupy similar niches but live in different geographical regionsbut live in different geographical regions
Community EcologyCommunity Ecology
5 major types of close interactions 5 major types of close interactions can powerfully affect can powerfully affect an ecosysteman ecosystem Predation, parasitism, competition, mutualism, and Predation, parasitism, competition, mutualism, and
commensalismcommensalism Competition- occurs when organisms of the same or Competition- occurs when organisms of the same or
different species attempt to use a resource in same place at different species attempt to use a resource in same place at same timesame time
Predation- interaction where one organism captures and Predation- interaction where one organism captures and feeds on another organismfeeds on another organism Predator- higher on food chainPredator- higher on food chain Prey- lower on food chainPrey- lower on food chain
Symbiosis- any relationship where 2 species are living Symbiosis- any relationship where 2 species are living closely togetherclosely together 3 types- mutualism, commensalism, parasitism\3 types- mutualism, commensalism, parasitism\ Discovery EducationDiscovery Education
Types of Symbiotic Types of Symbiotic RelationshipsRelationships
Mutualism- relationship where both Mutualism- relationship where both species benefitsspecies benefits
Commensalism- relationship where one Commensalism- relationship where one specie benefits and others is not helped specie benefits and others is not helped or harmedor harmed
Parasitism- relationship where one Parasitism- relationship where one organism lives on or inside other organism lives on or inside other organism and harms itorganism and harms it
Write down which relationship is being Write down which relationship is being shownshown
Lions and zebrasLions and zebras Honey bee pollinates flowerHoney bee pollinates flower Remora fish attaches itself to other shark Remora fish attaches itself to other shark
and eats the food that is dropped by and eats the food that is dropped by sharkshark
Lions and cheetahsLions and cheetahs Mosquito bites humansMosquito bites humans
Population EcologyPopulation Ecology
Why do populations Why do populations change?change?
Population density- Population density- number of individuals number of individuals per unit areaper unit area Depends on species Depends on species
and its ecosystemand its ecosystem # of individuals# of individuals= population density= population density area (units^2) area (units^2)
Population dispersion- way in Population dispersion- way in which individuals of a which individuals of a population are spread in an population are spread in an area or volumearea or volume
Population GrowthPopulation Growth
What factors affect population size?What factors affect population size? # of births, # of deaths, and # of individuals # of births, # of deaths, and # of individuals
that enter and leave the populationthat enter and leave the population ImmigrationImmigration- the movement of individuals - the movement of individuals
into an areainto an area EmigrationEmigration- the movement of individuals - the movement of individuals
out of an areaout of an area What causes these movements?What causes these movements?
Young animals reach maturity search for mates, Young animals reach maturity search for mates, shortage of foodshortage of food
Exponential GrowthExponential Growth
Individuals in a Individuals in a population reproduce at population reproduce at a constant ratea constant rate
Under ideal conditions Under ideal conditions with unlimited with unlimited resourcesresources, and in the , and in the absence of predation and absence of predation and disease, a population will disease, a population will grow exponentiallygrow exponentially
Logistic GrowthLogistic Growth
A population’s growth slows A population’s growth slows or stops following a period or stops following a period of exponential growthof exponential growth
Why might this happen?Why might this happen? Resources become less Resources become less
availableavailable Carrying capacityCarrying capacity- the largest - the largest
number of individuals that a number of individuals that a given environment can supportgiven environment can support
Many natural populations Many natural populations follow the logistic growth curvefollow the logistic growth curve
Ecological Factors that Ecological Factors that limits to Growthlimits to Growth
Limiting factorsLimiting factors- factor that causes population - factor that causes population growth to decreasegrowth to decrease
A resource can also affect long term survival of a A resource can also affect long term survival of a speciesspecies PandasPandas
Density-dependent factorsDensity-dependent factors- limiting factor that - limiting factor that depends on population sizedepends on population size Factors greatly affect large and dense Factors greatly affect large and dense
populationspopulations Factors include; Factors include; competition, predation, competition, predation,
parasitism, and diseaseparasitism, and disease
Competition may occur between Competition may occur between individuals of same species or of individuals of same species or of different speciesdifferent species The more individuals the faster The more individuals the faster
the resources are used upthe resources are used up Competition between different Competition between different
species leads to evolutionary species leads to evolutionary changechange
Predation- often controls Predation- often controls populations in naturepopulations in nature Moose populations rise, wolves Moose populations rise, wolves
population soon rises. Moose population soon rises. Moose populations soon decrease, later populations soon decrease, later followed by the decline in wolves followed by the decline in wolves
Parasitism and disease- range in Parasitism and disease- range in size, similar to predators, take size, similar to predators, take nourishment from host, nourishment from host, weakening or causing death to weakening or causing death to themthem
Density-Independent FactorsDensity-Independent Factors- affect all - affect all populations in similar ways, regardless of populations in similar ways, regardless of population sizepopulation size Unusual weatherUnusual weather Natural disastersNatural disasters Seasonal cyclesSeasonal cycles Certain human activities- clearing forests, Certain human activities- clearing forests,
damming riversdamming rivers
Environments are always changing, most Environments are always changing, most populations can adapt to certain amount of populations can adapt to certain amount of changechange
Ecological SuccessionEcological Succession
Ecosystems are constantly changing in response to natural and Ecosystems are constantly changing in response to natural and human disturbances, as ecosystem changes, older inhabitants human disturbances, as ecosystem changes, older inhabitants gradually die out and new organism move in, causing further gradually die out and new organism move in, causing further changes in communitychanges in community These predictable changes that occurs in community over time= These predictable changes that occurs in community over time=
ecological successionecological succession Primary succession- succession that occurs on surface where no Primary succession- succession that occurs on surface where no
soil existssoil exists Volcanic eruption builds new island- HawaiiVolcanic eruption builds new island- Hawaii Pioneer species- 1Pioneer species- 1stst organisms that live in previously uninhabited area organisms that live in previously uninhabited area
Secondary succession- succession that occurs after natural Secondary succession- succession that occurs after natural events or human activities, after disturbance community events or human activities, after disturbance community interactions restore the ecosysteminteractions restore the ecosystem WildfiresWildfires
Sec 3- Cycles of MatterSec 3- Cycles of Matter
95% of body made up of 4 elements95% of body made up of 4 elements Matter is recycled within and between Matter is recycled within and between
ecosystemsecosystems Biogeochemical cycles- the passing of Biogeochemical cycles- the passing of
elements, compounds and other forms of elements, compounds and other forms of matter from one organism to anothermatter from one organism to another Each substance travels through a Each substance travels through a
biogeochemical cycle-moving from the abiotic biogeochemical cycle-moving from the abiotic portion of the environment, such as the portion of the environment, such as the atmosphere, into living things and back againatmosphere, into living things and back again
Water Cycle and Nutrient Water Cycle and Nutrient CyclesCycles
4 important processes of the water cycle4 important processes of the water cycle Evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitationEvaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation
The amount of water the atmosphere can hold The amount of water the atmosphere can hold depends on temperature and air pressuredepends on temperature and air pressure
Nutrient cycles- every organism needs nutrientsNutrient cycles- every organism needs nutrients Build tissues, carry out essential life functionBuild tissues, carry out essential life function Carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, oxygenCarbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, oxygen
The basis of the carbon cycle is photosynthesis The basis of the carbon cycle is photosynthesis and cellular respirationand cellular respiration Plants use carbon dioxidePlants use carbon dioxide 3 major sources of CO2-cellular respiration, combustion, 3 major sources of CO2-cellular respiration, combustion,
and decomposition of organic matterand decomposition of organic matter
Nitrogen CycleNitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen is essential for organisms to make Nitrogen is essential for organisms to make proteins and nucleic acidsproteins and nucleic acids
Makes up 78% of atmosphereMakes up 78% of atmosphere Plants can only use nitratePlants can only use nitrate Nitrogen fixation is the process of converting Nitrogen fixation is the process of converting
nitrogen gas to nitrate (ammonia)nitrogen gas to nitrate (ammonia) How does this happen?How does this happen?
BacteriaBacteria Live in soil or in the roots of plantsLive in soil or in the roots of plants
Denitrification- nitrates converted into nitrogen gasDenitrification- nitrates converted into nitrogen gas
Phosphorus CyclePhosphorus Cycle
Forms part of DNA and RNAForms part of DNA and RNA Not found in atmosphere, found mostly in Not found in atmosphere, found mostly in
rock and soil minerals, ocean sedimentsrock and soil minerals, ocean sediments Most exist in form of inorganic phosphateMost exist in form of inorganic phosphate Land-plants-consumersLand-plants-consumers
Sec 3- BiomesSec 3- Biomes
What is a biome?What is a biome? Very large terrestrial ecosystems that contain number of smaller Very large terrestrial ecosystems that contain number of smaller
but related ecosystems within them, have characteristic climate but related ecosystems within them, have characteristic climate and speciesand species
How many different biomes cover the Earth’s land surface?How many different biomes cover the Earth’s land surface? 1010
Each is defined by unique set of abiotic factors-climate, and Each is defined by unique set of abiotic factors-climate, and by characteristic set of plants and animalsby characteristic set of plants and animals Tundra, taiga, temperate forest, northwestern coniferous Tundra, taiga, temperate forest, northwestern coniferous
forest, temperate woodland and shrubland, tropical rain forest, forest, temperate woodland and shrubland, tropical rain forest, tropical dry forest, temperate grassland, tropical savanna, and tropical dry forest, temperate grassland, tropical savanna, and desertdesert
Tundra is cold and treelessTundra is cold and treeless Covers 1/5 of world’s land surfaceCovers 1/5 of world’s land surface Very little precipitation, short growing seasons, animals include Very little precipitation, short growing seasons, animals include
caribou, musk oxen, snowy owls, arctic foxes, snowshoe harescaribou, musk oxen, snowy owls, arctic foxes, snowshoe hares PermafrostPermafrost Northern N America, Asia, EuropeNorthern N America, Asia, Europe
Taiga- covered with dense evergreen Taiga- covered with dense evergreen forestsforests Plants are adapted for long and cold winters, Plants are adapted for long and cold winters,
short summers and poor soilshort summers and poor soil Animals include moose, bears, wolves and lynx-Animals include moose, bears, wolves and lynx-
many hibernate for 6-8 monthsmany hibernate for 6-8 months North America, Asia, northern EuropeNorth America, Asia, northern Europe
Temperate forests-trees loose their leaves, Temperate forests-trees loose their leaves, pronounced seasons, precipitation evenly pronounced seasons, precipitation evenly distributed, cold winters/warm summersdistributed, cold winters/warm summers Trees include cottonwood, mapleTrees include cottonwood, maple Animals include deer, foxes, raccoons Animals include deer, foxes, raccoons Eastern U.S., most of Europe, ChinaEastern U.S., most of Europe, China
Temperate Grasslands- contain grasses, low Temperate Grasslands- contain grasses, low rainfall, fertile soil, support herds of mammals, rainfall, fertile soil, support herds of mammals, turned into farmlandturned into farmland Warm to hot summers/cold wintersWarm to hot summers/cold winters North America, central EuropeNorth America, central Europe
Deserts- receive less than 25 cm of rainfall a year, Deserts- receive less than 25 cm of rainfall a year, cold at night, vegetation is sparse, animals include cold at night, vegetation is sparse, animals include foxes, lizards and snakesfoxes, lizards and snakes Africa, Middle East, AustraliaAfrica, Middle East, Australia
Savannas- tropical and subtropical grasslands with Savannas- tropical and subtropical grasslands with scattered trees and shrubsscattered trees and shrubs Herbivores-zebras, giraffes, and gazellesHerbivores-zebras, giraffes, and gazelles Carnivores-lions, leopards, and cheetahsCarnivores-lions, leopards, and cheetahs Climate-Two seasons- wet and dryClimate-Two seasons- wet and dry Eastern Africa, southern BrazilEastern Africa, southern Brazil
Tropical Rain forest-tall trees, year round Tropical Rain forest-tall trees, year round growing seasons, abundant rainfall, highest growing seasons, abundant rainfall, highest species richnessspecies richness Animal life very diverse-birds, monkeys, snakes, Animal life very diverse-birds, monkeys, snakes,
lizardslizards Insects very abundantInsects very abundant Contains 1/5 of world’s known speciesContains 1/5 of world’s known species 2 football fields may have 300 species2 football fields may have 300 species Southeast Asia, southern India, parts of Central and Southeast Asia, southern India, parts of Central and
South AmericaSouth America Tropical Dry forest- precipitation is seasonal Tropical Dry forest- precipitation is seasonal
rather than year-roundrather than year-round Generally warm year-round, rich soilsGenerally warm year-round, rich soils Tigers, elephantsTigers, elephants Parts of Africa, Mexico, IndiaParts of Africa, Mexico, India
Temperate Woodland and Shrubland- Temperate Woodland and Shrubland- semiarid climate, dominated by shrubs semiarid climate, dominated by shrubs and open woodlandsand open woodlands Coyotes, foxes, blacktailed deerCoyotes, foxes, blacktailed deer Hot, dry summers, cool moist wintersHot, dry summers, cool moist winters Western coasts of N and S AmericaWestern coasts of N and S America
Northwestern Coniferous forest- made up Northwestern Coniferous forest- made up of variety of conifers, lush vegetationof variety of conifers, lush vegetation Mild temperatures, cool summers with Mild temperatures, cool summers with
abundant precipitation during spring, winter, abundant precipitation during spring, winter, fallfall
Pacific coast of northwestern U.S. and Pacific coast of northwestern U.S. and CanadaCanada
TundraTundra TaigaTaiga SavannaSavanna Deciduous ForestDeciduous Forest RainforestRainforest GrasslandsGrasslands DesertDesert
www.blueplanetbiomes.org/world_biomes.htm
Aquatic EcosystemsAquatic Ecosystems
Determined by primarily the depth, flow, temperature, Determined by primarily the depth, flow, temperature, and chemistry of the overlying waterand chemistry of the overlying water Grouped by abiotic factors that affect themGrouped by abiotic factors that affect them
Freshwater ecosystems divided into 2 types- flowing Freshwater ecosystems divided into 2 types- flowing water and standing water ecosystemwater and standing water ecosystem
Plankton- tiny, free-floating organisms live in Plankton- tiny, free-floating organisms live in freshwater and saltwaterfreshwater and saltwater
Phytoplankton- unicellular algae supported by Phytoplankton- unicellular algae supported by nutrients, form base of food webnutrients, form base of food web
Zooplankton- planktonic animals that feed on Zooplankton- planktonic animals that feed on phytoplanktonphytoplankton
Freshwater wetlands- water covering land for at least Freshwater wetlands- water covering land for at least part of yearpart of year Bogs, marshes, swampsBogs, marshes, swamps
EstuariesEstuaries Estuary occurs where freshwater rivers and streams Estuary occurs where freshwater rivers and streams
flow into the seaflow into the sea Ex. Bays, mud flats, salt marshes, Mangrove Ex. Bays, mud flats, salt marshes, Mangrove
swampsswamps Very species richVery species rich Vital to marine animals that are used as foodVital to marine animals that are used as food
Ex. Shrimp, mullet, redfish, anchoviesEx. Shrimp, mullet, redfish, anchovies Marine EcosystemsMarine Ecosystems
Divided into photic and aphotic zonesDivided into photic and aphotic zones Ocean divided into zones based on depth, distance Ocean divided into zones based on depth, distance
from shore: intertidal zone, coastal ocean, open oceanfrom shore: intertidal zone, coastal ocean, open ocean