Principle of Cooking

7/29/2019 Principle of Cooking

1/102

PRINCIPLES OFCOOKING


2/102

Principles of Cooking

Cooking can be defined as the transfer ofenergy from a heat source to a food

Energy alters the foods molecularstructure, changes its texture, flavor, aroma,and appearance

When food is cooked, the process destroysmicroorganisms and makes food easier toingest and digest


3/102

Cooking Methods

Broiling

Poaching

Grilling

Simmering

Roasting

Boiling Baking

Steaming

Sauting

Braising

Pan-frying

Stewing

Deep-frying


4/102

Heat Transfer

Conduction

Convection

Natural

Mechanical

Radiation

Infrared cooking

Microwave cooking


5/102

Heat Patterns


6/102

Effects of Heat

Proteins coagulate

Starches gelatinize

Sugars caramelize

Water evaporates

Fats melt


7/102

Cooking Methods

Dry-heat

Moist-heat

Combination


8/102

Dry-Heat Cooking Methods

Broiling

Grilling

Roasting

Baking

Sauting

Stir-frying

Pan-frying

Deep-frying


9/102

Dry Heat Cooking Methods

DefinitionAny cooking method that does

not use moisture as a cooking medium

Methods:

Roasting

Sauteing

Grilling

Deep-frying


10/102

Deep Frying


11/102

Oils for Deep-frying

In the past, chefs used rendered beef suet

for deep fat frying. Today, commercially

manufactured shortenings specifically fordeep-frying are recommended.

Most of these shortenings are vegetable

based , the most popular types are madefrom soy bean oil and canola oil.


12/102

Smoke point

Smoke Point - the temperature at which an oil orfat visibly begins to smoke and chemically beginsto break down

Canola Oil - smoke point - 425 F

Many commercial fryer shortenings are fully orpartially hydrogenated. Hydrogenation is the

process of adding hydrogen to oil, which makes itsolid (fully hydrogenated) or creamy (partiallyhydrogenated) and resistant to oxidation andchemical breakdown.


13/102

Enemies of Fat

Fat can be damaged by:

Salt (oxidation)

Corrosive metals (oxidation)

Water (hydrolysis)

Heat (polymerization) Burnt Food Particles


14/102

Maintaining Fat

1. Store in tightly sealed containers away fromlight. Cover fryer when not in use.

2. Skim food particles during frying.

3. Dont salt food over the fryer.

4. Food to be fried should be free of excessmoisture.

5. Dont pre-heat fryer too soon before frying. Turnoff when done frying. The longer fat is exposed

to heat the shorter its life.

6. Dont mix fats, saturated fats break down morequickly.

( dont fry bacon in the deep fryer)


15/102

Deep fryers

Fuel can be gas or electric

Fryers are classified by the amount of shorteningthey can hold.

Capacities range between 15 - 82 # Temperature Range : 200 - 400 F

Most deepfrying is done between 325 and 375F

Most fryers are designed to maintain a ratio of 8#

fat to 1# food product being fried.This ratio is keyto a quick recovery time

Recovery time is the length of time it takes for fat toreturn to desired cooking temperature after food is

submerged in it.


16/102

Coating Methods

la Francaise - dredged in flour

lAnglaiseStandard Breading Procedure:

Flour Egg Wash Bread Crumbs lOrly - battered (beer batter, tempura, egg batter)

The purpose of coating or breading food to be deep

fried is twofold:

1. To keep the moisture in the product.

2. To keep the fat out of the product.


17/102

Frying Methods

1. Basket method - Product is placed in the basket

and lowered into the fat in the basket.

2. Double basket method- Same as 1., but asecond basket is placed over the the product to

keep it from floating.

3. Swimmingmethod- product is dropped directly

into the fat and allowed to float freely; usually

done with with battered foods that might stick to

the basket


18/102

Grilling and

Broiling


19/102

Grilling and Broiling

Grill - to cook with heat from below

Broil - to cook with heat from above

Both utilize very hot - radiant heat,

therefore only tender cuts should

be used.


20/102

Grilling and Broiling

Fuels used: Broilers and Salamanders - Gas and

Electric

Grills - Electric (closed)

- Gas with metal; heat deflectors

- Gas with lava rock- Charcoal-compressed and natural

- Wood-hard woods


21/102

Grilling Procedures

1. Preheat the grill.2. Clean the grill with a wire brush.

3. Brush item to be grilled with oil or clarified

butter. Season product.

4. Place the item on a hot area of the grill.Allow grill marks to form.

5. Turn the product 90 and allow cross marksto form.


22/102

Grilling Procedures

6. Flip the product* and finish cooking over

moderate heat. After searing the secondside larger or pieces to be more well done

may be finished in the oven.

* Some fish and other delicate products may

be seared on only one side and thenfinished in the oven.


23/102

Grilling Fish- The most important consideration in factor in

grilling fish is the texture of the product to begrilled.

- Firm fleshed fish with an adequate oil contentare best:

Salmon Swordfish Tuna

Sturgeon Mahi MahiRedfish

Shark Halibut Wahoo

Grouper Catfish


24/102

Grilling Fish

- Fish filets or steaks are most commonlygrilled

- Smaller whole dressed fish may also be

grilledMackerel Sardines Sole

Snapper Sea bass

- Shellfish and crustaceans can also be grilledLobster Shrimp Sea Scallops

Abalone Octopus


25/102

Broiling Fish

Any fish regardless of texture can be broiled

1. Place fish filet on a buttered sizzle plate

2. Season and brush with butter3. Cook under broiler until filet is flaky.

- Generally oilier fish hold up best in the dryheat of the broiling process.


26/102

Roasting


27/102

Roasting

- Dry heat method of cooking -use tender cuts

- Method of heat transfer -

convection


28/102

Roasting

Two Methods:A. Searing method - Red meats are seared first to

seal in the juices and give color by means of:

1. Browning in a small amount of fat on top of the

stove

2. Starting the roast at a high temp. (450-500) inthe oven then finished at lower temperature.

Advantage - meat is well caramelized - goodappearance

Disadvantage - higher shrinkage - less yield


29/102

Roasting

B. Low temperature or constant heatmethod

- Meat is cooked at a moderate temperature

throughout

Advantage - Better yield - less shrinkage

Disadvantage - Longer cooking time;caramelization may not be as pronounced


30/102

RoastingDetermining Doneness:

A. Touch - experience needed

B. Time / Weight / Temperature

C. Insert a metal skewer

1. Temperature of skewer (vs. bodytemperature)

2. Observing the color of juice that flowsout

D. Thermometer


31/102

RoastingCarry-over Cooking - the cooking that

occurs after a food has been removedfrom the heat source. It isaccomplished by the residual heat

remaining in the food.

In roasting, the larger the piece of meat,the more heat energy it holds. Thereforethe larger the piece of meat the morecarry-over cooking will take place.Carry-over cooking can account for as

much as 20F.


32/102

RoastingResting - after removing them from the oven,

roasted meats should be allowed to rest 20min. before carving to:

1. Finish carry-over cooking

2. Allow meat fibers to relax. Juice will flowback to outer tissue from the center of theroast.

Meat carved too soon will lose its color,

moisture and flavor; and will appear to beovercooked.


33/102

RoastingPan Gravies

Principle - to dissolve drippings left in roasting pan(fond) to make a sauce

A. Apply low heat to roasting pan to clarify fat. Meatdrippings that are suspended in the fat will cling to thebottom of the pan.

B. Fat is removed from the pan or degreased

C. Deglaze roasting pan with stock to prepare:

1. Jus clair (natural juice, au jus)2. Jus li - jus clair thickened with cornstarch or arrowroot

3. Gravy - jus clair thickened with roux (degreased fat

from the roast is sometimes used to make the roux)


34/102

SautingSaut (Fr. ) - to jump


35/102

Sauting Proteins

The key to sauting proteins is to sear themeat to create color and preserve

moisture. Procedure:

Hot pan, small amount of fat (just enough tocoat the bottom of the pan.

White meats are dredged in flour, dark meatsare not.

Only use tender cuts of meat

Cooked to order, not held


36/102

Sauting Proteins

Deglazing

Excess fat is removed from the pan

Liquid is added to the pan The liquid washes the deglazed

drippings (fonds) which are then used

to make a sauce.


37/102

The #1 problem in sauting ismoisture.

If moisture is allowed to accumulate,meat will boil and toughen.

Remedies to avoid excess moisture:

Heat pan and fat before adding meat.

Make sure meat is dry.

Dont overload the pan.

Once meat is added to a hot pan, do not stir or shake until

heat is recovered. If sauce is made from the deglazing, the meat may be added

back to the pan to mix it, but do not return it to a boil or themeat will toughen and lose moisture.


38/102

Stir-frying

Always high heat

Use a wok or sauteuse

Product is always cut in small pieces

Used for either cooking or finishing


39/102

Stir-frying

Some products in the stir-fry may be

pre-cooked partially or fully as the

situation requires.

Most of the concerns that apply to

saut also apply to stir fry.


40/102

Pan-Frying

Larger or portion size pieces are

used in pan frying (chops,

steaks, filets etc.)

Use enough fat to cover the

product by half.

Food does not jump.


41/102

Pan-Frying

Items are cooked for a longer timethan sauted items, in some cases they

arefinished in the oven. Usually there are no drippings in the

pan to make a sauce.


42/102

Fat Considerations when

Sauting

The fat used in frying and sauting playsa large part in determining the quality ofthe finished product.

Smoke point:The temperature at which a fat breaksdown and begins to smoke. Smoke pointis mainly determined by the amount of

free fatty acids in the fat. As a rule, Animal fats are high in F.F.A.

and vegetable fats are low in F.F.A.s.


43/102

Smoking Point of FatsSource: Escoffier-Le Guide

Culinaire

Whole butter 250

F Clarified butter

270-280 F

Animal fats 290 -320F

Lard 400F

Goose Fat - 430F

Coconut oil - 480F

Vegetable oil -520F

Olive oil - 550F

ea s


44/102

ea s

Term Appearance

TemperatureBlue-Center is red and cool Less than140

(extra rare)Rare-Center is red and warm

140FMedium rare-Center is red-pink & hot 150F

Medium-Center is pink & hot 155-160 FMedium well-Center is slightly pink 165 F

Well done- Center is brown 170


45/102

Determining Doneness for RedMeats

When cooking red meats using dry heatcooking methods, they should never bepoked or broken to check doneness. This

will cause a considerable amount of colorand moisture to be lost.

With practice, touch is used to determine

doneness of protein. The firmer the proteinis to the touch, the more well done it is.


46/102

Moist Heat Methods of Cooking

Poaching Simmering

Boiling/Blanching Steaming


47/102

Moist Heat Methods of

Cooking Used for a wide range of products

(vegetables, meats, eggs, fish)

Used to both tenderize tough pieces of meatand gently cook delicate fish and

vegetables.

P hi 160 185F (71


48/102

Poaching 160 - 185F (71 -82C)

to gently cook in a flavored liquid

relatively low temperature applied totender or delicate products:

Eggs

Fish

Young Poultry


49/102

Poaching Shallow poaching - small pieces of meat fish

or poultry cooked in very little liquid. Thepoaching liquid is usually used to make asauce for the finished product.

Deep poaching - for large pieces, liquid tocover. A court bouillon is commonly used fordeep poaching.

Court Bouillon Water & Acid (to coagulateproteins) & Aromats

- -


50/102

96C)

Often mistakenly called boiling

As water is a much better conductor ofheat than air, moist heat cooking isgenerally applied to tougher cuts of meat.

Moist heat is very effective in breakingdown connective tissue

Used for meats that require wet methods

Broth is sometimes used for soups or saucesExamples: Pot au Feu or Chicken &

Dumplings


51/102


52/102

Steaming above 212F (100 C)

The act of using steam, not water vapor, asa heat transfer agent.

Three types:

High pressureLow pressure

No Pressure

Adding pressure accelerates the cookingprocess


53/102

Steaming

Due to the fact that high heat toughensproteins, this method is rarely usedwithmeats.

Steam is best for:

Shellfish

Starches (rice and potatoes)

Vegetables (except fresh green)Certain reheating operations


54/102

Steaming High pressureusually 1015#

Good for cooking vegetables fast esp.frozen

Good for fast cooking of meats that requirewet methods

Low pressureusually about 5#

For every 1# of pressure you gain about 3F

No Pressure steaming does not work well forgreen vegetables.


55/102

Combination Cooking Methods

Stewing

Braising


56/102

Marinades

Two types of marinades:

A. Oil based - used for tender cuts and dry cooking

methods.

B. Acid based - used for tough cuts. Acid helps to break

down collagen.

Vacuum tumbling marinading - meat products and

marinade ingredients are tumbled in a vacuum drum.

Absence of air means greater penetration of themarinade and less time marinating.


57/102

Ideal Items to be Braised

Typically tough pieces of meat that require

long, slow cooking.

Collagen-rich meats contribute gelatin.

Examples: shoulder, leg, breast, and shank

cuts.


58/102

Larding

To insert strips of fat into a piece of meat with a

special needle. These strips of fat, called

lardons, are usually salt pork, slab bacon,

pancetta or fat back. The lardons may be

marinated before larding and are inserted with the

grain of the meat.


59/102

Combination Cooking

Braising and some stewing of meats are

considered combination cooking methods

because they employ both dry and moist heat:

1. Dry heat to sear the meat (sealing in the juices)

2. The addition of liquid to continue the cooking

process (simmering) and break down connective

tissue.


60/102

Braising

Braising can be done with:

large pieces (Pot Roast

portion size pieces (Swiss Steak)

small pieces (stews)


61/102

Procedure for Braising

Meat must be seared by browning it athigh heat in a small amount of fat.

After searing mirepoix is added and

placed on the bottom of the pan meat is placed on top.

Red meats - mirepoix is browned

White meat - mirepoix is sweated


62/102


Tomato product is added (red meats only)Usually meat is seared in the pan it is to bebraised in, if not the pan should bedeglazed.

Liquid is added - stock, wine, marinade,beer, light sauce , or water. The amount ofliquid added is in direct relation to the

amount of sauce needed for the finishedproduct. Recommended ratio is to coverthe meat by 1/3 to 2/3.


63/102


Herbs and spices are added. Pan is brought to a simmer. A lid is

placed on it and it is placed in the oven.

Meat should be turned or bastedoccasionally during the braising processto produce a nice glaze.

Test for doneness: fork tender insert ameat fork, if it pulls off easily the meat isdone.


64/102


After the meat is done, a sauce can bemade from the degreased cooking liquid(cuisson).

- Served as is- Reduced to thicken and/or intensify

flavor

-Thickened with corn starch orwith rouxto make a sauce (jus li)


65/102

White Braising

Different from standard braising in that the

items are either lightly colored (seared) or

not colored at all. Done with some poultry items and

occasionally with large pieces of fish.


66/102

Stewing

Stew - a liquid food containing meat,poultry, fish or vegetables; or anycombination.

Stewing is a moist cooking method

carried out with smaller cuts of meat by:

- Braising

- Simmering


67/102

Stewing

Stews can be divided into twoclassifications

Brown stews (red meats)

White stews (white meats)

Blanquettes

Fricassees


68/102

Stews Ragout- a general term referring to

white or brown stews. Fricassee - a white ragout usually made

from white meat or small game, seared

without browning and garnished withsmall onions and mushrooms.

Chili (con carne) - a ragout of diced orground meat, cooked with chilies,onions and spices. Served with beansin the stew or on the side.

St


69/102

Stews Navarin - a brown ragout generally

made with lamb, turnips, peas, onionsand other root vegetables

Blanquette - a white stew in which the

meat is first blanched, then added to astock or sauce to complete cooking.Blanquettes are finished with an egg

and cream liaison. Goulash/paprikash - a Hungarian stew

made with red meat, onions and

paprika.


70/102

Principles of Vegetable

CookeryWhy are vegetables cooked?

1. To break down cellular structure or make

them more digestible2. To make them more palatable


71/102

Cellulose

Microscopic fibrils of cellulose form the cell

walls of plants and make plant tissue rigid.

They are invulnerable to human digestiveenzymes. The amount of cellulose in

vegetables helps determine the cooking time

and method.

For example: spinach cooks much faster than

carrots.

Chemistry of Cooking


72/102


Vegetables

Colors change by cooking method and chemicalreactions. Since most vegetables are cooked inwater, the condition of the water or pH (Acidity /Alkalinity) is responsible for these changes.

Alkali medium for cooking vegetables shouldbe salted water. Stronger alkali such as bakingsoda break down the vegetables texture tooquickly. Never use ammonia.

Acid media include water with the addition oflemon juice, vinegar, wine, or milk



73/102


Vegetables

Covered or Uncovered ?

Vegetables are naturally acidic and their

acids are released during cooking.

These volatile acids evaporate in the steam

of the boiling water. Therefore, if an acid

medium is required cook covered. If an

alkali medium is required, cook uncovered.


74/102

Cooking Vegetables by Color

Green vegetables get their pigment from

chlorophyll. Acid and heat will destroychlorophyll rapidly, making it yellow or

brown. They should be cooked in large

amounts of salted water uncovered, asquickly as possible .

Green Vegetables


75/102


Whitevegetables get their pigment from

flavones that are water soluble. Whencooked in highly alkaline water they turn

yellow. To prevent this add acid and cook

covered.

White Vegetables


76/102


Redvegetablesowe their pigment to

anthocyanins. Red color is enhanced withthe addition of an acid. If cooked in a

highly alkali medium they can turn blue!

Red Vegetables


77/102


Orange / Yellow vegetables get their color

from carotenes. The condition of the waterhas little effect on these pigments which

are not water soluble, but can be released by

sweating or sauteeing.

Orange / Yellow Vegetables

Procedure for Blanching


78/102


Vegetables

1. Wash, peel, trim and cut the vegetables into

uniform shapes and sizes.

2. Bring an adequate amount of liquid to a boil.The liquid should cover the vegetables and they

should be able to move freely.

3. Add vegetables to the boiling liquid. Vegetableswith different cooking times or colors should be

cooked separately.



79/102


Vegetables

4. Cook vegetables to desired doneness.

5. Drain vegetables from boiling water.

6. Refresh or shock vegetables in ice waterto stop the cooking process. Drain and

reserve until needed.


80/102

Finishing Vegetables

Blanched vegetables may be finished (note:not all

vegetables need be blanched):

Sauted in butter In a sauce

Au gratin

Mashed or pureed

Served cold

Deep fried

O h h d f C ki


81/102

Other Methods of Cooking

Vegetables

Braising

Glazing Steaming

Stewing

Sauting / Stir-frying

Pan Frying / DeepFrying

Baking / Roasting

Grilling / Broiling

D i i D


82/102

Determining Doneness

Avoid over cooking vegetables. The term al

dente or firm to the bite is often used to

describe proper doneness. Generallyvegetables are done when they are tender

when pierced with a fork or the tip of a

paring knife. Properly cooked vegetables

are not crunchy.

P i N i i


83/102

Preserving Nutrients in

Vegetables1. Use vegetables that are as fresh as possible.

2. Store in a cool place with minimum exposure to

light.3. Wash vegetables whole, before cutting, as near to

cooking time as possible.

P i N i i


84/102

Preserving Nutrients in

Vegetables4. Peel and cut as near to cooking time as

possible. Some nutrients are destroyed byoxygen and light.

5. Cook as quickly as possible.

6. Drain vegetables when cooked. Avoidstoring them in liquid. Water soluble B

and C vitamins are especially vulnerable.

7. Serve as soon as possible


85/102

Starches andGrains

P


86/102

Potatoes

OriginsPotatoes are native to the Andes

Mountains of Peru. They were first

brought to Spain in the early 1500s.Its use spread throughout Europe,but wasnt a common food source in

Europe until the 1700s.

P t t


87/102

Potatoes

Origins

Antoine Parmentier (1737-1817)

wrote numerous works proving thepotato was a safe and nutritious foodsource to the French who scorned itbefore his time. Therefore, the

classic name for an item garnishedwith potatoes is Parmentier.

P t t


88/102

Potatoes

Composition

80% Water

18% Starch & Sugar (Carbohydrates)

2 % Protein

P t t


89/102

Potatoes

Categories Mealy (starchy ) - high starch content and

thick skin. Best for baking and often

referred to as bakers. Low sugarcontent makes them good for deep frying,giving a crisp texture and even color.

Waxy - low starch content, usually withmore sugar and a thin skin. Best forboiling. They do not become fluffy whenbaked, and tend to become streaky

(caramelized sugar ) when deep fried.

P t t


90/102

PotatoesCategories

Mealy

Russet

IdahoWhite rose

Burbank

Waxy

Cobbler

RedMaine

Yellow Fin

P t t


91/102

PotatoesCooking Methods

Boiling

in the skin - jacket potatoes

peeled

in stock or bouillon - pommes fondant

Pureed

boiled first, drain completely, puree while still

hot Mashed or whipped - addition of milk, cream

or butter

Duchess(doo SHEHS) - add yolks and pipe

P t t


92/102


Deep fried

From a pureed appariel(ah pahr AY)

Croquette(kroh KEHT)-shaped, breaded , deep-fried

Dauphine(doe FEEN)-apparielwith pate au choux

Lorette(lohr EHT)- dauphine with grated cheese)

From raw

Pommes frits(pohm FREET) - French fries Pont neuf(pohnt NOOF) - Steak fries

Pomme paille(pohm PIE) - Shoe string

Cottage fries -rondelle cut

P t t


93/102


Pan - fried

Hash browns cooked or raw, chopped or shredded

Home fried -par-cooked rondelles

Lyonnaise -home fried with onions

Potato pancakes (shredded raw)

Rissol } --- tourned, various sizes

Parisienne }

Chteau }

Cocotte }

Ri


94/102

RiceCategories

Categorized by seed size

long grain

medium grain short grain

Ri Categorized by processing


95/102

RiceCategories

Categorized by seedsize

long grain

6 mm. long

medium grain

5-6 mm. long

short grain 2.5 mm. long

Categorized by processing

Brown rice

Bran intact White rice

endosperm pearled or

polished

Converted rice

par-boiled to remove surfacestarch (most popular in

foodservice)

Instant

fully cooked and freeze dried

Ri


96/102

RiceVarieties

Arborio - medium grain starchy rice forrisotto

Basmati - rich flavorful long grain rice used in

East Indian Cuisine Pecan rice - nutty flavored rice from South

Louisiana

Wild rice - Actually an aquatic grassoriginally harvest by Native Americans inMinnesota and Wisconsin


97/102

Grains

Corn Cornmeal, hominy, grits, masa harina

Wheat Wheat berries, bulgar, semolina, cous cous

Barley

Buckwheat / Kasha / Groats

Oats

Exotic Grains Quinoa

Millet

Amaranth

Kamut


98/102

Cooking Rice & GrainsI. SIMMERING METHOD

(3 parts liquid to 1 part rice by volume)

1. Bring liquid to a boil.

2. Stir in grains and seasoning.3. Return to a boil. reduce to a simmer and

cover.

4. Simmer until grains are tender and liquid is

absorbed.5. Remove from heat

6. Drain if necessary. Keep covered and allowexcess liquid to absorb. Fluff.


99/102

Cooking Rice & GrainsII. PILAF METHOD

(2 parts liquid to 1 part rice by volume)

1. Heat fat in sauce pan, sweat aromats (onion,

garlic, mirepoix etc.)2. Add rice and stir to coat grains with fat.

3. Add liquid (usually seasoned stock).

4. Bring to a simmer.

5. Cover and place in oven (350 for 2030min.).

6. When liquid is absorbed and grains aretender, uncover and fluff.


100/102

Cooking Rice & Grains

III. RISOTTO METHOD

( 3 parts liquid [or more] to 1 part rice by volume)

1. Bring cooking liquid to a simmer.

2. Heat fat in sauce pan, sweat aromats (onion,garlic, other ingredients).

3. Add rice and stir to coat grains with fat.

4. Add a small amount of hot liquid , stirring

continually until absorbed.5. Repeat step 4 until all liquid is absorbed and

grains are tender.

6. Finish with whole butter and parmesan cheese.


101/102

Cooking Pasta

PROPER RATIO 1 gal. rapidly boiling water to 1 # pasta

DRY PASTA

Requires a longer cooking time as cooking isalso rehydration.

1# dried pasta = 2-3# cooked

2 oz. dry pasta is an average entree portion

FRESH PASTA Delicate, requires a very short cooking time

no re-hydration required


102/102

Cooking Pasta

1. Bring salted water to a boil (1 gallon per 1#pasta)

2. Add pasta and stir to separate pieces

3. Cook pasta uncovered at a rolling boil untilal dente

4. Drain pasta immediately and serve at once

or shock in ice water to stop the cooking.

5. To hold cooked pasta, toss with oil.

Documents

Principle of Cooking