McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2013 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Pricing for InternationalMarketsChapter 18

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Learning ObjectivesLO1 Components of pricing as competitive tools in

international marketingLO2 How to control pricing in parallel import or gray

marketsLO3 Price escalation and how to minimize its effectLO4 Countertrading and its place in international marketing practicesLO5 The mechanics of price quotationsLO6 The mechanics of getting paid

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International Pricing Setting and changing prices are key

strategic marketing decisions Prices both set values and communicate in international

markets An offering’s price must reflect the quality and value the

consumer perceives in the product In setting a price in international markets, different tariffs,

costs, attitudes, competition, currency fluctuations, and methods of price quotation need to be taken into account.

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Pricing Policy The country in which business is being conducted,

the type of product, variations in competitive conditions, and other strategic factors affect pricing activity

Active marketing in several countries compounds the variables relating to price policy

An explicitly thought out, defined pricing policy helps avoid setting a price in haste

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Pricing Objectives• In general, price decisions are viewed in two

ways:– Pricing as an active instrument of accomplishing

marketing objectives, or – Pricing as a static element in a business decision

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Pricing Objectives• The more control a company has over the final selling

price of a product, the better it is able to achieve its marketing goals

• It is not always possible to control end prices• Broader product lines and the larger the number of

countries involved, the more complex the process of controlling prices charged to the end user

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Parallel Importation or Gray Markets• The possibility of a parallel market occurs

whenever price differences are greater than the cost of transportation between two markets

• On account of competition, firms may have to charge different prices from country to country

• Parallel imports develop when importers buy products from distributors in one country and sell them in another to distributors who are not part of the manufacturer’s regular distribution system

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Parallel Importation or Gray Markets• The possibility of a parallel market occurs

whenever price differences are greater than the cost of transportation between two markets

• For example, the ulcer drug Losec sells for only $18 in Spain but goes for $39 in Germany; and the heart drug Plavix costs $55 in France and sells for $79 in London

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Parallel Importation or Gray Markets• Thus, it is possible for an intermediary to buy products

in countries where it is less expensive and divert it to countries where the price is higher and make a profit

• Exclusive distribution, a practice often used by companies to maintain high retail margins encourage retailers to stock large assortments, or to maintain the exclusive-quality image of a product, can create a favorable condition for parallel importing

Exhibit 18.1: How Gray Market Goods End up in U.S. Stores

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Approaches toInternational Pricing• Full-Cost Pricing: no unit of a similar product

is different from any other unit in terms of cost, which must bear its full share of the total fixed and variable cost.

• Variable-Cost Pricing: firms regard foreign sales as bonus sales and assume that any return over their variable cost makes a contribution to net profit

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Approaches toInternational Pricing• Skimming Pricing: This is used to reach a

segment of the market that is relatively price insensitive and thus willing to pay a premium price for a product

• Penetration Pricing: This is used to stimulate market growth and capture market share by deliberately offering products at low prices

Price Escalation

Price escalation refers to the added costs incurred as a result of exporting products from one country to another

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Factors in Price Escalation• Costs of Exporting: the term relates to

situations in which ultimate prices are raised by shipping costs, insurance, packing, tariffs, longer channels of distribution, larger middlemen margins, special taxes, administrative costs, and exchange rate fluctuations

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Factors in Price Escalation• Taxes, Tariffs, and Administrative Costs: These

costs results in higher prices, which are generally passed on to the buyer of the product

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Factors in Price Escalation• Inflation: Inflation causes consumer prices to

escalate and the consumer is faced with rising prices that eventually exclude many consumers from the market

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Factors in Price Escalation• Middleman and Transportation Costs: Longer

channel length, performance of marketing functions and higher margins may make it necessary to increase prices

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Factors in Price Escalation• Exchange Rate Fluctuations and Varying

Currency Values: Currency values swing vis-à-vis other currencies on a daily basis, which may make it necessary to increase prices

Exhibit 18.2: Sample Causes and Effects of Price Escalation

Notes: All figures in U.S. dollars; CIF = cost, insurance, and freight; n.a. = not applicable. The exhibit assumes that all domestic transportation costs are absorbed by the middleman. Transportation, tariffs, and middleman margins vary from country to country, but for the purposes of comparison, only a few of the possible variations are shown.

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Exhibit 18.3: How Are Foreign Trade Zones Used?

Source: Lewis E. Leibowitz, “An Overview of Foreign Trade Zones,” Europe, Winter-Spring 1987, p. 12; “Cheap Imports,” International Business, March 1993, pp. 98-100; “Free-Trade Zones: Global Overview and Future Prospects,” http://www.stat-usa.gov, 2012.

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Approaches to LesseningPrice Escalation• Lowering Cost of Goods: Firms can lower

costs by eliminating costly features in products or by manufacturing products in countries where labor costs are cheaper

• Lowering Tariffs: Firms can lower prices by categorizing products in classifications where the tariffs are lower

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Approaches to LesseningPrice Escalation• Lowering Distribution Costs: Firms can design

channels that are shorter, have fewer middlemen, and by reducing or eliminating middleman markup

• Using Foreign Trade Zones: Firms can manufacture products in free trade zones where the incentive offered is the elimination of local taxes, which keep prices down

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Definitions of Dumping• World Trade Organization (WTO) rules allow for

the imposition of a duty when goods are dumped

• A countervailing duty or minimum access volume (MAV), which restricts the amount a country will import, may be imposed on foreign goods benefiting from subsidies whether in production, export, or transportation

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Definitions of Dumping• One approach classifies international

shipments as dumped if the products are sold below their cost of production

• The other approach characterizes dumping as selling goods in a foreign market below the price of the same goods in the home market

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Leasing as a Pricing Tool Leasing opens the door to a large segment of nominally

financed foreign firms that can be sold on a lease option but might be unable to buy for cash

Leasing can ease the problems of selling new, experimental equipment, because less risk is involved for the users

Leasing helps guarantee better maintenance and service on overseas equipment

Equipment leased and in use helps sell other companies in that country

Lease revenue tends to be more stable over a period of time than direct sales would be

Countertrade as a Pricing Tool

Countertrade is a pricing tool that every international marketer must be ready to employ

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Four Distinct Transactions in Countertrading

1. Barter: is the direct exchange of goods between two parties in a transaction

2. Compensation deals: is the payment in goods and in cash

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Four Distinct Transactions in Countertrading

3. Counter-purchase or off-set trade: the seller agrees to sell a product at a set price to a buyer and receives payment in cash and may also buy goods from the buyer for the total monetary amount involved in the first contract or for a set percentage of that amount, which will be marketed by the seller in its home market

4. Buy-back: This type of agreement is made the seller agrees to accept as partial payment a certain portion of the output that are produced from the plant or machinery that are sold to the buyer

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Why Purchasers Impose Countertrade Obligations• To Preserve Hard Currency

• To Improve Balance of Trade

• To Gain Access to New Markets

• To Upgrade Manufacturing Capabilities

• To Maintain Prices of Export Goods

• To Force Reinvestment of Proceeds

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Proactive Countertrade Strategy

• Is there a ready market for the goods bartered?

• Is the quality of the goods offered consistent and acceptable?

• Is an expert needed to handle the negotiations?

• Is the contract price sufficient to cover the cost of barter and net the desired revenue?

Answering the following questions is suggested before entering into a countertrade agreement:

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Price Quotations In quoting the price of goods for international sale, a

contract may include specific elements affecting the price, such as credit, sales terms, and transportation

Price quotations must also specify the currency to be used, credit terms, and the type of documentation required

A quantity definition might be necessary because different countries use different units of measurement

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Administered Pricing Administered pricing is an attempt to establish prices

for an entire market Such prices may be arranged through the cooperation

of competitors; through national, state, or local governments; or by international agreement.

The legality of administered pricing arrangements of various kinds differs from country to country and from time to time.

A country may condone price fixing for foreign markets but condemn it for the domestic market, for instance.

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Cartels A cartel exists when various companies producing

similar products or services work together to control markets for the types of goods and services they produce

Diamond Cartel

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Government-Influenced Pricing Companies doing business in foreign countries

encounter a number of different types of government price setting

To control prices, governments may establish margins, set prices and floors or ceilings, restrict price changes, compete in the market, grant subsidies, and act as a purchasing monopsony or selling monopoly

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Getting Paid: Foreign Commercial Payments Export letters of credit opened in favor of the seller by

the buyer handle most American exports Another important form of international commercial

payment is bills of exchange drawn by sellers on foreign buyers

Cash places unpopular burdens on the customer and typically is used when credit is doubtful, when exchange restrictions within the country of destination are such that the return of funds from abroad may be delayed for an unreasonable period, cash in advance is used

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Getting Paid: Foreign Commercial Payments Sales on open accounts are not generally made in

foreign trade except to customers of long standing with excellent credit reputations or to a subsidiary or branch of the exporter

Inconvertible currencies and cash-short customers can kill an international sale if the seller cannot offer long-term financing. Unless the company has large cash reserves to finance its customers, a deal may be lost. Forfaiting is a financing technique for such a situation

Exhibit 18.4: A Letter of Credit Transaction

Source: Based on “A Basic Guide to Exporting.” U.S. Department of Commerce, International Trade Administration, Washington, D.C.

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