Prepared by

Maxford JonesMaxford JonesMaxford JonesMaxford Jones

Living Things

1. Classify materials 2. Distinguish between living dead and non living things 3. Define biology 4. List the different types of environment 5. Identify organisms that live in each type of environment 6. Identify changes brought about by living things 7. List the characteristics of Living things 8. Write a simple definition for each characteristics 9. Define each part of the structure of living things 10. Give example of each structure 11. Difference between plants and animals 12. List the similarities between plant and animal cells 13. List the difference between plant and animal cell 14. Draw and label both plant and animals cell 15. Describe each labeled part 16. Draw dichotomous key to show the major classes of vertebrates and

invertebrates 17. Draw a dichotomous key to show the major subdivision of flowering and

non-flowering plants 18. List the features of each group or sub-group of living thing

Living Things Everything on the earth can be classified into three groups:

1. Living: has life 2. Dead: once had life 3. Non-living: never had life

Living Things Dead Things Non-Living Things Rabbit Desk Stone Cat Leather Steel Rose Cotton Cup

Biology is the study of life. It involves the study of living things called organisms. Living things are always bringing about changes in themselves and between themselves and their environment (surrounding) Types of Environment

1. Aquatic (water) – lobster, crayfish, crab, whale, eel 2. Terrestrial (Land) – frog, tiger, snake

When conditions change, the organism must adapt in order to survive. Characteristics of Living things There are 7 characteristics that tell an organism is alive. They are:

1. Growth: is a natural in crease in weight and size. 2. Reproduction: is making new offsprings (individuals) 3. Irritability: they are sensitive to changes 4. Movement: the ability to move from place 5. Nutrition: food is need to provide energy to carry out life’s processes 6. Excretion: as the organism carry out these processes waste is produce. This

poisonous waste must be removed from the body. This removal of waste is called excretion

7. Respiration: air is needed for breathing.

Structure of Living things Living things are made up of tiny units called cells. A cell is the smallest unit of life. Examples of cells Sperm, pollen, blood, nerve, bone, Structure of cell

Nucleus: contains thread-like structures called chromosomes. Chromosomes contain structures called genes. Genes determine hair colour, eye colour, size, shape, etc. Cytoplasm: jelly-like structure of the cell. Ribosome: builds protein in the cells Mitochondria: releases energy in the cell. It is some time called the power-house. Cell membrane: protects the cell. It allows substances to enter and leave the cell. Substances enter and leave the cell by a process called osmosis. Vacuole: hallow areas filled with fluid. Chloroplast: helps the plant to manufacture food. Cell wall: Protects the plant cell Similarities between plant and animal cells

1. both have nucleus 2. both have ribosome 3. both have mitochondria 4. both have cytoplasm

5. both have vacuoles 6. both have cell membrane

Difference between plant and animal cells Plant Cell Animal Cell Nucleus at end Chloroplast Cell wall Large central vacuole Block-like

Nucleus in the center None None Small vacuoles Round

Cells Tissues Organs Systems Organisms The basic units of life

Cells join together

Tissues working together

Organs working together

Systems together

Sperm, bone, blood Epithelial Pollen egg

Xylem, phloem, cardiac, connective,

Heart, lungs, brain, flower, root, leaf

Respiratory Excretory Muscle Endocrine Circulatory Reproductive Skeletal Nervous Digestive

Plant Man Bird Insect

Cells reproduced by a process called mitosis (division) Robert Hooke discovered cells in 1665. Classification of Living Things There are different ways of grouping things:

� Colour � Shape � Size � Texture

Living things are divided into two groups called Kingdoms.

Alg

ae

Kingdoms 1. Plant 2. Animal

Each is further sub divided into phylum, then classes, then order, then family then genus and then species.

Plant Kingdom

flowering Non flowering

Monocotyledons

One seed leaf Dicotyledons

Two seedleaves Conifers

1. Parallel Veins 2. Fibrous root

system 3. one cotyledon

(seed leaf)

1. Netted – venation 2. Main root system 3. Two seed leaves

1. needle – like leaves

2. cones

angiosperm gymnosperm

Fer

ns

mon

oco

tyle

do

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con

ifers

Mo

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dic

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edo

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Co

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tera

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Animal Kingdom

Features of Vertebrates

� Skeleton � Vertebral column � Bilaterally symmetrical � Alimentary canal � Pair of eyes

Features of Mammals

- Vertebral column (backbone) - Hair on body - Lungs for breathing - Most have two pairs of limbs – fore and hind limbs - Toes on legs - Young of most are born alive (live breeders) - Suckle their young

Vertebrates Invertebrates

Am

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Bird

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Fis

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Rep

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Mam

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Mo

llusk

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inod

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Art

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po

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Inse

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Wo

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Ara

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Myr

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Cru

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- Eat plants and animals for food - Teeth (Different shape and function) - Warm blooded - External ears - Glands

Egg Laying mammals

- duck billed platypus - spiny anteater

Toothless Mammals

- Armadillo - Great Anteater

Insect eating Mammals

- mole - hedgehog

Flesh Eating Mammals

- have well developed canine teeth - (tiger,

Gnawing Mammal

- rat - rabbit

Hoofed Mammal

- Pig - Donkey - Cattle

Flying Mammal

- Bat Marine Mammals

- Dolphin - Whale - Porpoise

Birds Features

- vertebral column - feathers to cover body - wings for flying - two legs for walking - beak, but no teeth. Swallow hard object to aid digestion - lay eggs in brittle shell - scales on feet - warm blooded

Not all birds can fly. Eg. Kiwi, penguin, ostrich and Emu cannot fly Where Birds Live

- near rivers - near oceans - near lakes - near swamps - in the forest

What birds eat

- insects - seeds - nectar - fish - dead animals - fruits

Birds feet

- perching - webbed - claw

Groups of birds - prey - perching - scratching - swimming - wading - flightless

Birds Bills Types Uses Examples Flat Swooping and straining food Duck Tapered and pointed Grasping Booby Hooked Tear flesh Owl Long pointed Searching mud Heron Long thin Reaching deep Humming bird Short straight stout Crushing Sparrow Fish Fish are classified as

i. cartilaginous ii. bony

Where fish are found? Lakes, ponds, rivers, oceans Characteristics of fish

1. Three parts - Head - Body - Tail

2. eyes with no lids 3. fins

- pectoral – side - pelvic – underside - dorsal – back - caudal – tail

4. scales 5. cold blooded 6. Streamline body 7. lateral line

Structure of the Fish How fish get oxygen Fishes breathe by gills. How fish swim Fish swim forward by moving the tail from side to side. The dorsal and caudal fins are used for balance while moving. The pelvic and pectoral fins are for balance while at rest. What fish eat

- Algae - Water plants - Animals - Insects - other fish

How fish reproduce

1. most lay eggs (spawning) 2. young are born alive

Reptiles Features

- teeth - cold blooded - lungs for breathing - lay eggs on land - teeth - have dry scaly skin

Examples of Reptiles

- Crocodiles - Alligator - Snakes - Lizards - Turtles

Amphibians Features

- soft moist skin - cold blooded - breather with gills when young - young are called tad poles - lay eggs in water - develop in stages called metamorphosis

Amphibians can live on land and in water Examples of Amphibians

- toads - frogs - salamanders - newt

Invertebrates Invertebrates are animals without backbone

1. Sponges: - bodies with irregular shapes - live in colonies - reproduced by budding

2. Coelenterates – Tentacles

- body has one opening - radial symmetry Examples – jelly fish, coral, sea anemone

3. Worms – Flat worms – tape worms, fluke - round worms – hook and pinworms - segmented worms – earth worm, sand worm, leech

4. Echinoderms: Spiny animals

Examples: sand dollar, starfish, sea cucumber, sea urchin

5. Mollusks: - soft fleshy body - Most have a protective shell Examples: clam, oyster, mussel, conch, snail, slug, octopus, squid

Arthropods

- exoskeleton - segmented bodies - legs attached to body - pair jointed appendages

1. Crustaceans 2. Insects

3. Arachnids 4. Myriapods

Crustaceans - two pairs of antennae - two distinct body parts - most live in water - they breath by gill - have five pairs of legs

Example: crayfish, lobster, crab, shrimp Insects

- three separate body parts (head, thorax, abdomen) - one pair of antennae - three pairs of legs - most have two pairs of wings - compound eyes - develop in stages called metamorphosis

Head – mouth Eye Anetnnae Thorax – wings

- legs Abdomen – spiracles

- sting

Lavae sheds its skin this is called molting.

Incomplete Metamorphosis Complete Metamorphosis Grasshopper Cockroach Locust Cricket Mantis Dragon fly

Butterfly Mosquito Bee Moth Fly Ants

3. Arachnids

- no distinct thorax - four pairs of legs - one pair of pincers - no antenna

Example: Spiders, ticks, scorpion

4. Myriapods - many feet - many segments

Examples: centipede and millipede

Test

1. Which of these groups represents non-living things? A. nail, desk, stone B. stone, paper, rubber

C. runner, board, nail D. spoon, nail, pin

2. The study of living things is referred to as:

A. biology B. autonomy

C. botany D. ecology

3. Which organism lives in an aquatic environment?

A. tadpole, shark, lobster B. bat, sparrow, whale C. whale, rose, spider D. rat, agouti, ant

4. The process by which living things get food is termed: A. Irritability B. Reproduction

C. Nutrition D. Excretion

5. Tiny units in living things are called ………………….

A. cells B. tissues

C. organs D. systems

6. The structure labeled 1 is

the A. cell wall B. nucleus C. vacuole D. chloroplast

7. Which structure contains the genes?

A. 1 B. mitochondria

C. cell membrane D. ribosome

8. Which structure is found in the plant cell but not in the animal cell?

A. chloroplast B. nucleus

C. ribosome D. mitochondria

9. Which is not matched correctly?

A. Sperm - cell B. Heart – system

C. Brain – organ D. Respiratory – system

10. A corn plant is found under: A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 4

11. Dicotyledons are plants under # A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 4

12. Which group represents mosses? A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 4

13. Which represents plants with one seedleaf? A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 4

14. There are …………… groups of vertebrates. A. 2, B. 3 C. 4 D. 5

Use the table below to answer the following questions

Hair Wings Scales Legs Lay eggs A / / / B / / C / / / D / /

15. Which animal represents birds? A. B C D 16. Lizards are found under A B C D 17. Fish are group A B C D 18. Which animals is the mammal? A B C D 19. Which labeled part of the fish helps

in respiration? A. 1 B. 2

C. 3 D. 4

20. The caudal fin is labeled: A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 4

21. Which two organisms develop in stages called metamorphosis? A. insect and amphibians B. amphibians and mammals C. mammals and insects D. insects and reptiles

22. Which of these belong to the same group as snakes (reptiles) A. lizards B. tadpoles C. agouti D. armadillo

23. The young of amphibians are called ………………. A. worms B. larvae C. tadpoles D. fry

1. The part of the plant that absorb mineral salts is:

A. root B. stem C. leaves D. flower

2. Water enters the roots by a process called: A. osmosis B. transpiration C. diffusion D. perspiration

3. Which plant has fibrous roots? A. carrot B. cane C. tomato D. mango

4. Which is not a function of the roots? A. anchoring B. absorbing mineral salts C. food storage D. food production

5. Which plant stores food in the root? A. arrowroot B. cassava C. onion D. cane

6. Which reproduced by roots? A. potato B. cane C. hibiscus D. plum

7. Which plant is classified as a herb? A. tomato B. coconut C. mango D. rose

8. Which plant part carry out the following functions? i. carry water and mineral salts upwards

ii. holds fruits and leaves iii. stores food A. root B. stem C. flower D. leaves

9. Which plant reproduces by stem cutting? A. cane B. golden apple C. guava D. cacti

10. Which part is labeled the blade? A B C D

11. The petiole is labeled:

A B C D

12. The part labeled C is the: A. Margin B. main vein C. apex D. lamina

13. Leaves differ in: i. vein arrangement ii. types of margin iii. sizes A. 1 only B. ii only C. I and II D. I, II and III

14. Which part has compound leaves? A. rose B. breadfruit C. golden apple D. mango

15. CO2 + H2O in sunlight C6H12O6 + O2

This formula represents: A. photosynthesis B. respiration C. germination D. transpiration

16. CO2 represents: A. carbon monoxide B. carbon dioxide C. carbohydrates D. carbon

24. The animals belong to the group:

A. Crustaceans B. Insects C. Myrapods D. Arachnids

25. The part labeled 1 is the ………………

A. antennae B. thorax C. abdomen D. spiracles

26. Which of these does not belong to the group of insects? A. Ant B. Spider C. Grasshopper D. Mosquito

27. The stage labeled 3 is

A. larvae B. pupa C. egg D. adult

28. Which insect below complete the above cycle?

A. grasshopper B. ant C. locust D. cock roach

29. Markie found an animal on his window pane. It had many legs and the body had many segments. Which organism might it be?

i. millipede ii. centipede iii. butterfly

A. I, II

B. I, II, III C. III D. II, III

Reproduction Objectives

- Define reproduction - Explain the different types of reproduction - Give examples of the different types of asexual reproduction - Draw a flowering plant - Label the diagram of a flowering plant - List the functions of the roots - Describe the roots - List the different types of root - Differentiate between fibrous and tap root - Identify root hairs - Define osmosis - List uses f the roots to man - Give examples of plants with different types of roots - Give examples of plants that reproduced by roots - Give examples of plants roots that are used as food - Describe the stem - List the different types of stem - Give examples of plants with the three types of stems - List the types of underground stem - Give examples of plants with the different type of underground

stems - Identify the different parts of the stem - List the functions of the stem - Give examples of stem that stores food - Give examples of stems that are used in reproduction - Explain how plants makes food - List the elements necessary for photosynthesis - List the uses of stems to man - Draw a simple leaf - Label the diagram of the leaf - Show different vein arrangement of leaves - Give examples of plants with different leaf arrangement - Make a leaf collection - Differentiate between simple and compound leaf - List the functions of leaves - Explain the process photosynthesis

- Define stomata - Define chlorophyll - Write simple formula to show photosynthesis - Draw simple illustration to show how photosynthesis takes

place - Define transpiration - Draw simple illustration to show how transpiration takes place. - Give examples of leaves used as food - Give example of leaves used in reproduction - List uses of leaves to man - Describe a flower - Draw a complete flower - Dissect a flower to show – pistil and stamen - List the function of the parts of a flower - Define pollination - List the different types of pollination - Explain the different types of pollination - List the agents of pollination - Say how each agent works - Define fertilization - Describe a seed - Describe a fruit - List the uses of the flower to man - List the different types of fruits - Give examples of the different types of fruits - List the functions of fruits - Draw a seed - Label the drawing of a seed - Give the function of each labeled part of a seed - List the various ways seeds are dispersed - Give examples of seeds scattered by each methods - Define germination - Define a seedling - List the conditions necessary for germination - List the conditions needed for a plant to grow healthy - List the various life cycle of plants - Draw the male and female reproductive systems - Label the male and female reproductive systems - Define – puberty, adolescence, menstruation, fertilization,

pregnancy

- List the age when male and females begin puberty - List the characteristics of adolescence in male and females - List the types of fertilization - Name animals which reproduce by each type of fertilization - List the length of pregnancy for various animals - List the young of various animals

Reproduction Reproduction is the process of producing new individuals Types of Reproduction

1. sexual: needs two sex cells (male and female) 2. asexual; other than by sex cells

Types of sexual reproduction 1. Budding 2. Vegetative Propagation (Plant parts) 3. Spores

Reproduction in flowering plants Parts of the plant

Root The root is the part of the plant below the ground. Types of Roots There are two types of root systems

1. Tap/Main root system 2. Fibrous Root system

Functions of roots

1. For anchoring the plant 2. For taking in water and mineral salts. Root hairs are found at the tips

of roots. Water enters the plant by a process called osmosis. 3. Some are used for storing food. Eg. Carrot, potato

4. Some are used for reproduction Eg. Potato, breadfruit

Uses to man � food � seasoning � medicine � candy � dye

Stem Is the part of the plant between the stem and the leaves. Types of stem

1. herbs: have weak stem 2. shrubs: hard woody stem 3. Tree: have trunk. Trunks are

covered with bark.

Types of Underground stem 1. Rhizomes 2. tubers 3. corms 4. bulb 5. suckers

Stems are covered with bark. Buds grow on the stem. Types of Buds

1. Terminal bud 2. auxiliary/lateral bud

Functions of the stem

� To carry water and mineral salts upwards (xylem vessels) � To carry food downwards (phloem vessels) � to hold the leaves, flowers and fruits � to support the plant � the green one can manufacture food

� some store food � some are used for reproduction

Uses to man

0 spice 0 rubber 0 linen 0 paper 0 medicine 0 rope 0 dye 0 varnish and paint

Leaf Parts of the leaf

Leaves are different in

1. vein arrangement (Parallel, Pinnate, Palmate 2. types of margin ( smooth, lobed, serrated) 3. sizes

Types of Venation Types of Leaves

1. Simple 2. Compound

Plant Name Leaf Type Margin Venation Hibiscus Simple Serrated Pinnate

Functions of the Leaf 1. Make food

Plants make their own food. They use carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) in the presence of sunlight to make food. The green pigment (chlorophyll) uses the energy from the sunlight to split the water and the carbon dioxide then recombines them to get carbohydrates and oxygen. This process of making food is called photosynthesis. The carbon dioxide is obtained through the tiny holes in the leaves called stomata.

2. Excretion

Oxygen is given off through the leaves of plants as waste. Water is also given off as waste. This process is known as transpiration. Transpiration takes place in the night.

3. Breathing

H2O + CO2 in sunlight

C6H12O6 + O2

4. Some are used for reproduction

5. Some are used for food. Uses to man

� food � beverage � spice and seasoning � smoking � roof material � medicine

Flower

The flower develops from the flower bud.

Parts of the Flower The complete flower is mad up of four parts

1. Sepals: The sepals are the green leaf-like structures which protect the Flower in the bud stage. The sepals together form the calyx. Different plants have different number of sepals.

2. Petals: The petals are the colourful parts of the flower. The also help to protect some parts of the flower, but they are needed mainly for attracting insect, which helps in pollination. The petals together forms the corolla. 3. Pistil: is the female flower. It is also known as the carpel. It is made up of the stigma at the top, the style and the ovary.

- Stigma: receives pollen grain

at pollination. - Style: Tube through which

pollen travels to reach ovary. - Ovary: the part of the flower

which develops into the fruit. It contains ovules, which

when fertilized develop into seeds.

4. Stamen: is the male part of the flower. It is made up of the anther and the filament.

- Anther: produces and stores pollen grains - Filament: holds the anther - Nectar: sweet juice at the base of the

flower that attracts insects.

Pollen grains are transferred from the male to the female flower. This process is called pollination. Types of Pollination

1. Self Pollination: takes place on the same flower. 2. Cross Pollination: takes place on different flower

Agents of Pollination

1. wind 2. insects 3. water 4. plant 5. birds and other animals

After pollination has taken place the pollen tube travels until it reaches the ovule in the ovary where it will fuse with the ovule. When this happens

fertilization has taken place. This union of pollen and ovule produces seeds. The ovary continues to develop into the fruit. Seeds develop in the fruit. Uses of the Flower to Man

1. decoration 2. food (cauliflower, sorrel, hibiscus) 3. seasoning 4. oil 5. dye 6. perfumes

What is a fruit? A fruit is a ripened ovary. Types of Fruits Fleshy Dry Tomato Pumpkin Apple Orange

Coconut

Function of Fruits

1. protect seeds 2. disperse seeds

Fruits have different number of seeds.

- One - Few - Many - None

What is a seed? A seed is a mature ovule. Seeds can grow into new plants

Parts of a seed

Seed coat (testa) covers the seed and protects the embryo Seedleaf (Cotyledon): provides food for the embryo in the seed Embryo (the young plant in the seed. It has a shoot (plumule) and a root (radicle) Micropyle. Tiny hole through which water and air enters the seed and through which waste leave the seed. Hilum (scar): the part where the seeds was attached to the fruit. How Seeds are dispersed

1. Some fruits scatter their own seeds. 2. Wind scatter some seeds 3. Some are scattered by water 4. Some are scattered by birds and other animals. 5. People scatter seeds.

Germination When seeds are given the right condition they will begin to grow. When seeds begin to grow we say they germinate. Germination is the growing of seeds into seedlings. Conditions Necessary for Germination

1. water 2. suitable temperature 3. air

How Seeds Grow? Seeds absorb water through the tiny hole in the coat. The seed then swells and the coat burst. The embryo starts to grow. The root pushes outside. The stem starts to grow also. The young plant that comes out of the seed is called a seedling. The seedling uses the food in the seedleaves (seedleaf) until it can manufacture food.

Uses of Seeds to Man

1. Food 2. Oil 3. Paint, varnish 4. Spices

Plants complete their life cycle in different length of time

- Annual: live for one year or season - Perennial: lives for more than two years - Biennial: lives for two years

For plants to grow healthy they will need:

- air - water - soil - mineral salts - sunlight

Reproduction In Animals Types of reproduction

1. sexual 2. asexual

- budding - cutting - cell division

Male Reproductive System Teste – produces sperms Scrotum – holds and protects testes Vas Deference – allows sperms to leave testes Glands – secretes fluid which helps the movement of sperms Penis – inserts sperms into the vagina Female Reproductive System Ovary – produces eggs Fallopian funnel – receives eggs when released Fallopian tube connects to the uterus, the place where fertilization takes place. Uterus(womb) – houses the foetus (unborn baby Vagina – receives sperms

Puberty Is the time when boys and girls start to produce sex cells. Puberty begins at age 10 – 12 years in boys and 9 – 10 years in girls. Adolescence is the time when boys and girls change to adult. Characteristics of Adolescence Boys Girls

- produces sperms - hair on pubic area - hair under arm - hair on face - muscles develop - voice deepens - body odor -

- produce eggs - hair on pubic area - hair under arm - hips broaden - breast develop - menstrual period

Menstruation: When girls produce eggs, the eggs are expected to be fertilized by sperms. One egg will travel until it reaches the uterus. If it is not fertilized it is shredded from the system. This shedding of the egg is called a menstrual period (menstruation) It takes place every 28 – 30 days. Fertilization: if the sperm enters the egg, the egg is then fertilized. Fertilization takes place in the fallopian tube.. Types of Fertilization

1. internal – takes place inside the animals body e.g

2. external – takes place outside the animals body

e.g. Pregnancy Pregnancy occurs when the fertilized egg attaches it self to the walls of the uterus by the placenta. The placenta is a network of blood vessels. The fertilized egg develops into a foetus. Animals which produce their young alive are called live breeders (viviparous animals)

Animals which produced their young by eggs are called egg layers (oviparous animals) Length of Pregnancy for some Animals

Animal Length of Pregnancy Young Alligator 9 weeks Bat 210 days Cat 65 days Kitten Dog 9 weeks Elephant 22 months Frog 20 days Guinea Pig 68 days Horse 342 days Lion 119 days Monkey 232 days Mouse 21 days Rabbit 40 days Sheep 180 days Woman 9 months Bee Grub Bird Nestling, chick Butterfly Caterpillar Fish Fry Goat Kid Pig Piglet Duck Duckling Goose Gosling

Excretion - Define excretion - List the excretory products in various organism - List the organs responsible for getting rid of these waste

products. - Draw and label the skin. - List the functions of the skin. - Draw and label the kidney

Excretion Excretion is the removal of waste substance from the system Metabolic Waste Organ Responsible Carbon dioxide Urine Sweat Water Oxygen

Lungs Kidney Skin Stomata Stomata

Structure of the Skin

Functions of the Skin 1. Protection 2. Produce new cells to maintain the surface ioof the skin 3. helps to respond to pressure, touch, pain 4. allow sweat to leave the body 5. helps to control he body’s temperature 6. manufacture of Vitamin D

Functions of the Kidney 1. Remove Urea from the blood 2. Filter the blood 3. It regulates the amount off salt in the body.

Transpiration and respiration are processes in plants where waste is given off

Transpiration

Respiration in Plants

Movement The skeleton is the bony frame of the body. It is made up of 206 bones. The skeleton is made up of two main parts

1. axial skeleton: made up of the backbone and skull. It forms the main structure of the human body.

2. appendicular skeleton: consists of the limbs attached to the girdles

Structure

A joint is where two bones meet. Bones are held together by ligaments. They are prevented from rubbing together by cartilage. Synovial fluid lubricates and cushions joints. Some joints do not allow movement.

Parts Names of Bones Functions Skull Cranuim

Face bones Mandible (jaw bone)

Protects the brain

Ribcage Ribs Sternum (breast bone)

Protects heart and lungs

Girdles Pectoral Girdle (arms) Pelvic Girdle (legs)

Support arms and legs

Limbs Upper Limb Upper arm (humerus) Lower arm (ulna, ( Radius Carpels phalanges

Hold things

Lower limb Upper leg (Femur) Lower leg (tibia) (Fibula) Tarsals Phalanges Patella

Allow movement.

Vertebral Column (33 bones) Protects the spine

Types of joints There are two types of joints

1. fixed 2. movable

Types of Movable Joints

1. pivot: neck

2. Ball and socket: allows free movement in all direction Eg. Hip and shoulder

3. hinge: allows movement on one direction Eg. Knee and elbow

4. gliding: allows movement over surfaces Eg. Carpals and tarsals Fixed Joints: Do not allow movement Eg. Joints in the skull Functions of the Skeleton

1. gives the body its shape 2. allow movement 3. protects delicate organs 4. produce cells (long bones produce cells in bone marrow. 5. help in hearing

Joints cannot move by themselves. They are controlled by muscles. Types of Muscles

- voluntary: attached to bones and allow movement voluntary muscles work in pairs in opposition to each other. They can only contract or relax. They can only pull but cannot push. - involuntary: supports vital organs - cardiac

How Animals Move - crawling - flying - swim - run - hop - jump - glide

Why Animals Move - to escape from danger Camouflage: colour is similar to the surrounding Prey: animal that is being hunted Predator: - to search for food - because of climatic condition Hibernate: to sleep during the winter Migration: to escape extreme climatic condition - reproduction (salmon)

Irritability - living things are sensitive. They respond to changes in their

environment. These changes are called stimuli. The action cause by a stimulus is called a response. These actions in plants are called tropism. They can be positive response or negative response.

Experiments Research Question: Does Plant respond to gravity Hypothesis: Plants will respond to gravity Materials:

- seeds - water - tissue paper - jar

Procedure

- Put wet tissue paper in jar - Place seeds scar vertically in jar - Allow to germinate

Result

- Seeds will grow. Shoot upwards and roots downwards

Research Question Do plants need water to grow? Hypothesis Plants that do not get water will die. Materials:

- potted plants - water

Procedure - apply water to the root of one plant - do not water the other plant - observe plants for two days

Result - Plant without water will wilt Research Question Is sunlight important for plants to grow? Hypothesis plants need sunlight to grow. Materials:

- potted plants - box

Procedure - cut small hole in one end of box - Place potted plant in box at end away from hole - Allow to stand for five days

Result

- plant will bend towards the hole because here is were sunlight enters the box.

These responses in animals are referred to as taxes. A taxis can be positive or negative. Stimuli Responses Heat Danger Food Climatic conditions As condition in the environment of the animal changes, it adapts in order to survive. Protective mechanism and Behaviour

- Colour change (camouflage) eg. lizards - Mimicry eg. Moth, butterfly - Migration eg. Birds, fish - Hibernate eg. squirrel - Foul smell – insects, skunk - Milk - frogs - Spikes - fish - Sound – snakes - Electricity – fish - Stings – insects

Matter Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space. Volume Matter has volume. Volume is the amount of space that something takes up. Volume is measure in cubic centimetre 1 cm3 = 1 ml 5 ml = 1 teaspoon Mass is the amount of matter. Mass is measured in grams. 10 grams of salt and 10 grams of rice equal 20g of matter. 20cm3 of rice and 20cm3 of salt is not 40cm3 because the salt will take up the spaces between the rice grains. Measurements Liquids – litres Mass – grams Time – seconds, minutes, hours, days, weeks, months, years, decades, century, millennium Volume – cubic centimeter Density – grams per cubic centimeter 60 seconds = 1 minute 60 minutes = 1 hour 24 hours = 1 day 7 days = 1 week 4 weeks = 1 month 30 days = 1 month 12 moths = 1 year 365 ¼ days = 1 year 366 days = 1 leap year 52 weeks = 1 year 10 years = 1 decade 10 decades = 1 century 100 years = 1 century 1000 years = 1 millennium

Basic Measurements and Shapes

Triangles Properties

Equilateral

Three sides equal Three angles equal Three lines of symmetry

Isosceles

Two sides equal Two angles equal One line of symmetry

Scalene

Unequal sides Unequal angles

Right-Angle

One angle is 90o

Side opposite right angle is called hypotenuse

Obtuse-angle

One angle is more than 90o

Sides unequal

Acute-angle

All three angles are less than 90o Sides unequal

Finding the Volume of Irregular Shapes 1. measure some water in a measuring

cylinder 2. place object in water 3. take new measurement of water 4. find the difference between the two

measurements The difference between the two measurements is the volume of the object. The level of the water is called the meniscus. The meniscus appears to be curve. So you must always the level at the bottom of the curve. Volume can also be found by the amount of water an object displaces. When we compare similar amount of matter some material are heavier than others. Density is the relation of the mass of a substance to its volume. Density is measured in grams per cubic centimeter D = M/V D = 20 g / 4 cm3 D = 5 g/cm3 V = M/D M = V x D

Mass 29 g Volume 4 cm

Density of Substances

Substances Density Air Carbon Dioxide Coconut Water Copper Cork Water Diamond Gasoline Glass Gold Iron Lead Lubrication oil Mentholated Spirit Milk Sand Silver

0.0013 0.002 1.01 8.9 0.25 1.0 2.3 0.7 2.5 19.3 7.9 11.3 0.9 0.8 1.03 2.6 10.5

Measuring Instruments Pipette Measuring Cylinder/Gradient cylinder Syringe Dropper Measuring Flask Floating and Sinking Objects floats when they displace their own weight. Factors that affect floating

1. Shape of the object 2. Density of the object 3. Buoyancy

States of Matter Shape Mass Examples Solids Liquids Gas

Definite Indefinite Indefinite

Definite Definite Indefinite

Chalk, wood, stone, flour Oil, water, juice, Water vapour, air

Gravity is a force that pulls every thing towards the earth, the bigger the object the greater the pull of gravity. Physical properties of Matter

� Chop, � Tear � Smell � Taste � Break � Bend � Hard � Soft

Physical changes of Matter Chop, tear, break, tear When matter goes through a chemical change, that change cannot be reversed. Chemical Changes of Matter Burn - paper Rust - iron Sour - milk Metals and Non metals Metals forms hydrogen ions with acids. Properties of Metals

- shiny - conductor of heat - can be hammered out - conductors of electricity - non-brittle - react with acids to give off hydrogen gas - they are strong

- dense Examples of metals are iron, lead, copper, gold, silver, Tin, Zinc steel, aluminum. Mercury is the only metal that is liquid at room’s temperature. Fe + Hcl = FeCl + H Ca +Hcl = CaCl + H Changes in the States of Matter

Changes in the states of Matter Solid to liquid – Melting Liquid to gas – evaporation Solid to gas – Sublimation Gas to liquid – Condensation Liquid to solid – freezing Formula: symbols, letters and numbers showing the make up of a substance. NaCl – Sodium Chloride (Common Salt) NH3 – Ammonia C12H22O11 – Sugar H2O - Water CO2 – Carbon Dioxide

Solutions: the mixture of two or more substances. Solution = Solvent + Solute Solvent is the substance used for dissolving Solute: the substance dissolve Dilute: to dissolve a small amount of a solute Concentrated: to dissolve a large amount of a solute. Saturated Solution: one that cannot dissolve any more solute. Temperature affects the rate of dissolving. Temperature is the degrees of hotness or coldness. To dissolve more of a solute

1. heat the solution 2. add ore solvent

Miscible: cam be mixed Immiscible: cannot be mixed Soluble: can dissolve Insoluble: cannot dissolve Types of Mixtures

1. solid in solid ( rice in sugar) 2. solid in liquid ( flour in water) suspension 3. solid in liquid ( salt in water) 4. liquid in liquid ( oil in water) emulsion 5. liquid in liquid ( Clorox in water) 6. gas in liquid ( air in water) 7. gas in gas ( oxygen in atmosphere)

Eg. If 20 grams of rice is mixed with 20 grams of salt the mixture is 40g. If 20cm3 of rice is mixed with 20cm3 of salt the volume is less than

40cm3. This is because the salt will fit in the spaces between the rice.

Acids are substances that cause chemical change. Acids have a sour taste. Acids turn red litmus paper blue Alkalis are substances that neutralize acids. When an acid is missed with an alkali salt and water is produced. Acids and alkalis are tested or measured on a scale called the pH scale. Acids have a pH of 1 - 7 alkalis have ph of 7 – 14

Separating Mixtures

1. Sifting

2. Using a magnet 3. Dissolving and Filtering

4. Decanting 5. Evaporation

Energy Energy is the ability to do work Work is said to be done when movement take place in the direction of a force. Work = force x distance moved A force is a pull or push motion. Lines called vectors represent forces. It is stated in Newton (N) Distance is measured in metres. Work I measured in Newton metres or joules (j)

A force applied to a moving object changes it speed and direction. Equal Force Equal force In same direction in opposite direction Unequal forces in Unequal forces in Same direction opposite direction Force causes some object to stop. It cases some objects to move faster. Force is measured with a spring balance. Motion is the act of moving. Laws of Motion

1. An object at rest tends to remain at rest. One that is in motion tends to continue moving in a straight line and at the same speed.

2. Force equal to mass times acceleration 3. For every action there is an equal and opposing reaction.

Kinds of Energy 1. Potential – stored energy 2. Kinetic – energy in motion

Energy can be changed from one form to another. Energy is measured in Joules (J) Electrical to heat Electrical to sound Electrical to light Light to heat Chemical to electrical Chemical to light Electrical to mechanical Energy cannot be destroyed.

Forms Of Energy

Light Light is a form of energy. Light travels in straight lines. A thin line of light is called a ray. Several rays of light together is called a beam. Light travels faster than sound. Scientists use the speed of light to measure very long distances. The unit for measuring very long distances is called a light years. A light year is the distance light will take to travel in one year. Light can pass through some materials but is stopped by others. Materials that allow light to pass through them are said to be transparent. Translucent materials allow only a small amount of light to pass through them. Opaque materials do not allow light to pass through them. When an opaque object gets into the path of a light it blocks the light and a shadow is formed behind the object. The closer the object is to the source of light the bigger the shadow will be.

Transparent Translucent Opaque Glass Water Air

Frosted glass Wax paper

Wood

Sources of Light

Natural Manmade Sun Star Planet Moon Firefly Glo worm

Candle Lamp Bulb Torch

Materials that produce their own light are luminous materials. Non luminous Materials do not produce their own light. They reflect light.

Luminous Non Luminous Candle Fire Bulb Sun Fire fly

Moon Mirror Water

The intensity or brightness of a light is measure in candles (candelas) For one to see an object:

1. light must be present 2. the light must fall on the object 3. the light must be reflected to the eye

When a light is reflected it changes direction. Laws of Reflection When a ray of light strikes a smooth surface it is reflected back at an angle at which it touches the surface. The angle at which a light strikes a surface is called the angle of incident. The angle at which it is reflected is called the angle of reflection. The angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection. The normal is perpendicular to the mirror plane. Mirrors A plane mirror is made of a flat piece of clear glass backed with a coat of silver or other shiny material. When an object is reflected in a plane mirror the reflection seen is called the image.

Properties of Reflection

1. the image is the same distance form the mirror as the object. 2. the image is the same size as the object 3. image is inverted Some mirrors make objects look bigger. Others make them look smaller. The reflection seen in a mirror is called the image. The image may look smaller, bigger, upside down, or distorted.

Curve mirrors are either curve inwards or outwards 1. Concave ( inwards) image looks upside down 2. Convex (outwards) distorted image Concave mirrors brings light rays to one point. This point is called a focus. Concave mirrors are used in

- telescopes - flashlights - headlights - spotlights

Convex mirrors are curved outwards. They spread out light

object

image

Lenses are used to bend light. Refraction When light travels from one state of matter to another it travels at different speed. As it does so it bends. This bending of light is called refraction. Light travels fastest in gas and slowest in solids. It will bend more in solids than in liquids. Lens A lens is an object that bends light. When light rays pass through a lens they always bend towards the thickest part of the lens. Types of lens

1. concave: thicker at the ends 2. convex: thicker in the middle

Convex Lenses

- light bends towards the middle - the point where the rays meet is called the focus - the image is inverted - the image appear larger

Concave Lenses

- image is smaller - light rays bends away

from middle - image is right side up -

Objects that Use lens Telescope Glasses Microscope Binoculars Projectors Camera Structure of the Eye The eye is the organ of sight. It is protected by the bone of the skull and the eyelids. Cornea: transparent layer Pupil: dark small spot which allows light to enter the eye Iris: coloured circle. It controls the amount of light entering the eye. The muscles adjust depending on the amount of light present. Retina: lining at the back of the eye Lens: bends light Optic Nerve: carries message/impulses to the brain Defects and Diseases of the Eye

- Farsightedness - Shortsightedness - Astigmatism - Colour blindness - Cataracts - Conjunctivitis

Care of the Eye

- do not look at the sun directly - do not play with sharp object towards the eyes - see a doctor if foreign objects get into the eye

Colours When a ray of light passes through at a slant into a triangular prism it is separated into bands of coloured lights called a spectrum. There are six colours in a spectrum R O Y G B V Primary colours Red, green and blue are the primary colours The mixture of two primary colours produces a secondary or complimentary colour.

Heat - Explain how heat is produced - List the sources of heat - List the effects of heat on matter - Define freezing - Define melting - Define evaporation - Define condensation - Define sublimation - Give examples of substances that will go through the processes

above - Explain what happens when matter is heated - Give examples of everyday use of expansion - Define temperature - Name the instrument for measuring temperature - Name the unit for measuring temperature - List the different types of thermometers - Recall important temperatures - Explain how heat travel by conduction - Define a conductor - Define insulator - Give examples of conductors - Give examples of insulators - Explain how heat travel by convection - Give example of how/where convection takes plave - Explain radiation - List objects that provide heat in the home - List ways of preventing heat loss - List ways of cooling in the home - Define combustion - Define oxidation - List the factors necessary for burning - Define fuel - List the products of a fire - List ways of putting out a fire.

Heat Matter is made up of particle called molecules. Molecules are always moving. Heat is produced when molecules move. Source of heat

- iron - fire - friction - sun - Microwave - Oven - kettle

Effects of heat on matter

1. heat causes matter to expand 2. heat causes matter to melt 3. heat causes matter to evaporate 4. heat burns matter 5. When liquids are heated they evaporate

When materials are heated they expand. When heat is removed they contract. Solids expand the least. Gases expand the most. Molecules in gas expand the fastest and farthest. Water is an exception to the law of

expansion. Water expands when heat is removed and contracts when heated.

Uses of Expansion

1. Baking of bread 2. thermometer.

A thermometer is used to measure temperature. Temperature is hotness or coldness. Temperature is measured in degrees Celsius or Fahrenheit.

Mercury is the silvery substance found in thermometers. It is the only metal that is liquid at room temperature. When the thermometer is heated the mercury expands. When heat is removed it contracts.

Kinds of thermometers

- Mercury - Strip - Metal - Alcohol - Clinical - Digital

Temperatures to remember 1. Boiling point of water – 100oC/ 212o F 2. Freezing point of water – 0oC/32oF 3. Normal body temperature – 37oC/98.4oF 4. Cool day – 22oC

How heat travel 1. Conduction

When materials are heated, the heat passes from one molecule to another. This method of heat transfer is called conduction. Conduction hakes place only in solids. Conductors are materials that will allow heat to pass through them. Conductors are materials that will not burn. Insulators are non conductors. Liquids and gases are poor conductors of heat. Heat cannot travel in a vacuum.

Conductors Insulators Metals Rubber

Wood Cloth Paper Plastic

2. Convection Convection takes place in liquids and gases. The molecules move from the heated area to a cooler area taking heat with them. This movement is called convection current.

Use of Convection

a. Cooking b. Baking

3. Radiation Heating in the home - fire - stove - solar heater - iron - microwave

Preventing Heat Loss Heat loss can be prevented by insulation. Cooling in the Home

1. refrigerator 2. freezer 3. air conditioner 4. fan

Fire The burning of material is called combustion. Oxidation is the burning of food in the presence of oxygen to provide energy.

Factors Necessary for Burning

1. Fuel: materials that will burn Solid Liquid Gas Coals Wood Paper Cloth

Oil Natural gas

2. Oxygen

The more oxygen a fire gets the brighter and faster it burns.

3. heat for ignition Products of a Fire

1. smoke 2. ash 3. carbon dioxide 4. flame

Putting Out a fire 1. cut of the oxygen 2. remove the fuel 3. reduce the temperature

Sound - Define sound - List ways by which sounds are produced - Define pitch - Give examples of instruments/objects with high pitch sound - Give examples of instruments with low pitch sounds - List the factors that determine the pitch of a sound - Draw a diagram of the ear - Label the diagram of the ear - List the function of the labeled parts of the ear - Explain how one hears a sound - List ways by which we care for our ear - Define an echo

Sound Sound is caused by the vibration of an object. Sounds can be produced by

- plucking - hitting - blowing - shaking - stroking

When you consider an orchestra, there are four types of instruments

1. Strings: Played by plucking stings eg. Guitar, violin 2. percussion: played by striking the instrument. Eg drum, 3. wind: played by blowing wind into the instrument 4.

Sound travels out in waves in all direction. In order for a sound to travel there must be a medium (solid, liquid or gas). Sound cannot travel through a vacuum (empty space). Sound travels fastest in solids and slowest in gas. Sound is measured by the number of vibrations. This is called the frequency. Differences in sounds

The difference in sounds is called the pitch. Some sounds are high pitched and others are low pitched

High Pitch Sounds Low Pitch Sounds Whistle Bird chirping

Thunder Plane taking off

The pitch of a sound is determined by

1. the length of the material 2. the thickness of the material 3. the stiffness of the material 4. force applied

The faster an object vibrates the higher the pitch. A sound can be loud or soft. The loudness or softness of a sound is its intensity. The farther sound waves travel the softer the sound becomes. Intensity of sounds is measured in decibels. The Ear and Hearing The Ear

Outer Ear - Pinna: collects sound waves - Ear drum: vibrates and sends sounds to the brain.

Middle Ear

- Bones (Hammer, anvil, stirrup) channel sound through the ear - Eustachian Tube:

Inner Ear

- Nerve: sends messages to the brain - Semicircular Canal: helps in balancing - Cochlea: connects to the nerve

Hearing When sound waves reach the ear they cause the ear drum to vibrate. This vibration is transmitted to the small bones (HAS) and then to the auditory nerve and to the brain. Care for the Ear

1. keep them clean 2. do not put sharp objects in them 3. avoid loud noises

An echo is cause when a sound bounces off a hard surface.

Nutrition

1. Define nutrition 2. List the things plants need to make food. 3. Explain simply how plants make food. 4. Define the following: ecology, habitat, community, ecosystem, biome 5. List the types of communities 6. Define detritus 7. Define/Describe the following: food chain, food web, food pyramid 8. Define the following: producers, consumers, herbivores, omnivores,

carnivores, decomposers, parasites, prey, predators, host 9. Types of parasites 10. Draw and label the water cycle 11. Define the following: evaporation, condensation, transpiration,

respiration 12. Differentiate between : endangered specie and extinct specie 13. List endangered species in SVG 14. List means of Conserving these Species

Nutrition Nutrition is the process by which living things obtain food. Plants produce their own food. They use water and Carbon dioxide in the presence of sunlight to make food. Chlorophyll uses the energy from the sunlight to split the water and carbon dioxide then recombines them to form starches and oxygen given off as waste. This process by which green plants make food is called photosynthesis.

Plants supply food for other organisms. When animals digest food waste product is produce which is used in photosynthesis.

The study of how plants and animals relate to each other and their surrounding is called ecology. The natural home of a plant or animal is called the habitat. The population is the number of plant or animal living in a habitat. The groups or species of different plants or animals living in an habitat is the community. The ecosystem is used to describe how plants and animals in a habitat interact with each other. Types of Communities

1. Terrestrial: Land (forest, desert, soil) 2. Aquatic: water (rivers, ponds, lakes, seas, marshes)

Manmade Communities

1. Aquarium Detritus is waste produce by living things in an aquarium.

2. Terrarium

Food Chains and natural cycles are ways plants and animals interact with each other. Food Chain – a chain of living things. One organism is used by another as food.

Green plants are called producers because they produce their own food. The other organisms are called consumers because they use the food produce by another. Consumers that feed only on plants are called Herbivores. Those that feed on animals or flesh only are called carnivores. Those that feed on both plant and animals are called omnivores. Decomposers feed on dead plants and animals. This process of feeding on dead organisms is called decomposition. Decomposition helps to provide nutrients in the soil.

Parasites are organisms that feed on other living organisms. The plant or animal on which they live is called the host. Some parasite live in the animal or plant while others live outside. Those that live inside are called endo-parasites. Those that live outside are called ecto-parasites.

Symbiosis is the means by which organisms depends on each other Food webs are several food chains together. Food Pyramid a shows the distribution of food supply

Natural Cycles. Water Cycle Water is evaporated from its source into the atmosphere to form clouds. Water evaporates when it is heated. This process is called evaporation. When the water vapour cools it falls as rain and snow. Rain enters the sea, rivers, lakes and ponds. Plants and animals use water to live. As they live they give off water in the form of sweat, during breathing and transpiration.

Carbon Cycle Plants take in carbon dioxide from the air and give off oxygen. They use the carbon dioxide and water in the presence of sunlight to make food. The oxygen that is given off is used by plants and other animals in respiration. Man and other animals breathe out carbon dioxide. They also eat plants as food. As animals produce faeces, the faeces decompose to release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Carbon

dioxide also enters the atmosphere when plants and animals dies and decay. Factories and vehicles release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. When man burn wood and other fuel they produce smoke which contain carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

When one organism feeds on another the number is reduced. Sometimes that specie becomes endangered or extinct.

Solar System The solar system is made up of the sun and the bodies that move around it. These include the nine planets, their satellites, meteors, meteorites and comets

Planets Diameter Rotation Revol. Mo Distance from

Sun Mercury 4800km/

3000 miles 59 days 88 d 0 58 000000 km

36 000000 mil Venus 12 200 km

7900 miles 243 days

224 d 0 108 million km 67 million mi

Earth 12 600 7900 miles

24 hr 365 ¼ d. 1 150 million km 93 million mi

Mars 6700 km 4160 miles

24.5 hr 687 d 2 228 million km 141 million mi

Jupiter 143 000 km 89 000 m

10 hr 12 yrs 16 778 million km 484 million mi

Saturn 120 000 km 75 000 mi

10 hrs 29.5 yrs 18 1430 million km 890 million mi

Uranus 50000 km 31 000 mi

17 hrs 84 yrs 15 2900 million km 1800 million mi

Neptune 49 000 km 30 000 mi

18 hrs 165 yrs 8 4500 million km 2800 million mi

Pluto 2300 km 1400 mi

6 days 248 yrs 1 5900 million km 3700 million mi

Planets are bodies that orbit the sun. The word planet means “wanderer”. The path on which a planet travels is called an orbit. When planets make one complete orbit it is called a revolution or the planet’s year. Planets also spin on imaginary axis. When planets make on complete turn it is called a rotation or a planet’s day.

How planets are similar

1. they orbit the sun 2. they get energy from the sun 3. they spin on imaginary axis 4. they revolve in a counterclockwise direction 5. they experience day and night 6. they are spherical in shape 7. they have atmosphere

How are planets different

1. Their number of moons 2. Their time of rotation 3. Their time of revolution 4. atmospheric composition 5. mass 6. size

Facts about Planets Mercury

1. The closest to the sun 2. the hottest 3. Sometimes called “Evening Star” or “Morning Star” 4. The smallest planet

Venus

1. Called “Morning Star” or “Evening Star” 2. Brightest object in the sky other than the sun

Earth

- 93 000 000 miles from the sun - Third planet from the sun - The only planet on which life exist

Mars

- The red planet Jupiter

- the largest planet - has a red spot - hit by a comet in 1994 (Shoe Maker Levy 9)

Saturn

- has a beautiful ring system Pluto

- Coldest - Farthest away

Comets: bodies orbiting the sun or planets - examples: Hale Bopp, Halley, Shoemaker Levy Meteors: chunk of rocks in space. They ignite when they pass through the earth’s atmosphere. They burn up before reaching the earth’s surface Meteorites: are meteors that reach the earth surface.

Constellations: a group of stars. They are named after gods, legendary heroes and heroines, animals and objects. Galaxy: a large grouping of stars held together by gravity. Eg. Milky way, Andromedia, Effects of the Sun on the Earth

1. The sun is a star. The sun causes the year on the earth. The earth revolves in a counterclockwise direction around the sun. It takes 365.25 days to revolve around the sun.

2. The earth’s rotation causes day and night The earth rotates in a counter clockwise direction direction. It takes 24 hours to make one rotation.

3. The sun causes the

seasons on the earth. The earth’s axis is tilted at an angle of 23.5 degrees towards the north star. When the northern hemisphere is tilted towards the sun the northern hemisphere has summer. When it is tilted away from the sun it has winter. In summer, the northern hemisphere gets longer daylight. In winter it gets longer night.

During fall and spring the tilt is neither towards nor away from the sun. The northern hemisphere gets equal day and night.

4. The sun is a source of energy for the earth. 5. The sun causes the weather.

The Moon The moon is a satellite of the earth. It is about 250 miles from the earth. The moon is made up of rocky materials. The pull of gravity on the moon is 1/6 of that on the earth. The moon has no atmosphere or water. The moon revolves in counterclockwise direction around the earth. It takes 29.5 days (1 month) to make one full revolution around the earth. This is called a lunar month. The moon “rises” about 50 minutes later each day and appears “bigger” each day. Thus we get the phases of the moon. The moon reflects light from the sun. The moon causes the tides on the earth.

Tides are the rise and fall of the ocean caused by the moon’s gravitational pull on the earth. There are two kinds of tides.

1. High tide 2. Low tide

Eclipse At certain times as the moon and the earth revolve around the sun one may block the sunlight from the other.

Demonstration of an eclipse

Solar Eclipse Lunar Eclipse

Water Water is a colourless, tasteless, adourless liquid. Water boils at 212oF or 100oC. It freezes at 0oC or 32oF Sources of Water Springs Lakes Rivers Ponds Seas Oceans Reservoir Uses We use water for

- Washing - Cooking - Bathing - Drinking - Irrigation - Production electricity - Transportation - Water sports

Water falling as rain is pure. When it reaches the ground it is contaminated with impurities. For such water to be safe for drinking it must be purifies. Methods of Purified

- Chlorination - Boiling - Distillation - Purification Tablets When water contains dissolved Calcium and Magnesium salts it is termed “hard water” Hard water does not lather easily with soap

How to soften Hard water

1. Use detergents 2. Use resin ions

3. Use washing soda Pollution of water

- sewage - Garbage - Pesticide - Oil - Chemical

How to conserve Water

- Turn or taps when not in use - Repair leaks - Reuse water

Water Cycle

Soil Soil is the top layer of the earth’s surface which supports plants growth. Soil is made up of the three states of matter: Solid: Organic materials (Plant and animal parts) and Inorganic material (Rocks) Liquid: water Gas: air Types of rocks

1. Igneous 2. Sedimentary 3. Metamorphic

Rocks are broken down by a process called weathering. Agents of Weathering

1. Water

2. Wind

3. Chemical 4. Heat

5. Organisms (plants and animals)

Soil Composition Soil is a mixture of water air, humus and rock particles.

wat er, 25%

air , 25%

organic mat er ial, 5%

Inorganic Mat er ial, 45%

Humus

is decayed plant and animals parts. It contains mineral salts which are needed for plant growth. It also makes the soil particles stick together. Humus absorbs water. Humus helps to prevent soil erosion

Clay and sand (Rock Particles)

- help to retain in the soil or drain water from the soil. Air

- Provide oxygen needed for plant roots and other living organisms. It is needed for bacteria which decay materials to form humus.

Water

- is needed for photosynthesis. It is the medium through which minerals salts is transported. It is essential for the survival of some organisms.

Soil Analysis

Types of Soil

1. sandy - medium particles - heats quickly - has plenty air spaces - drains quickly - little humus 2. clayey - fine particles - holds plenty water - sticky when wet - hard when dry - little air space - little humus 3. loam - plenty humus - contain micro organism - provides plenty nutrients - mixture of sand and clay

Importance of Humus - supply nutrients - Binds sandy soil - Loosen clay soil - Helps to retain water in soil - Encourages the growth of microorganism

The horizon D is made up of rock. Most plants and micro organism are found in Horizon A. This horizon is usually rich in humus. For plants to grow well they will need fertile soil. Fertile soil has

- Enough air - No harmful pest - Enough water - Nutrients for plants growth - No poisonous substance - Is well aerated (air space)

How soil looses its fertility

- By leaching: nutrients are washed deep into the soil by water - By burning the land - By continuous cropping: planting the same crop for a very long time. - Inadequate water supply - By erosion: when the topsoil is washed away during heavy rain or

removed by strong winds. Erosion is the washing away or carrying away of soil Agents of erosion - Wind: this type of erosion is rapid in deserts - Water: rapid on hill sides and slopes

Controlling soil erosion - Contouring: digging trenches horizontally to collect water. - Strip cropping: organizing the land into strips. - Cover cropping: planting - Terracing: organizing the land into steps. Water will not run off at the

speed as if it is sloping.

- Mulching: putting dry grass around the roots of plants. - Reforestation: Replanting forest

Improving soil Fertility 1. Manure: any substance which increase soil fertility Uses of Manure - Assist bacteria - Compact sandy soil and loosen clay soil - Helps the movement of air and water in the soil - Helps the soil to release plant food Kinds of Manure 1. Farmyard manure - Animal dropping and plant material 2. Green Manure - Grasses and other plant parts ploughed into the soil 3. Compost manure - Plant parts allowed decomposing

Making a compost

1. degradable: 2. biodegradable: can rot 3. non biodegradable: cannot rot 4. crop rotation 5. fertilizers

Air - Define air - List the composition of the atmosphere - List the properties of oxygen. - Explain how you will carry out a simple experiment to test for oxygen. - Draw the nitrogen cycle - Explain the nitrogen cycle - Draw the carbon cycle - Explain the carbon cycle - Explain how you will carry out a simple test for carbon dioxide - Define air pollution - Explain what happens when the ozone is destroyed - List the properties of air - Define wind - Name the instrument for measuring wind speed - Name the instrument for measuring wind direction - Name the instrument for measuring wind pressure

Air Air is a mixture of gases. Composition of Air

Nitrogen 79% Oxygen 21% Carbon Dioxide 0.03% Water Vapour Other gases Oxygen

- needed for respiration - Allows things to burn so that energy is released

i. Combustion: burning fuel in the presence of oxygen.

ii. Oxidation: burning food in the presence of oxygen within

the cell. Nitrogen

- is needed by plants and animals as food. This nitrogen cannot be used directly from the air. Certain bacteria change the nitrogen to nitrates.

Carbon Dioxide

- An increase in the quantity of Carbon dioxide in the air results in the thickening of the atmosphere. This results in the atmosphere holding more heat energy. An increase in heat will make the earth warmer. This condition is known as global warming.

Air Pollution

There is a special layer of Oxygen in the air that is called the Ozone. The Ozone absorbs most of the Ultraviolet rays coming from the sun. Ultraviolet rays cause of skin cancer.

Properties of Air - colourless - tasteless - odorless - takes up space - has mass

Moving air is called wind. Wind has speed and blows from different direction. Wind Speed is measured with an anemometer. Win direction is measured with a wind vane. The pressure of air is measure with a barometer. The absence of air in a container is called a vacuum.

Circulation Objectives

- Draw the circulatory system - Label the circulatory system - Describe the heart - Describe a pulse - List factors that increase the pulse rate - List the types of blood vessels - Describe each types of blood vessel - List the composition of blood - Explain each of the composition of blood - List the functions of blood - Explain the circulation of blood

Circulation of Blood The Circulatory system is made up of:

- heart - blood - blood vessels – veins, arteries, Capillaries

The Heart

- a strong muscular pump located in the lower left hand area of the chest. It is made up of cardiac muscles. It has two sides which are separated by the septum. Sides are divided in to two chambers

Atrium receives blood from the veins. Ventricle receive blood from the atriums Ventricles pump blood into the arteries.

The heart has valves which prevent blood from flowing back. The muscle of the heart contract and relax. Both ventricle contract (pump) blood, forcing it through the arteries. This can be felt at certain parts of the body. Eg. Wrist, neck. It is called a pulse. The heart makes 72 beats per minute on the average. The pulse rate is increased by

- exercise - emotion

- pain - fear - disease A stethoscope is use to measure the heart beat.

Blood Vessels 1. Arteries – take blood from the heart Aorta, Pulmonary Artery 2. Veins – take blood to the heart

Vena Cava, Pulmonary Vein 3. Capillaries – join veins and arteries

Difference between veins and arteries

Veins Arteries Thin muscular walls Thick muscular walls Has valves that prevent blood from flowing back

Has no valves

Carry blood to the heart Take blood away from the heart Carry deoxygenated blood Carry oxygenated blood

The Blood

- is a liquid tissue. About 5 litres (6 qts) are found in the human body. Composition of Blood

1. Plasma – liquid part of blood. It is colourless and makes up about 55% of the blood. It is made up of 90% water and 10% dissolved substances: (products of digestion, excretory products, dissolved gases, blood proteins, mineral salts, hormones, vitamins)

- transports white cells, red cells, CO2, food materials, urea, hormones, heat, substances need for clotting, antibodies

2. Cells : the make up about 45% of the blood. White blood cells - Destroy bacteria - Have nucleus - Less in number as compare to red cells 1:600 i. Phagocytes: ingest foreign bodies (bacteria) ii. lymphocytes: produce antibodies Red blood cells - Have no nucleus - Contain haemoglobin, the red pigment which gives the cell their

colour. Haemoglobin is a chemical composition of iron and protein. - Use oxygen to burn food (oxidation) - Produce CO2 as waste - Produced n the bone marrow - Transports oxygen - Oxygen combines with haemoglobin to form oxyhaemoglobin.. A

lack of iron in the blood result in anameia (weak blood) 3. Platelets – are fragments or red blood cells. They help in blood

clotting Functions of the Circulatory System

1. Transport (food, carbon dioxide, oxygen, urea, hormones, heat) 2. Defense carries disease fighting cells) 3. regulate the body temperature.

Circulation 1. Pulmonary Circulation – from heart to lungs 2. Systemic Circulation – from body to heart.

Circulation of Blood Blood enters the heart from the body parts. This blood enters at the largest vein (vena Cava). The organs would have used the oxygen in the blood to provide energy needed. This blood which is low in oxygen is called deoxygenated blood. It has a pale red colour. The blood enters into the right atrium. From the right atrium the blood flows into the right ventricle through the tricuspid valve. As the muscle of the heart contracts the blood from the right ventricle is force into the pulmonary artery. The pulmonary artery leads

to the lungs. The blood will renew its oxygen supply. The lungs supply ther blood with oxygen. This oxygen is mixed with a pigment in the cell called haemoglobin, to form oxyhaemoglobin. The blood now has a bright red colour. It reenters the heart through the pulmonary vein into the left atrium. As the muscles relax the blood flows into the left ventricle. Contraction of the hearts muscle forces the blood into the aorta, the largest artery in the body. The aorta takes this blood to the body parts before it renters the heart. William Harvey discovered circulation Concepts Diastole – ventricle relaxes, blood runs from atrium into ventricle. Systole – ventricle contracts,blood pushed out. Oxyhaemoglobin Deoxyhaemoglobin

Friction and Machines Friction is a force that opposes the movement of one object over another. A force is a pull, push or a combination of a pull and push action. A motion is the act of moving. Force is measured with a spring balance. Nature of Friction

- caused by irregularity in the surface of materials

- caused by attraction of molecules - produces heat

Factors affecting friction

- nature of the material - nature of the surface of the material - force applied

Reducing Friction

- smooth surface - lubricate: water, oil, grease - Rollers, wheels, bearings - Streamline

Benefits of Friction

- walking - stop moving objects - hold nails and screws - smooth things

Harmful effects of Friction

- wears away materials - makes work harder - produces heat and can cause fire

Machines are devices that make work easier Forces must be applied to machine to make them work.

Forces are produced by: - gravity - electricity - falling water - gasoline - muscles - springs and weights - steam - sunrays - wind

Machines help in four ways

1. transfer force from one place to another 2. increase the force 3. change the direction f the force 4. increase the distance and speed of the force

There are six types of simple machines

1. lever 2. wedge 3. wheel and axle 4. pulley 5. incline plane 6. screw

Work is done when a Load (resistance) is moved through a distance. The force exerted on a machine is called the effort. The force that the machine exerts is the resistance. The effort moves in the opposite direction to the resistance. Work = force used multiplied by distance moved Force is measured or stated in Newton and distance is measured in metres. Work is measured in Newton metres or Joules (J)

Lever The lever is a rigid bar that turns on a point called the fulcrum (pivot) The force exerted on the lever is called the effort. The force that the lever exerts is called the resistance (load) The distance from the fulcrum to the effort is called the effort arm. The distance from the load to the fulcrum is called the resistance arm.

Resistance = Mechanical advantage Effort Effort Arm = Resistance Arm Effort x Distance = Load x Distance

20g x 1 m = 5g x 4 m NB: The closer the fulcrum is to the resistance is the less effort is needed to move it. The closer the fulcrum is to the effort is the more effort that is needed to move the load. It will take less effort with a longer lever to lift a load of 100g than a shorter lever.

E L

Types of Levers 1. First Order

examples of first order lever - crow bar - see-saw - hammer pullin a nail - pig foot 2. Second Order

Examples

- wheel barrow - bottle opener - nut cracker 3. Third Order

Examples

- fishing rod - man using an axe

↓ L

↓ L

F

E L

Incline Plane (Ramp) - Is a slant surface that connects a higher level with a lower level. The steeper the slope, the more effort that is needed to move the load.

Wedge Is an incline plane with one end tapered Screw Is an incline plane wrapped around a central cylinder. The distance between two threads is called the pitch.

Pulleys Is a grooved wheel with a rope around it, fixed to an axle. Types of Pulleys

1. fixed

2. Movable

When two wheels are joined by a belt that does not cross both wheels spin in the same direction. If the wheels cross, they spin in opposite direction. When two wheels of different sizes are joined together, the smaller wheel spins faster.

Gear wheel are wheels with teeth. When two gears wheels are connected they spin in opposite direction

Wheel and axle Is a wheel fixed to an axle

Compound machines are made up of two or more simple machines.

Respiration Living things burn food in tissue to provide energy. Types of respiration

1. External: includes inspiration and expiration (breathing) 2. Internal: (tissue) release energy in the cells.

Structure of the Respiratory System

Nose:

- the nose is the passage for air. It warms and filters the air from dust. Hairs in the nose filter the air. The nose is divided into two passages called nostrils.

Nasal Passage

- These warm the air. The mucus membrane secretes mucus which moistens air and removes dust.

Organism Breathing Organs Worm Insect Man Tadpole Frog Fish Bird Reptiles Mammals Plants

Moist skin Small hole on abdomen (spiracles) Lungs Gills Lungs Gills Lungs Lungs Lungs Tiny hones on leaves (stomata)

Mouth and Pharynx - these act as passages for air. The mouth does not filter air. The

pharynx is the back of the mouth or the throat. Larynx (voice box) and Trachea (wind pipe)

- The larynx is the voice box. It is covered by the epiglottis to prevent food from entering the wind pipe during swallowing. The trachea is a long tube leading to the lungs. It is branched into the two lungs. These branches are called bronchi. Each bronchus is branched into smaller tubes called bronchioles. At the end of the bronchioles are air sacs called alveoli. The alveoli are called air sacs. It is in the air sacs that the exchange of gases takes place.

Mechanism of Breathing Inspiration

- The ribs are connected together by two sets of muscles. One set contracts and raised the ribs upwards and outwards. The muscle of the diaphragm contracts and flattens. Air enters the lungs.

Expiration

- The second set of muscles pull the ribs downwards and inwards. The diaphragm muscles relax. The actions force air out of the lungs.

Difference between Inspired and Expired Air Gases Inspired Air Expired Air Nitrogen Oxygen Carbon Dioxide Water Vapour

78% 21% 0.03% little

78% 16% 4% Saturated

Tissue Respiration - is the process where energy from food is released. Glucose is burn in

the presence of oxygen to release energy. This process is called oxidation. This process results in carbon dioxide and water are released as waste. The carbon dioxide is diffused into the blood then expelled into the lung by a process called diffusion.

C6H12O6 + O2 --------- CO2 + H2O + Energy

ScienceScienceScienceScience What is Science?What is Science?What is Science?What is Science?

Science is asking questions and finding answers to these questions. Branches of Science

- Biology: the study of all kind of life - Botany: the study of plants - Zoology: the study of animals - Ecology: the study of the interrelationship of organism and their

environment - Entomology: the study of insects - Mammalogy: the study of mammals - Astronomy: the study or stars - Agronomy: the study or management of soil - Genealogy: science of family descent - Archaeology: study of ancient buildings - Mathematics: science of numbers - Mensuration: the science of measurement - Trigonometry: science of triangles - Anthropology: study of mankind - Anatomy: study of the structure of the human

body - Physiology: study of the function of the human

body - Psychology: study of the human mind - Geology: study of rocks

Scientific InvestigationScientific InvestigationScientific InvestigationScientific Investigation

1. Observation

When we observe we use our senses. We have five senses

- Sight – What it looks like - Hearing – what it sound like - Touch – what it feels like - Smell – what it smells like - Taste – what it taste like.

The answers to our questions are our observations

2. Hypothesizing The idea to test is called a hypothesis. The hypothesis is a suggested answer to a question or problem. It does not have to be correct.

Eg. If Aspirin is added to seeds, they will grow better.

Questions Hypotheses How does moisture affect the growth of moulds?

The greater the amount of moisture the greater the growth

Do seeds need water to germinate?

Seeds kept without water will not germinate Seeds kept with water will germinate

What type of paper towel takes up water the quickest?

3. Experimenting - This is planning and

carrying out simple investigation to obtain reliable data about objects or event.

Eg. Which plant will grow taller? One grown in sand alone or one grown in fertilizer?

4. Controlling Variables How Shall We Test Our Hypothesis? To make it a fair test, identify the thing that will affect our results. These are called variables. Some variables may or may not change within the experiment. All the other things remain the same. When we plan an experiment we have to identify:

- The variable. This is the thing we change. This variable is called the manipulated variable.

- The things which remain the same are called constant variables.

- The result is what we look for. These are called responding variables.

5. Measuring

6. Classifying - this involves grouping or sorting objects or events based on

observed properties.

7. Recording Data - this is referred to how you

note the result of the experiment.

i. tables ii. graphs

8. Interpreting Data - this is explaining the meaning of data eg. Use the bar graph to determine which month had the most rain

9. Predicting - Foretelling the outcome of an event based on patterns observed Eg. Stating how must of a solid will dissolved at a given temperature. - is suggesting what will happen in the future. It answers the

question: “ What will happen next?”

“ What will happen if ….?” Important

- Remember information that may help you. - Think of what has already happen - Look for patterns - You may need to make a graph

Remember

- to find out if your prediction are correct you may have to carry out an experiment and check the result.

- A prediction is not sure to happen, it is just likely to happen

10. Inferring - This is the use of an

observation to arrive at a conclusion

- We explain what we observed

Points to remember - Think carefully before

suggesting an explanation

- Your answer/ explanation must be sensible - Your answer may not be correct, it is just likely to be correct - Sometimes you may have to change your answer.

11. Communication

- this is presentation of your data. You can do it orally or written. If it is written it can be done with the use of paragraphs, graphs, diagrams, drawings etc.

12. Planning - making a plan to find out something in order to solve a

problem. It is deciding what to test and how best to do it

For one to understand and learn science well he/she must use certain skills or processes and use then effectively.

Observe:

- Making use of the senses. Observations are the information we can find out for ourselves about objects and events around us.

Space/time relations

- This is when we observe where things are in relation to other things; in space and time.

Comparing:

- Is observing and noting the similarities and difference between things.

Communicating

- Is passing on the information to someone else.

Manipulating Materials - deals with how we handle materials.

Classifying

- is putting similar things together in the same group, and separating them from things which are different. In classifying we must observe and compare.

Measuring

- we find the size or amount when we compare to a certain unit. Investigating

- is finding out what happens when we do certain things. Thinking and practical skills are needed for investigating.

Predicting

- is giving sensible suggestions about what will happen in the future. Predictions have to be suggestions that are based on correct information. It answers the question “What will happen next?” Or “What will happen if?”

Keeping records Inferring

- this is explaining what we have observed and what might have happened. An inference is a sensible explanation, but may not be correct.

Defining Operationally

- describing the properties of things. Interpreting Data

- this is explaining the meaning or importance of information. The information may be in the form of diagram or it may be numbers in a table, or graph. We have to explain what the information is telling us.

Making hypothesis - This is a suggested answer to a question that we may ask. The

hypothesis must be sensible. It may or may not be correct. It can be tested by an experiment

Controlling Variables Experimenting

- Steps and process involves in finding an answer. Two very important things in an experiment are:

i. materials needed ii. procedure

Is Air needed for burning? Materials

- 2 candles - 1 Jar

Activities

- light candles - place jar over one candle

Electricity Electricity is the flow of electrons. Electrons are negative charges in atoms. Types of electricity

1. static 2. current

Sources of electricity

- dry cell - wet cell - batteries - generators - lightning - hydro electric plant - animals

Uses of Electricity

- cook - wash - operate fans, radios etc. - iron - to produce magnet

Circuits A circuit is the path along which electricity flows. Current flows in one direction in a circuit. Parts of a circuit

1. source of electricity 2. path (conductor) 3. appliance

A circuit is also called a tester. A circuit tester can be used to determine whether an electrical circuit has current passing through it. A circuit board has connections on it. Wires are connected to the back of the board. Sometimes the back is sealed for safety purposes.

Symbols used in electricity

Devices and Electrical concepts

- conductor are materials that allow electricity to floe through them. Eg. Water, green tree, steel, iron

- insulators: do not allow electricity to flow through them. Eg. Paper, cloth, rubber. plastic

- short circuit - transformer - fuse - switch

Types of Circuits

Safety rules in Electricity

- do not use electricity near water - do not touch electrical appliances with wet hands - always use appliances with the correct voltage - never bridge fuse ( always replace them) - turn off all electrical appliances when leaving the house - do not put conductor into outlets - do not fly kites near electrical wires

Different appliances operate on different voltage. A transformer is a device that changes current from one voltage to another. In St.Vincent and the Grenadines our homes are supplied with 220V. A transformer changes it to 110V. A dry cell give an output of 1.5V An electromagnet is magnet that is produced by electricity Making your electromagnet stronger

1. use more cells 2. make more turns on the

wire

Magnets Magnets are materials that will attract iron or steel. Types of magnets

1. Natural 2. Artifical

Magnets are named according to their shape

- Horseshoe - Bar - Button - U-shape - Disk - Cylindrical Bar magnet

The ends of a magnet are called poles. A magnet has a north seeking pole and a south seeking pole. The force of a magnet is strongest at the poles. When a magnet is cut into two each part becomes a new magnet. How to find the poles of a magnet

1. tie a bar magnet with a piece of string 2. allow the magnet to swing freely

When the magnet stops swinging the end that points to the north pole of the earth is labeled North Pole.

Laws of Magnetism When the end of magnets come together they obey the laws of magnetism

1. like poles repel each other 2. unlike poles attract each other

Magnetic field The area around a magnet where it can attract material is called the magnetic fields. Magnetic forces are measured in gauss. Making A Temporary Magnet

1. Strike a nail with a magnet in one direction. The nail becomes a temporary magnet

2. Wrap a piece of wire around a nail. Connect the ends of the wire to a battery. The nail acts as a temporary magnet.

Keeping magnets strong

1. put a soft piece of iron (keeper) across the poles of horse shoe or U – shape when not in use.

2. store bar magnets in pairs with N pole on the S pole, separated by wood or paper

3. disk or ring magnets should be stored in pairs with opposite poles together.

How magnets can be made weak

1. by dropping 2. by heating 3. by wrong storage

Uses of magnets

- to pick up things

- to keep doors close

- to hold lids of cans

- to hold paper and other objects to surfaces

- to operate electric motors, generators, compasses etc