Preparation of Low-Fat Uptake Doughnut by Dry Particle Coating Technique

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JFS E: Food Engineering and Physical Properties

Preparation of Low-Fat Uptake Doughnutby Dry Particle Coating TechniqueJ.-S. LEE, B.-K. KIM, K.-H. KIM, AND D.-J. PARK

ABSTRACT: Soybean hull–wheat flour composites were prepared and used a doughnut formulation in order to de-crease fat uptake during deep-fat frying. Soybean hulls were microparticulated by jet milling, and wheat flour wasair-classified into coarse and fine fraction by an air classifying system. The coarse fraction of wheat flour was dry-coated with the microparticulated soybean hulls by a hybridization system. To investigate the effect on fat uptake,4 different types of composites were prepared, which contained 0%, 1%, 5%, and 10% of soybean hulls. Doughnutscontaining 1%, 5%, and 10% of microparticulated hulls decreased fat contents of 11.5%, 13.6%, and 35.8%, respec-tively. As soybean hulls content increased, hardness and crispiness increased. However, sensory evaluations demon-strated that there were no significant differences in appearance, flavor, crispiness, taste, and general liking (P <

0.05). Inner crust structures of doughnut showed slight reductions in cell size and improved cellular integrity withshrinkage in the cell membrane as the content of soybean hulls increased. These results show that microparticu-lated soybean hulls may form a protective layer during frying process, and this process could be used by the foodindustry for preparing doughnuts with reduced fat uptake.

Keywords: composite, deep-fat frying, doughnut, dry particle coating, low-fat uptake

Introduction

Deep-fat frying is a popular way to prepare tasty foods quickly(Mellema 2003). Frying is often selected as a method for cre-

ating unique flavors and texture in processed foods that improvetheir overall palatability (Moyano and Pedreschi 2006). Fried foodsnormally absorb great amounts of oil during frying. However, theystill remain popular although excess fat consumption is consideredas the key dietary contributor to high blood cholesterol, high bloodpressure, and coronary heart disease (Albert and Mittal 2002; Shihand others 2005).

Over the last decade, it has been recognized that reduction offat content of deep-fried products is desirable (Mellema 2003). Therecent trend toward reducing fat content in fried foods has beensupported by the development of formulations with specific in-gredients. Various ingredients such as alginates (Duxbury 1989),powdered cellulose (Henderson 1988; Ang 1993), methyl cellulose(Pinthus and others 1993), soy protein isolate (Martin and Davis1986; Rayner and others 2000), and gums (Albert and Mittal 2002)have been used. Whey protein, egg albumin, and carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) improved the breading adhesion significantly (Su-derman and others 1981). Hydroxymethyl cellulose (HPMC) andmethyl cellulose (MC) were also proved as barriers to fat absorptionin breading and batters (Meyers 1990). Generally, these materialshave been utilized only by simply mixing with wheat flour, which isthe major component of fried products. However, by simple mixingprocesses, optimal performance to reduce fat uptake cannot be ob-tained. Therefore, substituting materials must be properly coatedto main powders to produce composite such as dry particle coating.

Dry particle coating is used to create new-generation materialsby combining different powders with different physical and chemi-

MS 20070757 Submitted 10/07/2007, Accepted 12/21/2007. Authors Lee,B.-K. Kim, and Park are with Korea Food Research Inst., 516, Baekhyun-Dong, Bundang-Ku, Sungnam-Si, Kyunggi-Do, 463-746, Korea. AuthorK.-H. Kim is with Dept. of Food Science, Korea Univ., Seoul, 136-701, Korea.Direct inquiries to author Park (E-mail: [email protected]).

cal properties to form composites, which show new functionality orimprove the characteristics of known materials (Pfeffer and others2001). A dry particle coating technique is favorable because of itsenvironmental friendliness, safety, and cost. Because water or or-ganic solvent is not used, there is no need to be evaporated, whichleads to shorter processing times and consequently to a lower en-ergy demand (Caroline and others 2006).

Many other applications of dry coated materials can be foundin the literature such as coloring and UV protection in cosmetics,production of toner particles with different colors, metal/ceramiccomposites, thermal spray materials, ceramic filters, solid lubri-cants, and electric contact materials (Naito and others 1993). Inaddition, softer coatings for controlled release microcapsules andfood materials containing cellulose fibers were produced (Watanoand others 2000; Freichel and Lippold 2004). Soybean hulls havebean used to decrease fat content of cakes and cookies (Ku andothers 1996). In our previous research, there was about 24.4% fatuptake reduction of potato sticks when composites were used asfrying batter (Kim and others 2008).

Soybean hulls represent about 8% to 10% of the weight of soy-bean grain (Sessa and Wolf 2001). Soybean hulls are inexpensiveby-products of soybean processing and are high in fiber and lowin energy and protein content. Therefore, most soybean hulls havebeen used in animal feed (Noblet and Le Goff 2001; DeFrain andothers 2003).

The objective of the present study is to apply the hybridizationsystem, which is one of the dry particle coating devices, to coat theguest soybean hulls to the host wheat flour, and to utilize them as adoughnut formulation in order to decrease fat uptake.

Materials and Methods

MaterialsSoybean hulls were kindly donated by Shindongbang Ltd., Korea.

Whole wheat flour (CJ Ltd., Korea) was purchased from a local store.

C© 2008 Institute of Food Technologists Vol. 73, Nr. 3, 2008—JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE E137doi: 10.1111/j.1750-3841.2008.00670.xFurther reproduction without permission is prohibited

E:FoodEngineering&PhysicalProperties

Preparation of low-fat uptake doughnut . . .

Soybean oil (CJ Ltd.) was used as the frying medium for deep-fatfrying. Petroleum ether (Showa Ltd., Japan) and thimble filter (ToyoRoshi Kaisha Ltd., Japan) were used for measuring the amount of fatby soxhlet apparatus.

Preparation of microparticulated soybean hullsSoybean hulls were put in nylon mesh zipper bag (800 × 600 ×

20 mm) and washed with water, then dried at 40 ◦C for 17 h aftercentrifugal dehydration for 2 min. These were ground by a pin mill(Gyung-Chang Ltd., Korea). Soybean hulls after pin milling weremicroparticulated by jet mill (Model 100 AFG, Alpine Aktiengesell-shaft Augsburg, Germany) at cutoff wheel speed (CWS) of 10000rpm. Microparticulated soybean hulls were used for the guest ma-terials at dry particle coating.

Preparation of air-classified wheat flourWheat flour was classified into coarse and fine fraction at air

classifying wheel speeds (ACWS) of 1500 to 6000 rpm by an air clas-sifying system (Model 50 ATP, Alpine, Germany) (Bauder and others2004). The coarse fraction of wheat flour was used for the host ma-terial at dry particle coating.

microparticulatd

soybean hulls Wheat flour

Low fat uptake food composite

Hybridization

Soybean hulls

Jet milling

Fat

Deep fat frying

Wheat flour Fat

Control

Deep fat frying

Air classification

Figure 1 --- Schematics showing lowerfat uptake of food composite preparedby dry particle coating compared withcontrol.

Dry particle coatingThe coarse fraction of wheat flour was coated with the micropar-

ticulated soybean hulls by a hybridization system (NHS-0, Nara Ma-chinery, Japan) (Pfeffer and others 2001). The condition for dry par-ticle coating was 8000 rpm for 3 min at 0.6 MPa (air pressure). Theratio of wheat flour (host particles) to soybean hulls (guest parti-cles) was 99:1 (SH-1H), 95:5 (SH-5H), and 90:10 (SH-10H), respec-tively. The scheme is described in Figure 1.

FryingDoughnuts were prepared by conventional method. The for-

mula was whole wheat flour or soybean hull-wheat flour composite100 g, whole egg 40 g, sugar 45 g, butter 15 g, baking powder 3 g,and salt 1 g. Dough was made using a mixer (Bethel Ltd., Korea) ac-cording to straight dough method, then sheeted into discs, 3 cm indiameter and 0.3 cm high. These were fried in a controlled temper-ature deep-fat fryer (Princess 2627WA, Manhang Electronics Ltd.,China) filled with 3 L of commercial soybean oil. Soybean oil wasused as the frying medium and dough sheets were deep-fat fried insoybean oil at 180 ± 2 ◦C for 30 s for each side, and then 1 min foreach side instantly. After frying, the doughnuts were air-cooled atroom temperature on steel wire to remove excess surface oil.

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Analysis of samplesParticle size analysis. Particles were analyzed for their size dis-

tribution using a laser diffraction particle size analyzer (Compag-nie Industrielle Des Lasers, CILAS 1064, France). Particles were sus-pended in distilled water and sonication and magnetic stirring dur-ing the measurement.

Colorimetric measurements. Assays were carried out with aMinolta colorimeter (CR-300, Minolta, Japan) calibrated with astandard (Y = 93.2, x = 0.3133, y = 0.3192). The Hunter scale wasused: lightness (L) and chromacity parameters a (red–green) and b(yellow–blue) were measured.

Fat content. Fat contents of doughnuts were determined ondried samples using a combined technique of successive batch andsemicontinuous Soxhlet extraction for 18 h using petroleum etheras a solvent.

Scanning electron microscope (SEM). The microstructuresof formulated powder were examined using a scanning elec-tron microscope (model S-2380N, Hitachi Ltd., Japan). Thefried samples were fixed in 2.5% glutaraldehyde buffer with0.1 M phosphate buffer at pH 7.4, which were fixed cold (4 ◦C) in thesame buffer for 1 to 2 h, then rinsed 3 times for 30 min, dehydratedin ethanol, and lyophilized (Khalil 1999). After that, small amountsof powder (< 0.1 g) were applied onto double-face tape (Toyo Ink.Inc., Japan) attached to the top of a stub (12-mm dia) and then ex-cess was removed from the stub by a jet of air using an air blower(Hansa Inc., Japan) and coated for 60 s with gold-palladium in anE-1010 ion sputter coater (Hitachi Ltd.). The surface of the particleswas observed at 18 kV, and a representative image on a screen wasprinted.

Texture analysis. Hardness and crispiness of doughnuts weremeasured by a texture analyzer (TA HD plus, Stable Micro SystemsLtd., U.K.) equipped with 5.1 N load cell. Doughnuts were subjectedto single-cycle compression–decompression test to a penetrationdepth of 10 mm using a cylindrical probe of 2.54 cm (1 inch) diame-ter at a test speed of 2 mm/s. The maximum force value was consid-ered to be an indication of the overall hardness and the linear dis-tance was considered as an indication of crispiness. The greater thelinear distance, the crisper the product (Nalesnik and others 2007).

Sensory evaluation. Sensory evaluation of doughnuts was car-ried out for appearance, flavor, crispiness, taste, and general likingon 9-point hedonic scale (1 = extremely dislike and 9 = extremelylike) by a trained panel of 10 members.

Statistical analysisData were interpreted by analysis of variance (ANOVA) with

Duncan’s multiple range tests on SPSS 10.0 software (SPSS Inc.,Chicago, Ill., U.S.A.). Statistical significance was expressed at the 5%level.

Results and Discussion

Preparation of microparticulated soybeanhulls and air-classified wheat flour

When soybean hulls were washed in a nylon mesh zipper bag,the recovery of soybean hulls was 97.3%. The mean diameter ofstarting materials for jet milling after pin milling was 204 μm andthe mean diameter of the microparticulated soybean hulls at CWSof 10000 rpm was 10.97 μm (Table 1). The L value was higher thanthat of the original one. Wheat flour was classified into fine andcoarse fraction according to the ACWS (Table 2), in which wheatflour of 76.06 μm of mean diameter was used for dry coating withsoybean hulls.

Dry particle coatingThe scheme of dry particle coating process is described in

Figure 1. Generally, in a hybridization system, the powders (hostand guest particles) placed in a processing part of the vessel aresubject to high impaction and dispersion due to the high rotat-ing speed of the rotor (Pfeffer and others 2001). The particles un-dergo many collisions, which allow the formation of fine agglom-erates and powder coating due to the embedding or filming of theguest particles on the surface of the host particles (Pfeffer and oth-ers 2001). Although there are many factors affecting the effective-ness of dry particle coating, the size difference between host andguest particles has been thought to be the most important (Pfefferand others 2001). In this study, wheat flour and soybean hulls wereused as host and guest particles, respectively.

Figure 2 shows microparticulated soybean hulls, coarse frac-tion of wheat flour, and composites. Spherical materials are wheatflour (starch) and small nonspherical materials are soybean hulls,in which the higher the content of soybean hulls, the more ef-fectively soybean hulls were coated into starch, indicating thatcoating efficiency is proportional to the content of guest soybeanhulls.

When it comes to color, there was no significant change in red-ness. But as the content of soybean hulls increased, the L value de-creased and the b value increased, which means that the brightnessdecreased because of an increase in the content of soybean hulls(Table 3).

FryingTo investigate the effect of dry particle coating of soybean hulls

on fat uptake, 4 different types of soybean hull–wheat flour com-posites were prepared at different amounts of substituted soybeanhulls: WF-100 (wheat flour), SH-1H, SH-5H, and SH-10H. In thecomposites, the higher the content of soybean hulls, the lower thefat uptake. In case of SH-1H, SH-5H, and SH-10H, about 11.5%,13.6%, and 35.8% of fat content were decreased, respectively (from40.5 ± 3.2 to 35.8 ± 4.9, 35.6 ± 1.7, and 26.0 ± 1.1) (P < 0.05) (Fig-ure 3). In the mixtures, SH-5M (mixture of wheat flour and soybeanhulls, ratio 95:5) and SH-10M (mixture of wheat flour and soybeanhulls, ratio 90:10) showed decreases about 13.8% and 27.7% of fat

Table 1 --- Changes in color and mean size of soybean hullsafter pin milling and jet milling.

Color Mean particleSamplea L a b size (μm)

Control 73.13 ± 0.13 –0.07 ± 0.09 16.81 ± 0.53 ---SH-P 79.17 ± 0.26 –0.04 ± 0.04 14.78 ± 0.27 204.00SH-J 85.32 ± 1.56 –0.21 ± 0.04 9.82 ± 0.21 10.97aControl: soybean hulls.SH-P: pin milled soybean hulls.SH-J: jet milled (10000 rpm) soybean hulls after pin milling.

Table 2 --- Changes in particle size of wheat flour after airclassification and the ratio of fine to coarse fraction.

Mean particle size (μm) Ratio (%)ACWSa

(rpm) Fine Coarse Fine Coarse

1500 44.00 ± 3.24 76.97 ± 4.21 87 132000 37.82 ± 3.01 77.11 ± 3.75 68 323000 31.47 ± 2.54 76.06 ± 2.12 58 424000 12.74 ± 2.02 64.03 ± 4.31 39 615000 10.84 ± 2.45 61.80 ± 3.28 25 756000 10.04 ± 1.84 60.18 ± 4.21 19 81aMeans air classifying wheel speed.

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Figure 2 --- Scanning electron micrographs of soybeanhulls (A), coarse fraction of wheat flour (B), SH-1H (C),SH-5H (E), and, SH-10H (G). Magnification of (C), (E), and(G) are shown in (D), (F), and (H).

Table 3 --- Changes in color of composites, sheets, anddoughnuts after dry particle coating.

Color

Samplea L a b

CompositesWF-100 97.23 ± 0.30A –1.09 ± 0.09B 6.54 ± 0.18A

SH-1H 96.20 ± 0.73B –1.43 ± 0.03A 7.66 ± 0.23B

SH-5H 94.29 ± 0.43C –1.12 ± 0.02B 7.84 ± 0.14B

SH-10H 92.52 ± 0.89D –0.94 ± 0.05C 8.28 ± 0.14C

Sheetsb

WF-100 97.32 ± 3.67A –0.61 ± 0.36A 2.31 ± 0.93B

SH-1H 102.07 ± 2.93B –0.82 ± 0.61A 3.04 ± 2.09B

SH-5H 85.12 ± 8.53A 4.77 ± 0.21C –7.52 ± 0.52A

SH-10H 96.77 ± 2.56A 0.91 ± 0.19B 40.00 ± 1.18C

Doughnutsc

WF-100 79.82 ± 6.79A,B 5.18 ± 1.45A –0.93 ± 4.85A

SH-1H 89.00 ± 4.08A 6.02 ± 0.93A 8.41 ± 1.01B

SH-5H 70.35 ± 15.90B 9.68 ± 1.86B 8.56 ± 2.88B

SH-10H 55.09 ± 2.11A 9.38 ± 1.00B 33.51 ± 0.55C

aWF-100: wheat flour.SH-1H: The ratio of wheat flour to soybean hulls is 99:1.SH-5H: The ratio of wheat flour to soybean hulls is 95:5.SH-10H: The ratio of wheat flour to soybean hulls is 90:10.bSheets of dough before frying.cDoughnuts after frying for 3 min at 180 ± 2 ◦C.Means in a column with different letters are significantly different (P < 0.05).

content, respectively (from 40.5 ± 3.2 to 34.9 ± 2.5 and 29.3 ± 1.5)(P < 0.05) (Figure 4). These results indicate that soybean hulls mightform a rigid protective layer and consequently prevent the oil pen-etration into the doughnut. In addition, the soybean hull–wheatflour composites were more effective for limiting fat uptake thanthe mixtures. Incidentally, reduction of fat uptake in cakes andcookies was observed when wheat flour was partially substitutedwith soybean hulls by simple mixing (Ku and others 1996).

Figure 5 shows that inner crust morphology of doughnuts byscanning electron microscope. WF-100 showed ruptured cells withlarge void spaces due to migration of water. In contrast, althoughSH-1H showed the similar structure of WF-100, SH-5H showedslight reduction in cell size and improved cellular integrity withshrinkage in the cell membrane, and SH-10H showed a higherdegree of shrunken structure with cellular integrity. These re-sults are similar to previous studies (Khalil 1999; Kim and others2008), which might explain the results of differences in fat uptake(Figure 4).

WF-100 SH-1H SH-5H SH-10H

Fat

Co

nte

nt

(%

)

0

10

20

30

40

50

A

B

B

C

Figure 3 --- Fat content of doughnuts made with soy-bean hull–wheat flour composite. WF-100, wheat flour;SH-1H, the ratio of wheat flour to soybean hulls is 99:1;SH-5H, the ratio of wheat flour to soybean hulls is 95:5;SH-10H, the ratio of wheat flour to soybean hulls is 90:10(frying time = 3 min). Means in a column with differentletters are significantly different (P < 0.05).

a

WF-100 SH-1M SH-5M SH-10M

Fat

Co

nte

nt

(%)

0

10

20

30

40

50

A

B

B

A

Figure 4 --- Fat content of doughnuts made with soy-bean hull–wheat flour mixture. WF-100, wheat flour;SH-1M, the ratio of wheat flour to soybean hulls is 99:1;SH-5M, the ratio of wheat flour to soybean hulls is 95:5;SH-10M, the ratio of wheat flour to soybean hulls is 90:10(frying time = 3 min). Means in a column with differentletters are significantly different (P < 0.05).


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Figure 5 --- Inner cruststructures ofdoughnuts made withwheat flour (A),SH-1H (B), SH-5H (C),and SH-10H (D).

Table 4 --- Changes in hardness and crispiness of dough-nuts with content of soybean hulls

Samplea Hardness (N) Crispiness (N·s)

Fried with mixtureWF-100 312 ± 113A 1207 ± 493A

SH-1M 447 ± 135A 728 ± 468A

SH-5M 1557 ± 345B 1605 ± 360B

SH-10M 1825 ± 436B 1862 ± 434B

Fried with compositeSH-1H 731 ± 151A 1298 ± 380A,B

SH-5H 2149 ± 432B 2489 ± 310C

SH-10H 4198 ± 421C 4010 ± 809D

a WF-100: wheat flour.SH-1M and SH-1H: The ratio of wheat flour to soybean hulls is 99:1.SH-5M and SH-5H: The ratio of wheat flour to soybean hulls is 95:5.SH-10M and SH-10H: The ratio of wheat flour to soybean hulls is 90:10.Means in a column with different letters are significantly different (P < 0.05).

Generally, fat in deep-fat fried food products produces an at-tractive and tasty surface (Garcia and others 2002). When fat con-tent decreases, sensory characteristics might be affected. There-fore, there is a need for research on texture properties, chromaticity,and sensory evaluation.

Table 4 shows the changes in the hardness and the crispiness ofdoughnut at different contents of soybean hulls with which wheatflour was coated. It was found that there was a gradual increasein the hardness and crispiness value with content of soybean hulls(P < 0.05). When it comes to mixtures of soybean hulls and wheatflour, similar results were observed.

Table 3 shows differences of color value of composites, sheets,and doughnuts. As the content of soybean hulls increased, thebrightness decreased, which might be associated with color of

soybean hulls. This loss of brightness might cause a negativeeffect on sensory value (Table 5). However, sensory evaluationshowed that there were no significant differences in appear-ance, flavor, crispiness, taste, and general liking (P < 0.05), al-though SH-10H showed a little low value in appearance (Table 5);therefore, by controlling the amount of soybean hulls, low-fat up-take fried products with high sensory value can be prepared.

Cellulose derivatives have been used as ingredients for fryingbatters or edible coatings for deep-fat frying. These have beenknown to form a protective layer between food samples and fryingmedium to inhibit the transfer of moisture and fat (Mallikarjunanand others 1997; Garcia and others 2002). Although soybean hullshave been known to have similar effects (Ku and others 1996), theyhave not been utilized in the food industry, but only in animal feeds(Noblet and Le Goff 2001; DeFrain and others 2003). However, theabove-mentioned results indicate that soybean hulls can be appliedto the high value-added food industry. In addition, by controllingthe amount of soybean hulls, a low-fat uptake doughnut with littlesoy flavor could be prepared.

Conclusions

The soybean hulls were microparticulated by jet mill and weredry-coated to the wheat flour by hybridization system at dif-

ferent ratios. These composites were applied to reduce fat uptakeof doughnuts in frying. The coating efficiency is proportional to thecontent of guest soybean hulls. About 11.5% and 35.8% of fat con-tent were reduced by using SH-1H and SH-5H, respectively. Gen-erally, when fat content decreases, sensory characteristics mightbe affected. Although SH-10H showed a little low value in appear-ance, there was no significant difference in flavor, crispiness, taste,and general liking. It is concluded that low-fat uptake doughnuts

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Table 5 --- Sensory evaluation of doughnuts with content of soybean hulls (frying time = 3 min).

Samplea Appearance Flavor Taste Crispiness General liking

WF-100 5.90 ± 1.71A 5.10 ± 1.83NS 5.25 ± 1.92NS 4.80 ± 1.77NS 5.45 ± 1.64NS

SH-1H 5.95 ± 1.61A 5.55 ± 1.32 5.65 ± 1.69 5.55 ± 1.28 5.75 ± 1.29SH-5H 5.40 ± 1.90A 5.73 ± 2.14 5.45 ± 2.26 5.50 ± 2.01 5.08 ± 2.04SH-10H 3.90 ± 2.13B 5.20 ± 2.42 4.75 ± 2.38 4.75 ± 2.34 4.73 ± 2.00a WF-100: wheat flour.SH-1H: The ratio of wheat flour to soybean hulls is 99:1.SH-5H: The ratio of wheat flour to soybean hulls is 95:5.SH-10H: The ratio of wheat flour to soybean hulls is 90:10.Means in a column with different letters are significantly different (P < 0.05).NSmeans no significance.

could be made by a dry particle coating technique with differentcontents of soybean hulls. This means that soybean hulls can forma protective layer between food samples and frying medium, andcan be applied to the food industry as frying materials to reducefat uptake.

AcknowledgmentsThis study was supported by the Korea Food Research Inst.(E054006).

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Preparation of Low-Fat Uptake Doughnut by Dry Particle Coating Technique