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Prenatal Stress, Postpartum Depression and A4achment Dr Wendy Duncan Senior Specialist – Child Psychiatry Charlo4e Maxeke Johannesburg Academic Hospital Lecturer, Division of Psychiatry Department of Neurosciences University of Witwatersrand

Prenatal(Stress,(Postpartum( Depression(and(A4achment€¦ · Prenatal(Stress,(Postpartum(Depression(and(A4achment Dr(Wendy(Duncan(Senior(Specialist–Child(Psychiatry(Charlo4e(Maxeke(Johannesburg(Academic(Hospital

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Page 1: Prenatal(Stress,(Postpartum( Depression(and(A4achment€¦ · Prenatal(Stress,(Postpartum(Depression(and(A4achment Dr(Wendy(Duncan(Senior(Specialist–Child(Psychiatry(Charlo4e(Maxeke(Johannesburg(Academic(Hospital

Prenatal  Stress,  Postpartum  Depression  and  A4achment  Dr  Wendy  Duncan  Senior  Specialist  –  Child  Psychiatry  Charlo4e  Maxeke  Johannesburg  Academic  Hospital  Lecturer,  Division  of  Psychiatry  Department  of  Neurosciences  University  of  Witwatersrand  

 

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•  The  infant-­‐parent  a4achment  can  be  considered  the  infant’s  most  important  emoKon  regulaKon  system    (Bowlby,  1969/1982)  

•  Early  experiences  are  thought  to  shape  the  a4achment  relaKonship,    

•  Hence,  influencing  regulaKon  of  behavioural  and  physiological  responses  

•  First  year  of  life,  regulaKon  and  coping  are  primarily  externally  organised      

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FACTORS  IMPACTING  on    ATTACHMENT  RELATIONSHIP  •  Family  and  cultural  support    •  Demands  of  other  children  and  family  members  •  Socioeconomic  status  •  Mother’s  state  of  physical  health  •  A  mother’s  state  of  anxiety  or  emoKon  •  The  mother’s  own  internalized  a4achment  representaKons    (van  Ijzendoorn  MH,  Psychol  Bull,  1995)  

•  “MentalizaKon”      (Fonagy,  Infant  Mental  Health  Journal,  1991)  •  RepresentaKons  of  her  own  caregivers                  (Slade,  A4ach  Hum  Dev,  2005)  

   

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“GHOSTS  in  the  NURSERY”  

•  Disturbed  internal  a4achment  in  the  parent  give  rise  to  disturbed  care  giving                (Fraiberg  et  al,  1980)  •  Maternal  DysregulaKon  becomes  dysregulaKng                    (Main  &  Hesse,  1990)                (Lyons-­‐Ruth,  1999)  

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IMPORTANTLY…..  

•  Maternal  psychopatholgy  potenKally  has  an  untoward  effect  on  a4achment  

•  This  in  turn    results  in  a  mechanism  by  which  children  become  developmentally  vulnerable  

•  At  every  stage  of  prenatal  development,  genes  guide  the  “Kming”  of  certain  events  BUT  environment  modifies  the  phenotype                    (Thomson,  J  Trauma  &  Dissoc,  2007)  

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Remember….  

•  Hofer  first  described  what  he  called  ‘‘hidden  regulators”                                    (Hofer,  Psychosom  Med,  1984)  –  Bi-­‐direcKonal  process  of  regulaKon    –  mechanism  for  relaKonal  feedback    –  help  the  infant  maintain  basic  physiologic  homeostasis  with  •  body  temperature,  arterial  blood  pressure,  as  well  as  sleep,  feeding,  and  eliminaKon  pa4erns  

•  Stern  has  referred  to  ‘‘affecKve  a4unement”              (Stern,  The  Interpersonal  World  of  the  Infant,  1985)  

•  Tronick  and  Gianino  to  ‘‘mutual  emoKon  regulaKon’’              (Tronick  &  Gianino,  New  Dir  Child  Dev,  1986)    

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•  This  regulatory  input  is  not  only  EMOTIONAL,  it  is  also  PHYSIOLOGICAL  

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PRENATAL  MENTAL  HEALTH  

•  Maternal  psychiatric  problems  and  psychological  stress  impact  on  child  health  before  birth  

•  Stress,  anxiety  and  depression  –  associated  with  altered  foetal  and  neurobehavioural  development.  

•  Prenatal  development  is  characterised  by  sensiKve  periods,  “developmental  windows”  

•  “Fetal  programming”  –  fetus’  physiological  adaptaKon  to  the  characterisKcs  of  intrauterine  milieu        (Talge  et  al,  J  Child  Psychol  Psych,  2007)  

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•  Fetal  programming  -­‐  while  adapKve  in  the  uterus,  might  make  the  child  vulnerable  once  in  the  world  

•  This  does  not  necessarily  occur  in  a  determinisKc  manner  

•  Number  of  factors  modify  these  outcomes  •  Depends  in  part  on  nature  of  stressful  events  

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PRENATAL  STRESS  can  result  in….  

•  Lower  birth  weight  •  Pre-­‐term  labour  •  Greater  right  frontal  brain  acKvaKon  (assoc.  with  –ve  affect  throughout  life)  

•  Sleep  disturbances  •  Poorer  performance  on  neuro-­‐developmental  assessments  

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PRENATAL  STRESS  and  PRIMITIVE  DEFENSES    •  Prenate  reflex  acKvaKon  is  criKcal  to  support  experience  dependent  CNS  maturaKon  

•  Extremes  bring  about  regulatory  instability  •  Reflexive  behaviours  emerge  and  are  ‘pracKced’  –  stereotypical  “fixed  acKon  pa4erns”  

•  PrimiKve  defensive  reflexes  underpin  threat  response  behaviour  

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PRENATAL  STRESS  and  PRIMITIVE  DEFENSES    

•  Stressed  prenates  spend  nine  months  “training”  and  “preparing”  to  enter  a  hosKle  world  

•  Physiological  and  motor  reflexive  bias  towards  threat  

•  Engage  in  defensive  reflexive  behaviours  

(Thomson,  J  Trauma  &  Dissoc,  2007)  

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Why  this  ma4ers….  •  Stress  may  become  

embedded  in  infant-­‐caregiver  interacKons  

•  Impact  on  the  challenges  that  the  mother  faces  with  her  infant  

•  Accompanied  by  other  variables,  this  will  ulKmately  impact  on  the  ATTACHMENT  RELATIONSHIP  

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PRENATAL  STRESS  

•  Robust  associaKons  with  lasKng  effects  on  metabolic  and  cardiovascular  funcKon  

•  Robust  evidence  to  show  that  it  predicts  for  –  CogniKve,  behavioural  and  later  psychiatric  problems  

•  Associated  with  infant  fearfulness  •  Exposure  to  corKsol  is  believed  to  be  a  contributory  mechanism            (Bergman  et  al,  J  Am  Acad  Child  Adol  Psych,  2007)            (Bergman  et  al,  Biol  Psych,  2010)  

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THE  HPA-­‐AXIS  

11  Beta-­‐hydroxysteroid  dehydrogenase  

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It  has  been  shown  that….  

•  The  effects  of  intrauterine  corKsol  exposure  can  be  ELIMINATED  by  sensiKve  early  rearing  environment  

(Bergman  et  al,  Biol  Psych,  2010)  •  The  a4achment  relaKonship  can  inform  the  outcome  

 

 

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PERINATAL  DEPRESSION  •  Depression  common  in  perinatal  period  •  8-­‐11%  -­‐  major/minor  depression  during  pregnancy    

•  Nearly  20%  in  first  3  months  post-­‐partum  •  This  impacts  on  a4achment  •  Subsequent  associaKons  with    – EmoKonal  regulaKon  problems  – Behavioural  dysregulaKon  – Risk  for  future  psychopathology      

         (Monk  et  al,  Arch  Womens  Ment  Health,  2008)  

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RISK  PREDICTION  –  PERINATAL  DEPRESSION  •  Premenstrual  mood  

changes  •  History  of  affecKve  illness  •  Marital  (relaKonship)  

dissaKsfacKon  •  Poor  social  support  •  Recent  stressful  events  •  Lower  educaKon  •  Younger  maternal  age  •  Unwanted  pregnancy  

                     (O’Hara,  Arch  Gen  Psych,  1986)  

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RISK  PREDICTION  –  POSTNATAL  DEPRESSION  •  Previous  depression  •  Depression  and  anxiety  during  pregnancy  •  Stressful  life  events  •  Lack  of  social  supports  •  Low  self-­‐esteem  •  Unwell  infant    

                       (Da  Costa,  J  Affect  Dis,  2000)  

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MATERNAL  “ATTACHMENT  STYLE”    and  PERINATAL  DEPRESSION    •  Insecure  a4achment  style  and  accompanying  cogniKve  schemas  – Worry  about  emoKonal  availability  and  support  of  others  

– Distrust  or  fear  of  closeness  – SelecKvely  negaKve  a4enKon  to  aspects  of  interpersonal  interacKons  

•  PredisposiKon  to  postpartum  depression                    (McMahon  et  al,  J  Affect  Disord,  2005)  

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•  AnKcipaKon  of  pregnancy  as  acKvaKng  ‘self-­‐other’  a4achment  representaKons  

•  There  is  a  link  between  the  prospecKve  mother’s  own  a4achment  style  and  her  appraisal  of  her  pregnancy  – More  fearful  and  less  secure,  associated  with  greater  pregnancy  distress  

•  Insecure  a4achment  style  in  the  mother  is  associated  with  greater  depression  during  pregnancy  and  greater  postpartum  depression  – éhassles,  êupliqs  

   (Monk  et  al,  Arch  Womens  Ment  Health,  2008)  

   

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Why  is  this  important?...  

•  Significant  influence  on  caregiver  sensiKvity  •  Impacts  maternal  responsiveness  •  More  likely  to  be  associated  with  negaKve  cogniKons  towards  the  foetus  

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CONSIDERING  PRENATAL    DEPRESSION  •  NegaKve  effect  on  foetus’s  physiological  regulaKon  

•  Related  to  higher  corKsol  levels  in  infants  

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EFFECT  of  DEPRESSION  on  the  ATTACHMENT  RELATIONSHIP  •  Impacts  on  parental  sensiKvity  •  Reduces  parenKng  responsiveness  •  Reduces  affecKon  and  reciprocity  •  Increases  intrusion  •  Increases  puniKveness            (Wan  &  Green,  Arch  Womens  Ment  Health,  2009)  

•  Inconsistent  support  for  infant’s  budding  engagement  •  Less  competent  at  construcKng  growth-­‐promoKng  environment  

•  Reduced  touch            (Feldman  et  al,  J  Am  Acad  Child  Adol  Psych,  2009)  

               

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MATERNAL  DEPRESSION  and  ATTACHMENT  REVISITED  •  Impaired  a4achment  is  commonly  assumed  •  Some  research  has  shown  the  relaKonship  to  be  equivocal;  many  inconsistencies  

•  Clinical  samples  associated  with  insecure  a4achment  pa4erns  

•  There  are  many  factors  presumed  to  moderate  the  link  

•  SES  is  not  one  of  them!                  (Wan  &  Green,  Arch  Womens  Ment  Health,  2009)  

 

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MODERATING  FACTORS  

•  Chronicity  of  depression,  length  of  Kme  of  exposure  of  infant                    (McMahon  et  al,  J  Child  Psychol  Psych,  2006)  

•  ‘Unresolved’  a4achment  state  (from  loss  or  trauma)  –  associated  with  persistent  depression              (Fonagy  &  Target,  A4ach  Hum  Dev,  2005)  

•  Behavioural  intrusion  and  disengagement                  (Goodman  &  Gotlieb,  Psychol  Rev,  1999)  

•  Comorbid  mental  health  problems  e.g.  anxiety  and  SUDs        (Carter,  J  Am  Acad  Child  Adol  Psych,  2001)  

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IN  THE  INFANT….  

•  Insecure  and  disorganised  a4achment  pa4erns  have  been  described  

•  Insecure  resistant  pa4erns  has  been  found  in  some  research  

•  Infant’s  uncertainty  about  the  mothers’  availability  is  associated  with  – Heightened  a4achment  behaviours  –  Increased  monitoring  of  the  caregiver  by  the  infant    –  Reduced  exploratory  competence  

                   (Luijk  et  al,  Dev  Psychobiol,  2010)  

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DEPRESSION,  CORTISOL  and  ATTACHMENT  •  The  infant-­‐parent  a4achment  relaKonship  is  the  infant’s  most  important  emoKon  regulaKon  system  

•  Temperament  seems  to  play  a  role  in  stress  physiology  

•  Resistant  a4achment  pa4ern  associated  with  more  aberrant  corKsol  levels  in  the  SSP  

•  Avoidant  a4achment  style  somewhat  buffered  against  corKsol  reacKvity                            (Luijk  et  al,  Dev  Psychobiol,  2010)  

   

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Integrated  Model  for  Transmission  of  Risk  

Heritability  

Innate  dysfuncKonal  neuroregulatory  mechanisms  

Exposure  to  -­‐ve  affects,  maladapKve  

cogniKons  and      behaviours    

Stressful    environment  

• Psychobiological      dysfuncKon  • Skills  deficits  • MaladapKve  strategies  

• CogniKve  • AffecKve  • Behavioural  • Interpersonal      

 

Childhood  or  Adolescent  psycho  

pathology  

Adapted  from  Goodman  &  Gotlieb,  Psychol  Review,  1999  

Page 30: Prenatal(Stress,(Postpartum( Depression(and(A4achment€¦ · Prenatal(Stress,(Postpartum(Depression(and(A4achment Dr(Wendy(Duncan(Senior(Specialist–Child(Psychiatry(Charlo4e(Maxeke(Johannesburg(Academic(Hospital

INTERVENTION  STRATEGIES  

•  Prevent  unwanted  pregnancy  •  Management  begins  in  the  womb!  •  Screening  •  Risk  idenKficaKon  •  Treatment  in  pregnancy  •  Post-­‐partum  intervenKons  •  CreaKng  greater  maternal  sensiKvity*                            (Cooper  et  al,  BMJ,  2009)