CONTENTS

Preface xv

Chapter 1 Psychology and History 1 Questions to Consider 1 Introduction 1

Studying the History of Psychology 2 Person or Zeitgeist? 2 Ixion's Wheel or Jacob's Ladder? 3 The New History of Psychology 4

The New History of Science 4 Feminism and the Psychology of Women 6 Psychology as a Social Construction 9

Psychological Research as a Social Construction 10 Reconciling the 'Old' and 'New' Histories of Psychology 12 Questions for Reflection 13 Important Names, Works, and Concepts 14 Recommended Readings 15

Chapter 2 Touchstones: The Origins of Psychological Thought 16 Questions to Consider 16 Introduction 16 Touchstones 17 Pythagoras (570-495 ВСЕ) 17

Pythagorean Cosmology 19 The Pythagorean Opposites 19 Pythagorean Mathematics 9

Plato (427-347 ВСЕ) 23 Pythagoras, Plato, and the Problem of the Irrational 23 The Forms 25

Lao-Tsu (sixth century ВСЕ) 29 The Tension between Confucianism and Taoism 29 What is Tao? 30 The Book of Changes 31

Aristotle (384-323 ВСЕ) 35 Aristotle's Differences with Plato 35 The Nature of Human Action 37 Memory 38

St Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) and the Medieval View of the Universe 41

Questions for Reflection 44 Important Names, Works, and Concepts 44 Recommended Readings 45

Chapter 3 Touchstones: From Descartes to Darwin 46 Questions to Consider 46 Introduction 46

Rene Descartes (1596-1650) 47 The Body as a Machine 49

Isaac Newton (1642-1727) 51 The Laws of Motion 53 Can Newton's Laws be Generalized to Psychology? 53 The Nature of Colour 55

The British Empiricists: John Locke (1602-1704) , George Berkeley (1685-1753) , and David Hume (1711-1776) 56

John Locke 56 George Berkeley 59 David Hume 60

James Mill (1773-1836) and John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) 62 Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797) 63

Universal Education 64 The Importance of Emotion 65 The Utopian Tradition in Psychology 65

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) 66

Kant's 'Second Copernican Revolution' 66 Can Psychology Be a Science like Other Sciences? 69

Charles Darwin (1809-1882) 70 The Voyage of the Beagle 71 The Development of the Theory of Evolution 73 Darwin and Psychology 75

Questions for Reflection 76 Important Names, Works, and Concepts 77 Recommended Readings 78

Chapter 4 The Nineteenth-Century Transformation of Psychology 79

Questions to Consider 79 Introduction 79 J.F. Herbart (1776-1841) 80

Herbart's Influence on Educational Psychology 82

G.T. Fechner ( 1801 - 1 8 8 7 ) 84 Psychophysics 84 Experimental Aesthetics 88

Hermann von Helmholtz ( 1821 - 1 8 8 4 ) 89 Helmholtz and the Nature of Perception 89 Ewald Hering (1834-1918) 92 Christine Ladd-Franklin (1847-1930) 93 The Localization-of-Function Controversy 94 The Study of Brain Injuries 95

Francis Galton ( 1822-1911 ) 97 Hereditary Genius 97 Eugenics 98 Statistics 99 Memory 100

Herbert Spencer ( 1820-1903) 102 Social Darwinism 103

Questions for Reflection 104 Important Names, Works, and Concepts 104 Recommended Readings 105

Chapter 5 Wundt and His Contemporaries 106 Questions to Consider 106 Introduction 106

Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) 107 Investigations in the Laboratory 107 Psychophysical Parallelism 113 Cultural Psychology 114 Wundt s Influence 115

Hermann Ebbinghaus ( 1850-1909) 115 The Experimental Study of Learning and Remembering 116 Mary Whiton Calkins (1863-1930) and the Invention of'Paired

Associates' 117 Franz Brentano (1838-1917) 119

The Wurzburg School 120 Questions for Reflection 122 Important Names, Works, and Concepts 122 Recommended Readings 123

Chapter 6 William James 124 Questions to Consider 124 Introduction 124 The Principles of Psychology 125

Habit 125 The Methods and Snares of Psychology 126 The Stream of Thought 127 The Consciousness of Self 130 Attention and Memory 132 The Emotions 134 Will 135 Other Topics 136

Questions for Reflection 137 Important Names, Works, and Concepts 138 Recommended Readings 138

Chapter 7 Freud and Jung 139 Questions to Consider 139 Introduction 139 The Unconscious 140 Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) 143

Hysteria 143

The Project for a Scientific Psychology 145 The Interpretation of Dreams 146 The Development of the Personality 148 The Structure of the Personality 150 Religion and Culture 151 Freud's Death 153 Freud and America 153 Freud's Critics within Psychoanalysis 155 Freud and Women 156 Anna Freud (1895-1982) 156

Karen Horney (1885-1952) and the Psychology of Women 157 C.G.Jung (1875-1961) 159

Jung's Relationship with Freud 159 Analytical Psychology 161

Questions for Reflection 167 Important Names, Works, and Concepts 168 Recommended Readings 169

Chapter 8 Structure or Function? 170 Questions to Consider 170 Introduction 170

Edward B. Titchener (1867-1927) 171 Structuralism 173 Titchener's Experimental Psychology 174

Titchener and the Imageless- Thought Controversy 175 Titchener and the Dimensions of Consciousness 175 Titcheners Influence 177

Functionalism 177 John Dewey (1859-1952) 178

Critique of the Reflex Arc Concept 178 Dewey's Influence on Educational Practice 179 James R. Angell (1869-1949) 180 Roberts. Woodworth (1869-1962) 181 The S-O-R Framework 183

Intelligence Testing 184 James McKeen Cattell (1860-1944) 184 Alfred Binet (1857-1911) 185 Intelligence Testing in the United States Army 187 What Is 'Intelligence', Anyway? 188

Psychology in Business 190 Frederick W. Taylor (1856-1915) 190 Elton Mayo (1880-1949) 192

Comparative Psychology 194 Edward L. Thorndike (1874-1949) 196 Learning as the Formation of Connections 197

Questions for Reflection 200 Important Names, Works, and Concepts 200 Recommended Readings 201

Chapter 9 Behaviourism 203 Questions to Consider 203 Introduction 203

Ivan P. Pavlov (1849-1936) 204 Conditioned Reflexes 205 Speech 208 Temperaments and Psychopathology 209 Vivisection and Anti-vivisectionism 209 Vladimir M. Bekhterev (1857-1827) 210

John B.Watson (1878-1958) 212 Psychology As the Behaviourist Views It 213 Watson's Psychology 215 Emotional, Manual, and Verbal Habits 215

Watson and Rosalie Rayner 218 Watsons Second Career in Advertising 218

Karl S. Lashley (1890-1958) 220 Cortical Localization of Function 220 The Problem of Serial Order in Behaviour 222

B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) 222 The Nature of Behaviourism 222 Skinner's Radical Behaviourism 223 The Behavior of Organisms 224 A Case History of Scientific Method 225 The 'Baby Tender' 227 Teaching Machines 227 Skinner's Utopian and Dystopian Views 228

Important Names, Works, and Concepts 230 Questions for Reflection 231 Recommended Readings 231

Chapter 10 Gestalt Psychology and the Social Field 233 Questions to Consider 233 Introduction 233 Max Wertheimer (1880-1943) 234

Phi Phenomenon 235 The Minimum Principle 236 Precursors of Gestalt Psychology 237 The Laws of Perceptual Organization 238 Productive Thinking 239

Wolfgang Kôhler (1887-1967) 242 The Mentality of Apes 242 The Concept of Isomorphism 243

Kurt Koffka (1886-1941) 245

Principles of Gestalt Psychology 245 The Growth of the Mind 247

Kurt Lewin (1890-1947) and the Emergence of Social Psychology 248

The Zeigarnik effect 251 Group Dynamics 251 Fritz Heider (1896-1988) 252

Leon Festinger (1919-1989) 253 Cognitive Dissonance 254 Solomon Asch (1907-1996) 255

Stanley Milgram (1933-1984) 257 Studies of Obedience 258 The Small- World Phenomenon 261

Kurt Goldstein (1878-1965) 261 Organismic Theory 262 The Abstract Attitude 263

Questions for Reflection 264

Important Names, Works, and Concepts 264 Recommended Readings 265

Chapter 11 Research Methods 266 Questions to Consider 266 Introduction 266 Philosophy of Science 267

Logical Positivism 267 Operationism 268 Where Did Psychologists Stand? 269 Criticisms of Operationism 269

Experimental Methods 270 Statistical Inference 270

R.A.Fisher (1890-1962) 271 Fishers Approach to Designing Experiments 271 The Null Hypothesis 271

Correlational Methods 272 Charles Spearman ( 1863-1945) 274 Cyril Burt (1883-1971) 275

The Burt Scandal 276 Louis Leon Thurstone ( 1887-1955) 278 Lee J. Cronbach (1916-2001) and 'The Two Disciplines

of Scientific Psychology' 279 Qualitative Research Methods 282 Questions for Reflection 284 Important Names, Works, and Concepts 284 Recommended Readings 285

Chapter 12 Theories of Learning 286 Questions to Consider 286 Introduction 286 Ernest R. Hilgard ( 1904- 2001 ) 287 E.R.Guthrie (1886-1959) 289

Contiguity 289 Repetition 290 Reward 290 One-Trial Learning 290

Clark L. Hull (1884-1952) 291 The Formal Structure ofHullian Theory 292

The Hypothetico-Deductive Method 292 Postulates 293

Kenneth W. Spence (1907-1967) 294 Charles E. Osgood ( 1916-1991 ) 296

The Semantic Differential 297 E.C.Tolman (1886-1959) 299

Purposive Behaviour 300 Cognitive Maps 300 The Place-versus-Response Controversy 301

The Verbal Learning Tradition 305 Functionalism and Verbal Learning 305 Acquisition 305 Serial Learning 307 The Fate of Verbal Learning 308

D.O. Hebb (1904-1985) 308 The Emergence of Neuroscience 308 The Organization of Behavior 310 Motivation 311 Experiments in Sensory Deprivation 312

Albert Bandura (1925- ) 316 Social Learning Theory 316 Behaviour Modification 317 Reciprocal Determinism 318

Questions for Reflection 319 Important Names, Works, and Concepts 319 Recommended Readings 320

Chapter 13 The Developmental Point of View 321 Questions to Consider 321 Introduction 321 G. Stanley Hall ( 1884-1924) 322

The Theory of Recapitulation 322 Hall's Life and Career 323 Hall's Recapitulationism 323 Questionnaires 324 Adolescence 325

James Mark Baldwin (1861-1934) 326

Psychology of Mental Development 326 Heinz Werner ( 1890-1964) 328

The Comparative Psychology of Mental Development 329 Uniformity versus Multiformity 329 Continuity versus Discontinuity 330

Unilinearity versus Multilinearity 331 Fixity versus Mobility 331 Microgenesis 332

Jean Piaget (1896-1980) and Barbel Inhelder (1913-1997) 333 Genetic Epistemology 334 The Development of Intelligence 334 Piaget's Clinical Method 335 Stages in the Development of Intelligence 336 Piaget as a Structuralist 340 Can Development Ever End? 341

L.S. Vygotsky (1896-1934) 342 Thought and Language 342 The Zone of Proximal Development 344

Erik H. Erikson (1902-1994) 344 Life-span Developmental Psychology 345 Epigenesis 345 The Eight Stages 346

Eleanor J. Gibson (1910-2002) 349 Perceptual Learning 349 The Visual Cliff 352 Eleanor Gibson on the Future of Psychology 353

Questions for Reflection 354 Important Names, Works, and Concepts 354 Recommended Readings 355

Chapter 14 Humanistic Psychology 357 Questions to Consider 357 Introduction 357 Existentialism 358

Soren Kierkegaard (1813-1855) 358 Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) 359 Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980) 360 Ludwig Binswanger (1881-1966) 361

The Emergence of Humanistic Psychology 362 Charlotte Malachowski Buhler ( 1893-1974) 363 Rollo May (1909-1994) 364 Abraham H. Maslow (1908-1970) 366

The Hierarchy of Needs 367 The Self-actualizing Person 369 Peak Experiences 370 The Psychology of Science 370

Carl R. Rogers (1902-1987) 371 Client-Centred Therapy 373 Eugene T. Gendlin 374 Encounter Groups 376

What Happened to Humanistic Psychology? 377 George A. Kelly (1905-1967) 378

The Psychology of Personal Constructs 379 The Repertory Test 380 Research in Personal-Construct Theory 382

Questions for Reflection 383 Important Names, Works, and Concepts 384 Recommended Readings 385

Chapter 15 Cognitive Psychology 386 Questions to Consider 386 Introduction 386 The Concept of'Information 387 Noam Chomsky (1928- ) 389

Syntactic Structures 389 Cartesian Linguistics 391

George A. Miller (1920- ) 392

The Magical Number Seven 392 Plans and the Structure of Behavior 394 Subjective Behaviourism 396 Giving Psychology Away 397

Jerome S. Bruner (1915 - ) 397 The New Look in Perception 398 A Study of Thinking 399

Sir Frederic Bartlett (1886-1969) 401 Ulric Neisser (1928- ) 403

Cognitive Psychology 405 James J. Gibson (1904-1979) 409 Cognition and Reality 410

Herbert A. Simon (1916-2001) 411

Spurious Correlation and the Nature of Causality 412 Computer Simulation 413 Criticisms of Computer Simulation 417 Amos Tversky (1937-1996) and Daniel Kahneman (1934- ) 418 Heuristics and Biases 418 Do Statistics Courses Help? 421

Questions for Reflection 422 Important Names, Works, and Concepts 422 Recommended Readings 423

Chapter 16 The Future of Psychology 425 Questions to Consider 425 Introduction 425

Does Psychology Have Paradigms? 426 Why Have So Many Psychologists Found the Paradigm

Concept Congenial? 430

Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-1951) and the Language of Psychology 433 Psychology, Modernism, and Postmodernism 437

Modernism 437 Postmodernism 439 The Differentiation of Psychology 440

The Future of the History of Psychology 444 Psychology as a Global Endeavour 445 Envoi 445

Questions for Reflection 446 Important Names, Works, and Concepts 446 Recommended Readings 447

Bibliography 448 Glossary 485 Index 497