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The Nature of ResearchThe Nature of ResearchChapter OneChapter One

McGraw-Hill © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

The Nature of ResearchThe Nature of ResearchChapter OneChapter One

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What is Educational Research?What is Educational Research?

The ability to answer a question or concern The ability to answer a question or concern facing many of us in the area of Education.facing many of us in the area of Education.

Teachers, counselors, administrators, Teachers, counselors, administrators, parents, and students continually need to parents, and students continually need to seek information in order to perform their seek information in order to perform their jobs.jobs.

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How Does One Obtain Information?How Does One Obtain Information?

People do the following to obtain information:People do the following to obtain information: Consult expertsConsult experts Review books and articlesReview books and articles Question/observe colleaguesQuestion/observe colleagues Rely on past experienceRely on past experience Use intuitionUse intuition

Using scientific research provides another way Using scientific research provides another way to obtain informationto obtain information

Information is reliable and accurateInformation is reliable and accurate Allows an understanding of why research is valuableAllows an understanding of why research is valuable

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Ways of Knowing That Things ExistWays of Knowing That Things Exist

Sensory ExperienceSensory Experience Agreement/Sharing with OthersAgreement/Sharing with Others Expert OpinionExpert Opinion Logical ReasoningLogical Reasoning The Scientific MethodThe Scientific Method

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Ways of Knowing (Figure 1.1)Ways of Knowing (Figure 1.1)

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The Scientific MethodThe Scientific Method Testing ideas in the public arena by formulating Testing ideas in the public arena by formulating

a a hypothesishypothesis (a tentative, testable assertion (a tentative, testable assertion about certain behaviors, phenomena, or about certain behaviors, phenomena, or events) within a rigorous format.events) within a rigorous format.

Must be reproducible and described in Must be reproducible and described in sufficient detail through 5 distinct steps:sufficient detail through 5 distinct steps: State the problemState the problem Define the purpose of the studyDefine the purpose of the study How to gather the informationHow to gather the information How to organize and analyze the information How to organize and analyze the information

obtainedobtained How the information is interpretedHow the information is interpreted

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The Chaos TheoryThe Chaos Theory A major principle from the 1970s that A major principle from the 1970s that

emphasizes the rarity of general laws, emphasizes the rarity of general laws, and states that if the data base is large and states that if the data base is large enough, repeated patterns can be enough, repeated patterns can be discovered and used, even when the discovered and used, even when the conditions are “chaotic”.conditions are “chaotic”.

Even with highly complex data, Even with highly complex data, predictability exists if patterns can be predictability exists if patterns can be found across time.found across time.

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Types of ResearchTypes of Research Research is the formal, systematic application of Research is the formal, systematic application of

scholarship, disciplined inquiry, and most often the Scientific scholarship, disciplined inquiry, and most often the Scientific Method to the study of problems. Method to the study of problems.

Research methodologies include:Research methodologies include:

Experimental researchExperimental research Ethnographic researchEthnographic researchCorrelational researchCorrelational research Historical researchHistorical researchCausal-comparative researchCausal-comparative research Action researchAction researchSurvey researchSurvey research

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Experimental ResearchExperimental Research Most conclusive of all scientific methods.Most conclusive of all scientific methods. The researcher establishes treatments and The researcher establishes treatments and

studies the effects, which can lead to clear studies the effects, which can lead to clear interpretations.interpretations. The independent variable: What is being testedThe independent variable: What is being tested The dependent variable: What is the outcome The dependent variable: What is the outcome

(i.e., score)(i.e., score) Single Subject Research is another form of Single Subject Research is another form of

Experimental Research.Experimental Research.

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Example of Experimental Research Results (Figure 1.2)Example of Experimental Research Results (Figure 1.2)

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Correlational ResearchCorrelational Research Examines a relationship among two or more Examines a relationship among two or more

variables; looks for a variables; looks for a cause and effect.cause and effect. Can help make more intelligent predictions.Can help make more intelligent predictions. This approach requires no manipulation or This approach requires no manipulation or

intervention, except to administer the intervention, except to administer the instrument.instrument.

Used when you want to look for and describe Used when you want to look for and describe relationships that may exist naturally.relationships that may exist naturally.

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Is this Assumption Correct? (Figure 1.3)Is this Assumption Correct? (Figure 1.3)

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Causal-Comparative ResearchCausal-Comparative Research Determines the cause for, or Determines the cause for, or

consequences of, differences between consequences of, differences between groups of people.groups of people.

Interpretations are limited due to the fact Interpretations are limited due to the fact that the investigator can not say that the investigator can not say conclusively whether a particular factor is conclusively whether a particular factor is a cause for or a result of a behavior.a cause for or a result of a behavior.

Differences may occur, but the Differences may occur, but the investigator will not be able to say for sure investigator will not be able to say for sure what caused the difference.what caused the difference.

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Survey ResearchSurvey Research Obtains data to determine specific Obtains data to determine specific

characteristics of a group.characteristics of a group. Variety of survey techniques exist, such as:Variety of survey techniques exist, such as:

Descriptive: asks same set of questions (i.e., interview)Descriptive: asks same set of questions (i.e., interview) Open-ended questionsOpen-ended questions

There are 3 difficulties involved with survey There are 3 difficulties involved with survey research:research:

Ensuring that questions are clear and not misleadingEnsuring that questions are clear and not misleading Getting participants to answer questions honestlyGetting participants to answer questions honestly Getting enough questionnaires back so valid Getting enough questionnaires back so valid

interpretations can be madeinterpretations can be made

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Ethnographic ResearchEthnographic Research A form of Qualitative ResearchA form of Qualitative Research Emphasizes documenting or portraying the Emphasizes documenting or portraying the

everyday experiences of individuals by everyday experiences of individuals by observing and interviewing them in a observing and interviewing them in a naturalistic setting.naturalistic setting.

Data can include descriptions, audiotapes, Data can include descriptions, audiotapes, video footage, flowcharts showing video footage, flowcharts showing relationships, etc.relationships, etc.

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Historical ResearchHistorical Research Another form of Qualitative Research.Another form of Qualitative Research. Some aspect of the past is studied.Some aspect of the past is studied. Data is collected and evaluated objectively Data is collected and evaluated objectively

in order to establish whether causes, in order to establish whether causes, effects, or trends of a past event may effects, or trends of a past event may explain present or future events or explain present or future events or occurrences.occurrences.

The major problem with this research is the The major problem with this research is the question of using an event or time question of using an event or time sequence as a true outcome.sequence as a true outcome.

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Action ResearchAction Research Differs from previously discussed Differs from previously discussed

methods in two ways:methods in two ways:1)1) Generalizations to other persons, settings, Generalizations to other persons, settings,

or situations is of minimal importanceor situations is of minimal importance researchers focus on getting information that researchers focus on getting information that

will enable them to change conditions in a will enable them to change conditions in a particular situation (i.e., identifying methods particular situation (i.e., identifying methods to improve special ed services at a school)to improve special ed services at a school)

2)2) Subjects become active members of the Subjects become active members of the research process by collecting data, etc.research process by collecting data, etc.

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Critical Analysis of ResearchCritical Analysis of Research Critics raise philosophical, linguistic, Critics raise philosophical, linguistic,

ethical, and political concerns such ethical, and political concerns such as:as:

Question of RealityQuestion of Reality Question of CommunicationQuestion of Communication Question of ValuesQuestion of Values Question of Unstated AssumptionsQuestion of Unstated Assumptions

Anything taken for granted before being testedAnything taken for granted before being tested Question of Societal ConsequencesQuestion of Societal Consequences

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The Research ProcessThe Research Process

The schematic components of research The schematic components of research are as follows:are as follows: Statement of the problem: description of Statement of the problem: description of

the background and rationale for the background and rationale for performing the studyperforming the study

Hypothesis: prediction of what is expected Hypothesis: prediction of what is expected to occur, or relationship expected between to occur, or relationship expected between the variables (factors being considered)the variables (factors being considered)

Definitions: key terms in the problem Definitions: key terms in the problem statementstatement

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The Research ProcessThe Research Process(cont.)(cont.)

Review of Literature: past or current studies Review of Literature: past or current studies that are relevant to the studythat are relevant to the study

Sample: subjects of the study Sample: subjects of the study Instrumentation: what will be used to Instrumentation: what will be used to

measure or collect datameasure or collect data Procedures: step-by-step directions, Procedures: step-by-step directions,

outlining what will occur from beginning to outlining what will occur from beginning to endend

Data Analysis: statistical procedure to Data Analysis: statistical procedure to analyze and explain the dataanalyze and explain the data

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The Research Process (Figure 1.4)The Research Process (Figure 1.4)