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DE OCAMPO | GOROSPE

movere (L)– “to move”

“process by which activities are

started, directed, and continued that

physical or psychological needs or

wants are met” (Petri, 1996)

Leads to an outcome that is separate from the

person

External or extrinsic rewards

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The act itself is fun, rewarding, challenging, or

satisfying in some internal manner

Internal or intrinsic rewards

INSTINCT- biologically and innate patterns of

behavior

Assumes people are governed by instincts

similar to animals

William McDougall

Sigmund Freud

NEED- essential for the survival of the

organism

DRIVE- psychological tension and physical

arousal that motivates the organism in order to

fulfill the need and reduce the tension

Involves survival needs

PRIMARY REINFORCERS

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AQUIRED DRIVES

Learned through experience or

conditioning

SECONDARY REINFORCERS

Hunger (Imbalance)

Increased Tension

Eat Reduced Tension

Balance

Restored

Tendency of the body to maintain a steady state

Strong desire to succeed in attaining goals

(realistic or challenging)

Need feedback about their performance

Need for friendly social interactions and

relationship with others

Seek to be liked and be held in high regards by

others

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Need to have control and influence over others

and to make an impact on them

Value status and prestige

STIMULUS MOTIVE- appears to be unlearned

but causes increase in stimulation

An optimal level of tension, moderate

Yerkes-Dodson Law- performance is related to

level of arousal

SENSATION SEEKERS- people who seek more

arousal than average persons

INCENTIVES- things that attract or allure

people into action

behavior is explained in terms of external

stimulus and its rewarding properties

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Understanding of the beliefs, values, and

importance that the person attaches to those

beliefs and values at any given time

Abraham Maslow

Primary, basic needs should be met first

PEAK EXPERIENCES- self-actualization is

temporarily achieved

Cognitive Needs

Esteem Needs

Social Needs

Safety Needs

Physiological Needs

Self-Actualization Needs

Transcendence Needs

Aesthetic Needs

Growth

Relatedness

Existence

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Three inborn universal needs: AUTONOMY,

COMPETENCE, RELATEDNESS

Social context of the action has an effect on the

type of motivation existing for the action

Human beings are full of feelings, or

emotions, and although emotions may be

internal processes, there are outward

physical signs of what people are feeling.

The Latin root word mot, meaning “to

move,” is the source of both of the words

we use in this chapter over and over

again—motive and emotion.

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Can be defined as “feeling” aspect of

consciousness, characterized by three

elements: a certain physical arousal, a

certain behavior that reveals the feeling to

the outside world, and an inner awareness

of the feeling.

a small area located within the limbic system on each side of the brain, is associated with fear in both humans and animals (Davis & Whalen, 2001; Fanselow & Gale, 2003) and is also involved in the facial expressions of human emotions (Morris et al., 1998)

A lot of what we know about the amygdala’s role in emotion

comes from the work of Dr. Joseph LeDoux and his many

colleagues and students. Fear conditioning has been very

helpful in relating behaviors to brain function because it

results in stereotypical autonomic and behavioral

responses. It is basically a classical conditioning procedure

where an auditory stimulus (conditioned stimulus) is paired

with foot shock (unconditioned stimulus) to elicit autonomic

and behavioral conditioned responses (LeDoux, 1996;

LeDoux & Phelps, 2008).

LeDoux’s work has provided many insights into the brain’s

processing of emotional information and the role of the amygdala.

Emotional stimuli travel to the amygdala by both a fast, crude “low

road” (subcortical) and a slower but more involved cortical “high

road” (LeDoux, 1996, 2007; LeDoux & Phelps, 2008). The direct route

allows for quick responses to stimuli that are possibly dangerous,

sometimes before we actually know what the stimuli are, but with

the awareness provided by the indirect cortical route (specifically,

processing by the prefrontal cortex), we can override the direct

route and take control of our emotional responses (LeDoux, 1996;

LeDoux & Phelps, 2008; Öhman, 2008).

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LeDoux’s work also provides a mechanism for

understanding disorders of emotion. It is possible that the

direct route may be the primary processing pathway for

individuals with emotional disorders and the indirect,

cortical pathway is not able to override the processing

initiated by the direct route. This would result in difficulty

or inability to control our emotions, or the inability to

extinguishing fears we’ve already acquired (LeDoux, 1996;

LeDoux & Phelps, 2008).

Besides the amygdala, other subcortical and cortical areas of

the brain are involved in the processing of emotional

information. Research suggests that emotions may work

differently depending on which side of the brain is involved.

One area of investigation has been the frontal lobes.

Researchers have found that positive emotions are

associated with the left frontal lobe of the brain whereas

negative feelings such as sadness, anxiety, and depression

seem to be a function of the right frontal lobe (R. J. Davidson,

2003; Geschwind & Iacoboni, 2007; Heilman, 2002).

In studies where the electrical activity of the brain has been tracked using an electroencephalograph, left frontal lobe activation has been associated with pleasant emotions while right frontal lobe activity has been associated with negative emotional states (R. J. Davidson, 2003).

Furthermore, increased left frontal lobe

activity has been found in individuals trained in

meditation, and for the participants in this

study, greater left frontal lobe activity was

accompanied by a reduction in their anxiety as

well as a boost in their immune system (R. J.

Davidson et al., 2003).

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• Charles Darwin (1898) was one of the first to

theorize that emotions were a product of

evolution and, therefore, universal—all human

beings, no matter what their culture, would

show the same facial expression because the

facial muscles evolved to communicate

specific information to onlookers.

In their research, Ekman and Friesen found that people of

many different cultures(including Japanese, European,

American, and the Fore tribe of New Guinea) can

consistently recognize at least seven facial expressions:

anger, fear, disgust, happiness, surprise, sadness, and

contempt (Ekman & Friesen, 1969, 1971). Although the

emotions and the related facial expressions appear to be

universal, exactly when, where, and how an emotion is

expressed may be determined by the culture

that can vary from culture to culture (Ekman, 1973; Ekman &

Friesen, 1969) are learned ways of controlling displays of

emotion in social settings

The third element of emotion is interpreting the subjective

feeling by giving it a label: anger, fear, disgust, happiness,

sadness, shame, interest, and so on. Another way of

labeling this element is to call it the “cognitive element,”

because the labeling process is a matter of retrieving

memories of previous similar experiences, perceiving the

context of the emotion, and coming up with a solution—a

label.

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The label a person applies to a subjective feeling is at

least in part a learned response influenced by their

language and culture. Such labels may differ in

people of different cultural backgrounds.

In the common sense theory of emotion, a

stimulus leads to an emotion of fear, which then

leads to bodily arousal through the autonomic

nervous system (ANS).

William James and Carl Lange

In this theory of emotion, a stimulus leads to a

bodily arousal first, which is then interpreted

as an emotion

Walter Cannon and Philip Bard

In this theory of emotion a stimulus leads to

activity in the brain, which then sends signals to

arouse the body and interpret the emotion at

the same time.

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Schachter and Singer’s cognitive arousal theory is

similar to the James-Lange theory but adds the

element of cognitive labeling of the arousal. In this

theory, a stimulus leads to both bodily arousal and

the labeling of that arousal (based on the

surrounding context), which leads to the experience

and labeling of the emotional reaction.

in which both the physical arousal and the

labeling of that arousal based on cues from the

environment must occur before the emotion is

experienced.