VIDYA PRATISHTHAN’S

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, BARAMATI

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

LABORATORY MANUAL

SUBJECT: POWER PLANT ENGINEERING [SUBJECT CODE: ]

CLASS: B.E. MECHANICAL

YEAR: 2011-12

APPROVED BY:

H.o.D. [Mech] PRINCIPAL Prof. P. R. Chitragar Dr. S. B. Deosarkar

VALIDITY UP TO: ACADEMIC YEAR 2014-15

PRAPARED BY: PROF. SANDEEP E. ZAREKAR

VIDYA PRATISHTHAN’S

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, BARAMATI

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

List of Experiments

FACULTY: PROF.SANDEEP E. ZAREKAR SUBJECT:PPE YEAR: 2011-12 CLASS: B.E. (MECH)

1. Study of fluidized bed combustor

2. Study of power plant instruments

3. Trial on steam power plant

4. Study of non-conventional power plant

5. Tariff study

6. Study of environmental impact of power plant

7. Trial on diesel power plant

Prof. Sandeep E Zarekar [Lab-Incharge]

EXPERIMENT NO. :-1

TITLE: Study of fluidized bed combustor

AIM: Study of fluidized bed combustor THEORY:

INTRODUCTION:

Fluidized bed combustion (FBC) is a combustion technology used in power

plants. Fluidized beds suspend solid fuels on upward-blowing jets of air during

the combustion process. The result is a turbulent mixing of gas and solids. The

tumbling action, much like a bubbling fluid, provides more effective chemical

reactions and heat transfer. FBC plants are more flexible than conventional

plants in that they can be fired on coal and biomass, among other fuels.

FBC reduces the amount of sulfur emitted in the form of SOx emissions.

Limestone is used to precipitate out sulfate during combustion, which also

allows more efficient heat transfer from the boiler to the apparatus used to

capture the heat energy (usually water tubes). The heated precipitate coming in

direct contact with the tubes (heating by conduction) increases the efficiency.

Since this allows coal plants to burn at cooler temperatures, less NOx is also

emitted.

BASIC PRINCIPLES:

The solid substrate (the catalytic material upon which chemical species react)

material in the fluidized bed reactor is typically supported by a porous plate,

known as a distributor.The fluid is then forced through the distributor up

through the solid material. At lower fluid velocities, the solids remain in place

as the fluid passes through the voids in the material. This is known as a

packed bed reactor. As the fluid velocity is increased, the reactor will reach a

stage where the force of the fluid on the solids is enough to balance the weight

of the solid material. This stage is known as incipient fluidization and occurs at

this minimum fluidization velocity. Once this minimum velocity is surpassed,

the contents of the reactor bed begin to expand and swirl around much like an

agitated tank or boiling pot of water.

TYPES OF FBC:

FBC systems fit into essentially two major groups, atmospheric systems (FBC)

and pressurized systems (PFBC), and two minor subgroups, bubbling (BFB)

and circulating fluidized bed (CFB).

PRESSURISED FLUID BED COMBUSTION :

Pressurised Fluidised Bed Combustion (PFBC) is a variation of fluid bed

technology that is meant for large-scale coal burning applications. In PFBC, the

bed vessel is operated at pressure upto 16 ata ( 16 kg/cm2).

The off-gas from the fluidized bed combustor drives the gas turbine. The steam

turbine is driven by steam raised in tubes immersed in the fluidized bed. The

condensate from the steam turbine is pre-heated using waste heat from gas

turbine exhaust and is then taken as feed water for steam generation.

The PFBC system can be used for cogeneration or combined cycle power

generation. By combining the gas and steam turbines in this way, electricity is

generated more efficiently than in conventional system. The overall conversion

efficiency is higher by 5% to 8%.

CIRCULATING FLUIDISED BED COMBUSTION (CFBC):

In this CFBC technology utilizes the fluidized bed principle in which crushed (6

–12 mm size) fuel and limestone are injected into the furnace or combustor.

The particles are suspended in a stream of upwardly flowing air (60-70% of the

total air), which enters the bottom of the furnace through air distribution

nozzles. The fluidising velocity in circulating beds ranges from 3.7 to 9 m/sec.

The balance of combustion air is admitted above the bottom of the furnace as

secondary air. The combustion takes place at 840-900oC, and the fine particles

(<450 microns) are elutriated out of the furnace with flue gas velocity of 4-6

m/s. The particles are then collected by the solids separators and circulated

back into the furnace. Solid recycle is about 50 to 100 kg per kg of fuel burnt.

ADVANTAGES OF FLUIDISED BED COMBUSTION BOILERS 1. High Efficiency :

FBC boilers can burn fuel with a combustion efficiency of over 95%

irrespective of ash content. FBC boilers can operate with overall efficiency of

84% (plus or minus 2%).

2. Reduction in Boiler Size:

High heat transfer rate over a small heat transfer area immersed in the bed

result in overall size reduction of the boiler.

3. Fuel Flexibility :

FBC boilers can be operated efficiently with a variety of fuels. Even fuels like

flotation slimes, washer rejects, agro waste can be burnt efficiently. These

can be fed either independently or in combination with coal into the same

furnace.

4. Ability to Burn Low Grade Fuel :

FBC boilers would give the rated output even with inferior quality fuel. The

boilers can fire coals with ash content as high as 62% and having calorific

value as low as 2,500 kcal/kg. Even carbon content of only 1% by weight

can sustain the fluidised bed combustion.

5. Ability to Burn Fines:

Coal containing fines below 6 mm can be burnt efficiently in FBC boiler,

which is very difficult to achieve in conventional firing system.

6. Pollution Control:

SO2

formation can be greatly minimised by addition of limestone or dolomite

for high sulphur coals. 3% limestone is required for every 1% sulphur in the

coal feed. Low combustion temperature eliminates NOx formation.

7. Low Corrosion and Erosion :

The corrosion and erosion effects are less due to lower combustion

temperature, softness of ash and low particle velocity (of the order of 1

m/sec).

8. Easier Ash Removal – No Clinker Formation :

Since the temperature of the furnace is in the range of 750 – 900o C in FBC

boilers, even coal of low ash fusion temperature can be burnt without

clinker formation. Ash removal is easier as the ash flows like liquid from the

combustion chamber. Hence less manpower is required for ash handling.

9. Less Excess Air – Higher CO2 in Flue Gas:

The CO2 in the flue gases will be of the order of 14 – 15% at full load. Hence,

the FBC boiler can operate at low excess air - only 20 – 25%.

10. Simple Operation, Quick Start-Up: High turbulence of the bed facilitates quick start up and shut down. Full automation of start up and operation using reliable equipment is possible.

11. Fast Response to Load Fluctuations:

Inherent high thermal storage characteristics can easily absorb fluctuation

in fuel feed rates. Response to changing load is comparable to that of oil

fired boilers.

12. No Slagging in the Furnace-No Soot Blowing:

In FBC boilers, volatilisation of alkali components in ash does not take place

and the ash is non sticky. This means that there is no slagging or soot

blowing.

13. Provisions of Automatic Coal and Ash Handling System :

Automatic systems for coal and ash handling can be incorporated, making

the plant easy to operate comparable to oil or gas fired installation.

14. Provision of Automatic Ignition System :

Control systems using micro-processors and automatic ignition equipment

give excellent control with minimum manual supervision.

15. High Reliability:

The absence of moving parts in the combustion zone results in a high

degree of reliability and low maintenance costs.

16. Reduced Maintenance:

Routine overhauls are infrequent and high efficiency is maintained for long

periods.

17. Quick Responses to Changing Demand :

A fluidized bed combustor can respond to changing heat demands more

easily than stoker fired systems. This makes it very suitable for applications

such as thermal fluid heaters, which require rapid responses.

18. High Efficiency of Power Generation :

By operating the fluidized bed at elevated pressure, it can be used to

generate hot pressurized gases to power a gas turbine. This can be

combined with a conventional steam turbine to improve the efficiency of

electricity generation and give a potential fuel savings of at least 4%.

EXPERIMENT NO.2

TITLE: Study of power plant instrument

AIM: Study of power plant instrument

THEORY:

In power plants the instruments are used for a number of reasons as to operate

the power plant as efficiently as possible. Instruments provide accurate

information for guidance to safe, continuous and proper plant operation.

CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS:

The two general classifications of instruments are:

1. Those employing purely mechanical methods

2. Those employing electro-mechanical methods

The instruments can also be classified as follows:

1. Indicating instruments

2. Recording instruments

3. Indicating and Recording instruments

4. Indicating and integrating instruments

5. Recording , Indicating and integrating instruments

Commonly used instrument in a power plant

1. Pressure gauges

2. Thermometers

3. Liquid level gauges

4. Flow meters

5. Gas analyzers

6. Humidity measuring instrument

7. Impurity measuring instrument

8. Speed measuring instrument

9. Steam calorimeter and fuel calorimeter

10. Electrical instruments

1. PRESSURE GAUGES:

Many techniques have been developed for the measurement of pressure and

vacuum. Instruments used to measure pressure are called pressure gauges or

vacuum gauges. A manometer could also be referring to a pressure measuring

instrument, usually limited to measuring pressures near to atmospheric. The

term manometer is often used to refer specifically to liquid column hydrostatic

instruments. A vacuum gauge is used to measure the pressure in a vacuum—

which is further divided into two subcategories, high and low vacuum (and

sometimes ultra-high vacuum). The applicable pressure range of many of the

techniques used to measure vacuums has an overlap. Hence, by combining

several different types of gauge, it is possible to measure system pressure

continuously from 10 mbar down to 10−11 mbar.

2. THERMOMETERS:

Developed during the 16th and 17th centuries, a thermometer is a device that

measures temperature or temperature gradient using a variety of different

principles. A thermometer has two important elements: the temperature sensor

(e.g. the bulb on a mercury thermometer) in which some physical change

occurs with temperature, plus some means of converting this physical change

into a numerical value (e.g. the scale on a mercury thermometer).

3. LIQUID LEVEL MEASUREMENT:

Level sensors detect the level of substances that flow, including liquids,

slurries, granular materials, and powders. Fluids and fluidized solids flow to

become essentially level in their containers (or other physical boundaries)

because of gravity whereas most bulk solids pile at an angle of repose to a

peak. The substance to be measured can be inside a container or can be in its

natural form (e.g., a river or a lake). The level measurement can be either

continuous or point values. Continuous level sensors measure level within a

specified range and determine the exact amount of substance in a certain

place, while point-level sensors only indicate whether the substance is above or

below the sensing point. Generally the latter detect levels that are excessively

high or low. There are many physical and application variables that affect the

selection of the optimal level monitoring method for industrial and commercial

processes. The selection criteria include the physical: phase (liquid, solid or

slurry), temperature, pressure or vacuum, chemistry, dielectric constant of

medium, density (specific gravity) of medium, agitation (action), acoustical or

electrical noise, vibration, mechanical shock, tank or bin size and shape. Also

important are the application constraints: price, accuracy, appearance,

response rate, ease of calibration or programming, physical size and mounting

of the instrument, monitoring or control of continuous or discrete (point) levels.

4. FLOW METER:

Flow measurement is the quantification of bulk fluid movement. Flow can be

measured in a variety of ways. Positive-displacement flow meters accumulate a

fixed volume of fluid and then count the number of times the volume is filled to

measure flow. Other flow measurement methods rely on forces produced by the

flowing stream as it overcomes a known constriction, to indirectly calculate

flow. Flow may be measured by measuring the velocity of fluid over a known

area.

5. HUMIDITY MEASUREMENT:

Humidity is a term for the amount of water vapor in the air, and can refer to

any one of several measurements of humidity. Formally, humid air is not

"moist air" but a mixture of water vapor and other constituents of air, and

humidity is defined in terms of the water content of this mixture, called the

Absolute humidity. In everyday usage, it commonly refers to relative humidity,

expressed as a percent in weather forecasts and on household humidistats; it

is so called because it measures the current absolute humidity relative to the

maximum. Specific humidity is a ratio of the water vapor content of the

mixture to the total air content (on a mass basis). The water vapor content of

the mixture can be measured either as mass per volume or as a partial

pressure, depending on the usage. In meteorology, humidity indicates the

likelihood of precipitation, dew, or fog. High relative humidity reduces the

effectiveness of sweating in cooling the body by reducing the rate of evaporation

of moisture from the skin. This effect is calculated in a heat index table, used

during summer weather.

There are various devices used to measure and regulate humidity. A device

used to measure humidity is called a psychrometer or hygrometer. A

humidistat is used to regulate the humidity of a building with a dehumidifier.

These can be analogous to a thermometer and thermostat for temperature

control. Humidity is also measured on a global scale using remotely placed

satellites. These satellites are able to detect the concentration of water in the

troposphere at altitudes between 4 and 12 kilometers. Satellites that can

measure water vapor have sensors that are sensitive to infrared radiation.

Water vapor specifically absorbs and re-radiates radiation in this spectral

band. Satellite water vapor imagery plays an important role in monitoring

climate conditions (like the formation of thunderstorms) and in the

development of future weather forecasts.

6. IMPURITY MEASUREMENT:

Impurities are substances inside a confined amount of liquid, gas, or solid,

which differ from the chemical composition of the material or compound.

Impurities are either naturally occurring or added during synthesis of a

chemical or commercial product. During production, impurities may be

purposely, accidentally, inevitably, or incidentally added into the substance.

The levels of impurities in a material are generally defined in relative terms.

Standards have been established by various organizations that attempt to

define the permitted levels of various impurities in a manufactured product.

Strictly speaking, then, a material's level of purity can only be stated as being

more or less pure than some other material.

EXPERIMENT NO-3

TITLE:-trial on steam power plant.

AIM:-

Trail On Steam Turbine Power Plant To Determine:-

A] Plant Efficiency, Rankine Efficiency Vs Load.

B] Steam Consumption And Specific Steam Consumption Vs Load.

C] Rate Of Energy Input Vs Load

D] Heat Rate And Incremental Heat Rate Vs Load.

BOILER SPECIFICATION:

SPECIFICATION:-

Rated steam generation=800 Kg/hr

Working pressure of boiler=12 bar

Rated fuel consumption=50 Kg/hr

Time required for steam generation=3 to 5 min

Electricity supply=415 AC,3 PHASE

ELECTRICAL LOAD CONNECTED:

Blower motor= 3 HP

Feed water pump motor=1 HP

Fuel supply pump motor= 0.5 HP

Condensate extraction pump motor=0.5 HP

Soft water feed pump motor=0.5 HP

Pump motor for circulation of cold water into condenser= 3 HP

TURBINE DETAILS:-

TYPE= impulse turbine

No. of blade=130

No. of nozzle=06

Fuel supply pump motor= 0.5 HP

Impeller diameter=450mm [ OD] ,380 mm[ID]

Blade height=35 mm

Nozzle dia= 10 mm and 5 mm

Nozzle length=5 mm

CONDENSER DETAILS:

Shell and tube heat exchanger

Cold water tube=33 no.

Hot water tube=33 no.

Outer dia of tubes=25 mm

inner dia of tubes=20 mm

length of the tube=12 cm=1200mm

DYNAMOMETER:

Eddy current dynamometer

radius of armature=0.085m

OBSERVATIONS:-

T1=temp.at the inlet to economizer in ‘ C’.

T2=temp.at the OUTLET to economizer in ‘ C’.

T3=temp. of flue gases at the inlet to economizer in ‘ C’.

T4=temp. of flue gases at the outlet to economizer in ‘ C’.

T5=temp. of steam generated in boiler.

T6=temp. of steam before throttling.

T7=temp. of steam after throttling.

T8=temp. of steam inlet to turbine.

T9=temp. of cold water inlet to condenser .

T10=temp. of cold water outlet to condenser.

T11=temp.of condensate

T12= temp.of steam coming out of turbine

P1=steam pressure inside the boiler

P2=steam pressure before throttling.

P3=steam pressure after throttling.

P4=steam pressure inlet to orifice meter.

P5=steam pressure outlet to orifice meter.

P6=steam pressure inlet to turbine

P7=steam pressure outlet to turbine

C.V= 42000 KJ/KG

Area of fuel tank= 0.5*0.5 m^2

Density of coil=870 kg/m^3

OBSERVATION TABLE:-

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T12 P1 P2

P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 Mw Ms Water

flow

rate

Mass

of

fule

Load RPM

CALCULATION:

CONCLUSION:

EXPERIMENT NO:-4

TITLE: study of non-conventional power plant

AIM: study of non-conventional power plant

THEORY:

1. WIND POWER PLANT:

Wind power is the conversion of wind energy into a useful form of energy, such

as using wind turbines to make electricity, windmills for mechanical power,

wind pumps for water pumping or drainage, or sails to propel ships.

2. SOLAR POWER PLANT:

Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity, either directly using

photovoltaics (PV), or indirectly using concentrated solar power (CSP).

Concentrated solar power systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems

to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. Photovoltaic convert light

into electric current using the photoelectric effect.

A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell (PV), is a device that converts light into electric

current using the photoelectric effect.

3. TIDAL POWER PLANT:

Tidal power, also called tidal energy, is a form of hydropower that converts the

energy of tides into useful forms of power - mainly electricity. Although not yet

widely used, tidal power has potential for future electricity generation. Tides

are more predictable than wind energy and solar power. Among sources of

renewable energy, tidal power has traditionally suffered from relatively high

cost and limited availability of sites with sufficiently high tidal ranges or flow

velocities, thus constricting its total availability. However, many recent

technological developments and improvements, both in design (e.g. dynamic

tidal power, tidal lagoons) and turbine technology (e.g. new axial turbines,

cross flow turbines), indicate that the total availability of tidal power may be

much higher than previously assumed, and that economic and environmental

costs may be brought down to competitive levels.

Tidal power is extracted from the Earth's oceanic tides; tidal forces are periodic

variations in gravitational attraction exerted by celestial bodies. These forces

create corresponding motions or currents in the world's oceans. The magnitude

and character of this motion reflects the changing positions of the Moon and

Sun relative to the Earth, the effects of Earth's rotation, and local geography of

the sea floor and coastlines.

Tidal power is the only technology that draws on energy inherent in the orbital

characteristics of the Earth–Moon system, and to a lesser extent in the Earth–

Sun system. Other natural energies exploited by human technology originate

directly or indirectly with the Sun, including fossil fuel, conventional

hydroelectric, wind, biofuel, wave and solar energy. Nuclear energy makes use

of Earth's mineral deposits of fissionable elements, while geothermal power

taps the Earth's internal heat, which comes from a combination of residual

heat from planetary accretion (about 20%) and heat produced through

radioactive decay (80%).

A tidal generator converts the energy of tidal flows into electricity. Greater tidal

variation and higher tidal current velocities can dramatically increase the

potential of a site for tidal electricity generation

4. GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANT:

Geothermal energy is thermal energy generated and stored in the Earth.

Thermal energy is the energy that determines the temperature of matter.

Earth's geothermal energy originates from the original formation of the planet

(20%) and from radioactive decay of minerals (80%). The geothermal gradient,

which is the difference in temperature between the core of the planet and its

surface, drives a continuous conduction of thermal energy in the form of heat

from the core to the surface.

The heat that is used for geothermal energy can be stored deep within the

Earth, all the way down to Earth’s core – 4,000 miles down. At the core,

temperatures may reach over 9,000 degrees Fahrenheit. Heat conducts from

the core to surrounding rock. Extremely high temperature and pressure cause

some rock to melt, which is commonly known as magma. Magma convects

upward since it is lighter than the solid rock. This magma then heats rock and

water in the crust, sometimes up to 700 degrees Fahrenheit From hot springs,

geothermal energy has been used for bathing since Paleolithic times and for

space heating since ancient Roman times, but it is now better known for

electricity generation. Worldwide, about 10,715 megawatts (MW) of geothermal

power is online in 24 countries. An additional 28 gigawatts of direct geothermal

heating capacity is installed for district heating, space heating, spas, industrial

processes, desalination and agricultural applications. Geothermal power is cost

effective, reliable, sustainable, and environmentally friendly, but has

historically been limited to areas near tectonic plate boundaries. Recent

technological advances have dramatically expanded the range and size of viable

resources, especially for applications such as home heating, opening a

potential for widespread exploitation. Geothermal wells release greenhouse

gases trapped deep within the earth, but these emissions are much lower per

energy unit than those of fossil fuels. As a result, geothermal power has the

potential to help mitigate global warming if widely deployed in place of fossil

fuels

5. BIOGAS PLANT:

Biogas typically refers to a gas produced by the biological breakdown of organic

matter in the absence of oxygen. Organic waste such as dead plant and animal

material, animal dung, and kitchen waste can be converted into a gaseous fuel

called biogas. Biogas originates from biogenic material and is a type of biofuel.

Biogas is produced by the anaerobic digestion or fermentation of biodegradable

materials such as biomass, manure, sewage, municipal waste, green waste,

plant material, and crops. Biogas comprises primarily methane (CH4) and

carbon dioxide (CO2) and may have small amounts of hydrogen sulphide (H2S),

moisture and siloxanes. The gases methane, hydrogen, and carbon monoxide

(CO) can be combusted or oxidized with oxygen. This energy release allows

biogas to be used as a fuel. Biogas can be used as a fuel in any country for any

heating purpose, such as cooking. It can also be used in anaerobic digesters

where it is typically used in a gas engine to convert the energy in the gas into

electricity and heat. Biogas can be compressed, much like natural gas, and

used to power motor vehicles. In the UK, for example, biogas is estimated to

have the potential to replace around 17% of vehicle fuel. Biogas is a renewable

fuel, so it qualifies for renewable energy subsidies in some parts of the world.

Biogas can also be cleaned and upgraded to natural gas standards when it

becomes biomethane.

EXPERIMENT NO: 5

TITLE: Tariff study

AIM: Tariff study

The cost of generation of electrical energy consists of fixed cost and running

cost. Since the electricity generated is to be supplied to the consumers, the

total cost of generation has to be recovered from the consumers. Tariffs or

energy rates are the different method of charging the consumers for the

consumptions of electricity. It is desirable to charge the consumer according to

the maximum demand (kW) and the energy consumed (kWh).

OBJECTIVES OF TARIFF:

1. Recovery of cost of capital investment in generating equipment,

transmission and distribution system.

2. Recovery of the cost of operation, supplies and maintenance of the

equipment.

3. Recovery of the cost of material, billing and collection cost as well as for

miscellaneous services.

4. A net return on the total capital investment must be ensured.

Requirements of tariff:

1. It should be easier to understand

2. It should provide low rates for high consumption.

3. It should be uniform over large population.

4. It should encourage the consumers having high load factors.

5. It should provide less charge for power connection than lighting.

6. It should have a provision of penalty for low power factors.

* In this experiment you have take any one domestic or industrial tariff

study.

EXPERIMENT NO:6

TITLE: study of environmental impact of power plant.

AIM: study of environmental impact of power plant.

THEORY:-

GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

CLIMATE CHANGE:

The greenhouse effect means the absorption of some of the heat radiated from

the Earth’s surface by so-called greenhouse gases (water vapour, CO2 and

other compounds in the lower atmosphere). If the levels of, e.g., CO2 in the

atmosphere progressively increase as a result of human activity, it is thought

that this will eventually increase the natural greenhouse effect and result in a

rise of temperature in the lower atmosphere leading to wide-spread climate

change.

OZONE LAYER DEPLETION:

Ozone layer depletion is the destruction of the stratospheric ozone layer that

shields the earth from ultraviolet radiation that is harmful to life. This

destruction of ozone is mainly caused by the breakdown of certain chlorinated,

brominates or other halogenated hydrocarbons. These compounds break down

when they reach the stratosphere and then catalytically destroy ozone

molecules.

LOCAL AND REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

ACIDIFICATION :

The environment can either be acidified by direct emissions of acids to aquatic

or terrestrial systems or through a complex chemical reactions. Such reactions

occur when emissions of sulphur and nitrogen compounds and other

substances are transformed in the atmosphere, often far from the original

sources, and then deposited on earth in either wet or dry form. The wet forms,

popularly called ‘acid rain’, can fall as rain, snow, or fog. The dry forms are

acidic gases or particles. Acidification is linked to adverse effects on aquatic

ecosystems and terrestrial plant life, especially in areas with poor neutralising

(buffering) capacity. Acids can also leach out poisonous trace metals from the

rock matrix in the soil, thus causing damage to flora, fauna and humans. The

effects are very site-specific. Here an approach, in which the effect is defined as

the amount of protons (H+) released in a terrestrial system in SO2-equivalents,

is used.

EUTROPHICATION :

There are two main issues of eutrophication. The first is the adverse effect from

a decline in dissolved oxygen levels in the aquatic environment. This can

happen either when the introduction of a limiting nutrient (generally P or N)

leads to increased growth of algae (sometimes leading to blooms of toxic

species) and thus to more biomass, or when more biomass is introduced

directly. The decay of this biomass may lead to a decrease in oxygen levels. The

second issue of eutrophication is the fertilisation of terrestrial plants, due to

the introduction of nitrogen species (NOX, NH3 or NH4) (International

Organisation for Standardisation, 1998).

PHOTOCHEMICAL OXIDANT FORMATION :

Photochemical smog affects human health, as well as plants and animals. Its

production is the result of a highly complex combustion or mineralisation

reaction of organic materials in the atmosphere (volatile organic compounds,

VOCs). The reaction occurs when the organic molecules are combined with

NOX. The active component is ozone, a by-product of the above reaction

(International Organisation for Standardisation, 1998).

ECOTOXIC IMPACT :

In this sub-category all (e.g., carcinogenic, pathogenic) substances that can

have a toxic effect on the environment, i.e. flora, fauna or humans, are

aggregated.

Ecotoxicity is aggregated in three classes:

1. toxically contaminated soil

2. toxically contaminated water

3. radioactivity

EXPERIMENT NO: 7

TITLE: Trial on diesel power plant

AIM:- To prepare variable speed performances test on a four-Stroke, four-

Cylinder Diesel Engine and prepare the curves:

(i) BP, BSFC, BMEP, Torque Vs Speed and

(ii) Volumetric Efficiency & A/F Ratio Vs Speed.

APPARATUS USED:-

Four-Stroke, four-Cylinder Diesel Engine Test Rig, Stop Watch, and Digital

Tachometer.

THEORY :-

In the diesel engine, air is compressed adiabatically with a compression ratio

typically between 15 and 20. This compression raises the temperature to the

ignition temperature of the fuel mixture which is formed by injecting fuel once

the air is compressed.

Diesel fuel is used in C.I engines which is less volatile than gasoline, and will

only ignite under severe pressure and/or very high temperatures. That makes

diesel fuel safer to handle, and reduces the chance of a fire or explosion should

the fuel tank rupture in a crash.

Diesels produce large amounts of torque (pulling power) at low engine speeds; a

small four-cylinder diesel can easily produce as much torque as a larger six-

cylinder gasoline engine. This strong mid-range torque gives diesel cars

excellent passing power. Horsepower ratings for diesels tend to be lower,

because horsepower is a function of speed and diesels tend to have a lower

redline (maximum operating speed) than gasoline engines.

FORMULE USED:-

(i) Torque,

T = 9.81 x W x R N-m.

; Where R= (D + d)/2 or (D + t)/2 m, and

W (Load) = ( S1- S2) Kg,

(ii) Brake Power,

B P = ( 2πN T ) / 60, 000 KW

; Where N = rpm, T= Torque N-m,

(iii) Indicated Power,

IP = n (Pm Lstroke A N ) / 60,000 KW

; Pm = Mean effective pressure N/m2

Lstroke = stroke m, A( cross section of the cylinder) = π D2/4 m2

N’ = N/2 (four stroke)

(iv) Fuel Consumption,

mf = ( 50 ml x 10-6 x ρfuel) / ( t ) kg/s

Here; 1 ml = 10-3 liters, and 1000 liters = 1 m3

So 1 ml = 10-6 m3

(V) Brake Mean Effective Pressure,

BMEP = ( BP x 60,000)/ Lstroke x A x N’ N/m2

Lstroke = stroke m, A( cross section of the cylinder) = π D2/4 m2

N’ = N/2 (four stroke)

(vi) Brake Specific Fuel Consumption,

BSFC = ( mf x 3600 ) / B P Kg/ KW . hr

(vii) Indicated Specific Fuel Consumption,

ISFC = ( mf x 3600 ) / I P Kg/ KW .hr

(viii) Indicated Thermal Efficiency,

= ( I P x 100 ) / (mf x C.V. ) %

(ix) Brake Thermal Efficiency,

= ( B P x 100 ) / (mf x C.V. ) %

(X) Mass of the air, mair = Cd x Ao g h ρair ρwater kg/s

Where Cd (coefficient of discharge) = , ρair = (pa x 102 )/ (R x Ta ) kg/m3,

Ao (area of orifice) = (π do2)/4 m2, P1 = 1.10325 bar , R = 0.287 KJ/Kg.K,

Ta = ( ta + 273 ) K, ta = Ambient temperature oC

(XI) Air fuel ratio, A/F = (mair / mfuel ) Kg/Kg of fuel

(XII) Volumetric efficiency, = (Vair x 100 )/ Vs %

; where Vair ( volume of air inhaled/sec) = ( mair/ ρair ) m3/sec.

Vs (swept volume /sec) = n. (Lstroke A N’) /60 m3/sec

(XIII) Mechanical efficiency , BP/IP

PROCEDURE:-

1. Before starting the engine check the fuel supply, lubrication oil.

2. Set the dynamometer to zero load.

3. Run the engine till it attains the working temperature and steady state

condition.

4. Adjust the dynamometer load to obtain the desired engine speed. Note down

the fuel consumption rate.

5. Adjust the dynamometer to the new value of the desired speed. Note and

record the data as in step 4

6. Repeat the experiment for various speeds up to the rated speed of the

engine.

7. Do the necessary calculations.

OBSERVATIONS:-

No. of Cylinders, n =

Brake Drum Diameter, D =

Rope Diameter, d =

Bore, Dbore =

Stroke, Lstroke =

Engine Displacement, Vswept =

Engine Horse Power, BHP =

Density of fuel (Petrol), ρfuel =

Density of Manometer fluid, ρwater =

Orifice Diameter, do =

Co-efficient of Discharge, Cd =

Ambient Temperature, ta =

Atmospheric Pressure, Pa = 1.01325 Bar

Calorific value of fuel =

OBSERVATION TABLE :

Sr.

no Speed RPM Load KG

Fuel

consumption

time for 30

ml

Manometer

reading

CALCULATION :

CONCLUSION:

Performance curves are plotted and they are similar to the standard

performance Curves