Poverty and Human Rights: Multi-dimensional International Measurement

Peter Townsend

International Conference on the Many Dimensions of Poverty, Brasilia, organised by the International Poverty Centre, UNDP

29-31 August 2005

Region Percent of population in households consuming less than the poverty line

1987 1998

Number of poor (millions)

1987 1998

East Asia(incl.China)

East Asia(excl.China)

26.6 15.3

23.9 11.3

418 278

114 65

Eastern Europe and Central Asia

0.2 5.1 1 24

Latin America and Caribbean

15.3 15.6 64 78

Middle East and North Africa

4.3 1.9 9 6

South Asia 44.9 40.0 474 522

Sun-Saharan Africa 46.6 46.3 217 291

Total(incl.China) 28.3 24.0 1183 1199

Total(excl.China) 28.5 26.2 880 986

Table Population Living Below $1.08 per day at 1993 PPP

Source:Chen and Ravallion, World Bank (2001), “How did the World’s Poor fare in the 1990s?” Review of Income and Wealth, pp 1-33.

Cardinal features of the Human Rights Approach: 

1.Multidisciplinarity – meaning for each discipline?2.Universal – all states parties/ international agencies, and entire wealth/ income distribution?3.Equal – rich and poor; non-discriminatory; redistributive; reciprocity?4.Provides for basic needs – income; services; facilities?5.Enforcement – role of international and national law; international relations; international organisations and TNCs; the dynamics of democracy?6.Preventive – structural; organisational; procedural?7.Collective – society; community; multicultural; inter-generational?8.Thoroughgoing internationalism – standardisation; measurement; analysis of globalisation?

 

 

World Bank (1990): Poverty is “the inability to attain a minimal standard of living.” 

  

This minimal standard consists of “two elements: the expenditure necessary to buy a minimum standard of nutrition and other basic necessities and a further amount that varies from country to country, reflecting the cost of participating in the everyday life of society” (World Bank, 1990, pp. 26)   

Figure 2 

History of Approaches to the Definition and Measurement of Poverty 

1.Scientifically “objective” – i.e. evidence can be collected of conditions associated with level of income

 Subsistence – income of household or family is “insufficient to obtain the minimum necessaries for the maintenance of merely physical efficiency”

(Rowntree, 1901, p.86) 

Basic needs – income is insufficient for both subsistence and “essential services provided by and for the community at large, such as safe drinking

water, sanitation, public transport and health, education and cultural facilities” (ILO, 1976, pp. 24-25)

 Relative deprivation – income is insufficient “to obtain the conditions of life, that is, the diets, amenities, standards and services, which allow people to play the roles, participate in the relationships and follow the customary behaviour which is expected of them by virtue of their customary behaviour in society”

(Townsend, 1993, p. 36)  

Figure 3 

Subjective and Collective Basis for a Measured Poverty Line 

1. Subjective – can be representatively individual (opinion poll surveys, random sample surveys) or collective (statements on behalf of groups) about what is the poverty line or a necessary

standard of living 

2. Expert/ arbitrary – choice of a minimum income – usually a fixed income from a particular time (e.g. $1 a day per person from

1985; 40, 50 or 60 per cent of the median or mean household income in any particular year). Problem of circularity.

 3. Administrative practice – the standard or minimum income (“benefit” or “minimum wage”) actually paid by a government or

lesser administrative authority  

Figure 4 The Current Orthodox Strategy 

1.Broad-based economic growth2.Development of human capital (education)3.Safety-nets (or targeting) for vulnerable groups [source: World Bank-1996 and 1997 especially] Outcome of Strategy from evidence of trends over 30 years- Unsuccessful: Among reasons: “trickle-up” growth; conditionality policies for loans; cost-recovery policies in basic social services; cuts in public expenditure; excessive privatisation; unregulated globalisation and unequal terms of trade; enhancement of the power of the global “triumvirate” (G8,TNC’s and IFA’s) 

Figure 5 Alternative Strategy 

1.Equitable tax and incomes policies2.An employment creation programme3.”Universal” social security and public social services [satisfying fundamental human rights-e.g. Articles 21,25 and 26 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Articles 9-14 of the International Covenant of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, and Articles 24.26.27 and 28 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child]4. Social /democratic control of transnational corporations and international agencies, and the development of international company law[source: for example, Townsend P.and Gordon D.eds 2002, especially chapter 17 and Appendix A] Potentiality: The strategy offers the possibility of satisfying the principal UN millennium goal of eliminating poverty, and slowing or halting runaway social polarisation; a start in the necessary reconciliation of market globalisation and the demand for human rights; and a feasible way of internationalising development 

Figure 6 International Definition of Poverty

Absolute poverty is "a condition characterised by severe deprivation of basic human needs, including food, safe drinking water, sanitation facilities, health, shelter, education and information. It depends not only on income but also on access to services."

  

Overall poverty includes "lack of income and productive resources to ensure sustainable livelihoods; hunger and malnutrition; ill health; limited or lack of access to education and other basic services; increased morbidity and mortality from illness; homelessness and inadequate housing; unsafe environments and social discrimination and exclusion. It is also characterised by lack of participation in decision-making and in civil, social and cultural life.  

Figure 7 The Human Rights framework 

Cardinal features of the Human Rights Approach: 

1.Multidisciplinarity – consequences for each discipline as well as interconnections2.Universal – all states parties/ international agencies, and entire wealth/ income distribution3.Equal – rich and poor; non-discriminatory; redistributive; reciprocity4.Provides for basic needs – income; services; facilities5.Enforcement – role of international and national law; international relations; international organisations and TNCs; the dynamics of democracy6.Preventive – structural; organisational; procedural7.Collective – society; community; multicultural; inter-generational8.Thoroughgoing internationalism – standardisation; measurement; analysis of globalisation

 

Table 2Table 2Percentage of Elderly, by number of forms of material and social deprivation Percentage of Elderly, by number of forms of material and social deprivation experienced (Britain, PSE, 2000)experienced (Britain, PSE, 2000)  

Necessities of life: Number of which deprived(maximum 31)

All pensioners (60/ 65) %

Male pensioners(65+) %

Female pensioners(60+) %

0 63 66 61

1 14 18 12

2 5 5 5

3 5 2 7

4 4 3 5

5-9 6 4 7

10+ 3 3 3

All 100 100 100

Number 406 157 249

Note: Derived from the survey report by Gordon D. et al, 2000, and secondary analysis by Patsios D. 2005.  

Figure 8Types of violations of human rights (ECHR), according to possible measured indicators 

Articles of rights Indicator

Right to life (Article 2) Relatively low number of expected years of life/ or Premature deaths, by location, age and gender

Prohibition of torture or "inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment "(Article 3)

Degrading care practices in residential and home care

Right to respect for private and family life (Article 8)

Wish in disability to stay in own home; access to surrounding possessions of a familiar kind

Prohibition of discrimination "on any ground such as sex, race, colour, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, association with a national minority, property birth or other status" (Article 14)

Acceptance for care services, standardised for disability, by minority or gender status.

Figure 9Types of Violations of Human Rights (ESC), according to possible measured indicators 

Articles of rights Indicator

Resources adequate for full and active life

Annual subjective/objective survey assessment of amount required to escape poverty/multiple deprivation

Facilities and information to lead an active, participating life

Access to range of public and private services, and facilities providing information

Opportunity to lead a life in a home of their choosing

Type of accommodation by degree of disability and preference

Access to appropriate health care Frequency and speed of utilisation in relation to degree of disability, degree of material and social deprivation and whether and when need for health care identified

Freedom of action and quality of living conditions in residential institutions

Subjective expression of opportunities to act freely; objective assessment of living conditions in relation to measured degree of disability

Figure 10International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 

International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966-1976)

Article 9 – The States parties to the present Covenant recognise the right of everyone to social security, including social insurance

Article 11 (1) – The States Parties to the present Covenant recognise the right of everyone to an adequate standard of living for himself and family, including adequate food, clothing and housing, and to the continuous improvement of living conditions

Copenhagen World Summit for Social Development (1995) relevant decisions by 117 countries

Action Programme: 38 – Social protection systems should be based on legislation and .… strengthened and expanded … to protect from poverty people who cannot work…

Action programme 8: Equitable and non-discriminatory distribution of benefits of growth among social groups and countries and expanded access to productive resources for people living in poverty

Alternative International Strategy to Defeat Poverty

• 1.Equitable tax and incomes policies

• 2.An employment creation programme

• 3.”Universal” social security and public social services (satisfying fundamental human rights-e.g. Articies 21,25 and 26 of the

Universal Declaration of Human Rights and Articles 24.26.27 and 28 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child)

• 4. Social /democratic control of transnational corporations and international agencies, and the development of international company law

(source: A manifesto of international action to defeat poverty, in Townsend P.and Gordon D.eds 2002 World Poverty: New Policies to Defeat an Old Enemy)

• Potentiality: The strategy is the only realistic possibility of satisfying the principal UN millennium goal of eliminating poverty, and especially runaway social polarisation; a start in the necessary reconciliation of market globalisation and the demand for human rights; and the only feasible way of internationalising development

No Deprivation Extreme Deprivation

Mild Moderate Severe

Deprivation can be conceptualised as a continuum which ranges from no deprivation through mild, moderate and severe deprivation to extreme deprivation.

Continuum of deprivation

In order to measure absolute poverty, the threshold measures of severe deprivation of basic human need can be defined for:

1. food2. safe drinking water3. sanitation facilities4. health

5. shelter6. education7. information8. access to services

Severe Deprivation of Basic Human Need

•Almost a third of the world’s children live in dwellings with more than five people per room or which have a mud floor.

•Over half a billion children (27%) have no toilet facilities whatsoever.

•Over 400 million children (19%) are using unsafe (open) water sources or have more than a 15-minute walk to water.

•About one child in five, aged 3 to 18, lacks access to radio, television, telephone or newspapers at home.

•Sixteen percent of children under five years in the world are severely malnourished, almost half of whom are in South Asia.

•275 million children (13%) have not been immunised against any diseases or have had a recent illness causing diarrhoea and have not received any medical advice or treatment.

•One child in nine aged between 7 and 18 (over 140 million) are severely educationally deprived - they have never been to school.

Percent of the world’s children severely deprived of basic human needs

Advantages of International Child Benefit

• Not indirect. Current forms of international aid are indirect, and unrelated to locations and categories of need among children are greatest.

•  

• More immediate in reducing child poverty. Direct aid in cash or kind has more immediate effects. Such continuing aid necessarily involves the creation and management of an administrative infrastructure throughout each country, so that aid can reach the appropriate destinations.

•  

• Institutional and social stability. Such infrastructure contributes to other forms of national, and international social stability.

UN Child Investment Fund

        An international children's investment fund should be established under the auspices of the UN. Half its annual resources should be devoted to countries with extensive child poverty, where schemes of child benefit in cash or kind exist or are introduced. All countries with large numbers of children who are below an internationally recognised poverty line and also with comparatively low GDP should be entitled to participate. Such participation would require dependable information that the benefits are reaching children for whom they are intended. The remaining annual resources of the fund would be made available to countries for investment in public education, health and other schemes of direct benefit to children.