Postmodern Language Teacher

8/8/2019 Postmodern Language Teacher

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ThePostmodernLanguageTeacher: TheFutureof

Task-basedTeaching

AndrewEdwardFinch (KyungpookNationalUniversity)

I. Introduction

Whatever one thinks of contemporary art, architecture, economics,

education, literature, media, medicine, philosophy, politics, and science,

with theirpostmoderncharacteristicsofborder-crossing, de-colonization,

decentralization, deconstruction, eclecticism, pastiche, relativism,

self-contradiction, self- reference and self-reflexiveness, there can be

littledisagreementabouttheacceleratingrateofchangeinthesedisciplines.

Thischangehasbecomesymptomaticoflifeinthe21stcentury:

We are living in a time of rapid social change. ... such change will

inevitably affect the nature of those disciplines that both reflect our

societyandhelptoshapeit. (Hutcheon1989: vii)

Rogersspellsouttheimplicationsofthissituationforeducation:

We live in an environment that is continually changing. It seems that

rapid change is our only constant. We are facedwith an entirely new

situation in which the goal of education, if we are to survive, is the

facilitationofchangeandlearning. (Rogers1969: 151-152)

Expandingthistheme, EdwardsandUsherstatethat "educationisitself

goingthroughprofoundchangeintermsofpurposes, contentandmethods"

(Edwards & Usher1994: 3). Identifyingeducationas "bothasymptomof

andacontributortothesocio-culturalconditionofpostmodernity" (1994:

3), these authors point to postmodern features of current educational

practices and use these to suggest "a way of looking at education

differently" (1994

:1).Accordingly

,this

paper

examines

contemporary

TeachingEnglishasaForeignLanguage (TEFL) theoryandpractice, and

relates thepostmodern featuresof these toparalleldevelopments inother

fields, showing that they are representative of trends in postmodern

thinking. In particular, Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) is

recommendedasasuitablealternativetopedagogic "modesandcategories

inherited from the past [which] no longer seem to fit the reality

experiencedbyanewgeneration" (Hutcheon1989: vii).


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InviewofthelackofsourcesdealingwithpostmodernismandTEFL, it

hasnotbeenpossibletoperformareviewofliterature, thoughtherearea

numberofrelated texts (e.g. Pennycook1998) thatcouldbedescribedas

postmodern. Afurtherdifficultyisthatwhentheword "postmodern" does

appear inarticlesandbooks (e.g. Mockler2004: 2), the authorsassume

thatthereaderisalreadywell-informed, eventhoughverylittledebateon

postmodernism and TEFL appears to have taken place. This paper

therefore examines postmodernism per se, before discussing its

implicationsfortheTEFLprofession.

II. ChangingDefinitions

In contrast to its 'modern' precursor, postmodernism (in a

characteristically self-referential manner) appears not only to defy

definition, buttoincludethisambiguityaspartofitsmakeup. ('Definition'

is itself a concept based on Enlightenment ideals of logic and reason.)

Hence, O'Farrellcomplainsthatproponentsofpostmodernismrarelyagree

over what the term 'postmodern' actuallymeans: "Indeed, many would

arguethatthisverylackofagreementisinitselfoneofthedistinguishing

featuresofthe 'postmodern'" (O'Farrell1999: 11). Hutcheonconfirmsthat

"Postmodernism isaphenomenonwhosemode isresolutelycontradictoryaswellasunavoidablypolitical" (1989: 1), andWardembracesthe "sense

of fluidity and open-endedness" which "resists being conveniently

summarizedineasy 'soundbites' andrefusestolenditselftoanysinglecut

anddrieddefinition" (Ward2003: 1).

Theextremeflexibilityofpostmodernism isnot, however, areasonfor

not attempting to identify its characteristics (though evasion of definite

statements can also been seen as a characteristic of postmodernism).Hutcheonthereforepersevereswithherattempttosaywhatpostmodernism

isandisnot:

Nevertheless, it seems reasonable to say that the postmodern's initial

concernistode-naturalizesomeofthedominantfeaturesofourwayof

life; to point out that those entities thatwe unthinkingly experience as

'natural' (they might even include capitalism, patriarchy, and liberal

humanism), are in fact 'cultural' - madeby us, not given tous. Even

nature, postmodernismmightpointout, doesn'tgrowontrees. (Hutcheon

1989: 1-2)


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Ward further suggests that postmodernism is a set of concepts and

debates aboutwhat itmeans to live in our present times. Thesedebates

haveanumberofcommonthemes:

1.They propose that society, culture and lifestyle are significantly

differentfromwhattheywere100, 50oreven30yearsago.

2.They are concerned with concrete subjects like the developments in

massmedia, theconsumersocietyandinformationtechnology.

3.They suggest that these developments have an impact on our

understandingofmore abstractmatters, likemeaning, identity andevenreality.

4. Theyclaim thatold stylesofanalysisareno longeruseful, and that

new approaches and new vocabularies need to be created in order to

understandthepresent. (Ward2003: 6)

Postmodern concepts have been adopted and adapted by diverse

disciplines (Hutcheon focuses on architecture, literature, photography,

films and feminism; Ward ranges from philosophy to cultural studies,

geographyandhistory), and ithasbeensaid that "therearereallyseveral

postmodernisms in existence, or at least many variations" (Ward: 5).

Because of this, meanings and definitions tend to be ungeneralizable.

However, anumberofbroadapproachescanbe identified (Table1), andtheseareusedlaterinthispapertodiscusscontemporaryTEFLtheory:

TABLE1: CharacteristicsofpostmodernismCharacteristic Description

1. Border-crossing breakingdownofbarriers

2. De-colonization diversificationandregionalism

3. Decentralization lateral, ratherthanhierarchicaldecision-making

4. Deconstruction questioningtraditionalassumptionsaboutcertainty, identity, truth

5. Eclecticism mixingfeaturesfromdifferentsystemsandfields

6. Pastiche imitatingandsatirizingtheworksofothers

7. Relativism time, space, truthandmoralvaluesarenotabsolutebutarerelativetothepeopleholdingthem

8. Self-contradiction duplicity; themakingofself-underminingstatements

9. Self-referenceandself-reflexiveness

useofmeta-languageandself-constructingforms

III. ChangingSciences

The 'modern' AgeofReasonsubscribedtoanumberof 'metanarratives'

(Lyotard 1984), which influenced all Western thought. These


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metanarratives included i) progress; ii) optimism; iii) rationality; iv) the

searchforabsoluteknowledgeinscience, technology, societyandpolitics;

and v) the idea that gaining knowledge of the true self was the only

foundation for all other knowledge (Ward 2003: 9). Science (which

replacedreligioninthe 'modern' eraasthesubjectofunquestioningfaith)

wasseenfromthisstandpointas: i) progressive (movingtowardsastateof

'complete knowledge'); ii) unified (all sub-disciplines shared the same

goal); iii) universal (aiming at total truths which would benefit all of

human life); and iv) self-justifying (since itwasintenton thebettermentofthe 'humanrace').

Such 'common sense' notions (the common sense of Newtonian

MechanicsandtheIndustrialRevolution) receivedanumberoftheoretical

setbacks in the 20th century, however. Einstein developed a physics of

relativity (Hofstadter 1999: 10); G?del showed that everymathematical

andscientificsystemwasincompleteandcontaineditsowncontradictions

(Hofstadter1999: 1); andHeisenbergproposedhis "uncertaintyprinciple"

alongwithquantummechanics (Hofstadter1985: 45). Thesewerestunning

blows to the modernist ideal, since they not only questioned the

Enlightenment's ideals of 'absolute knowledge' and 'absolute truth,' but

they refuted even the possibility of their existence. Finally, the French

philosopher, JacquesDerrida (1967), added further nails to the 'rational

thought' coffin, whenheshowedthatthereisnosystem, notheory, andno

scienceorpoliticalsystemwhichrestsonentirelyrationalfoundations.Thesetheoreticalwarningsabouttheendofthemodernprojectbecame

realitywhentheconceptofbenign, philanthropicscientificinquiryproved

to be inadequate (or even inaccurate) for the needs of contemporary

society. Thiscollapseoffaithcanbetracedtoanumberofcauses:

1.the contribution of science to ecological disasters (e.g. pollution,

greenhouse gases, acid rain) andmass killing (nuclear, chemical and

biologicalweapons);

2.the

commercialization

of

science

(e.g.the

withholding

of

permission

by pharmaceutical corporations in the US to make cheaper, generic

versionsoftheirlife-savingdrugsinunder-developedcountries [World

TradeOrganisation2001]);

3.the lossof faith in theability tomeasure reality (due to findings in

complexitytheory, relativitytheory, quantummechanics, etc.); and

4.thedivisionofscienceintoamassofspecialisms (diversedisciplines


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and sub-disciplines now follow their own paths and speak their own

languages).

Inthelightofthisethicalandpedagogicalconfusion, itisnotsurprising

that 'the masses' have become skeptical about the notion of a unified,

'objective' science, searching for the answer to life (satirized byAdams

1995). Instead, they see politicians (and their hired scientists) ignoring

vital issues (acid rain, chemical waste landfills, global warming, etc.),

defending unethical and destructive developments ('the bomb,' napalm,anthrax, 'collateraldamage,' 'friendlyfire,' preemptiveinvasions, etc.), and

misleadingcitizenswith inaccurate information (e.g. mythicalweaponsof

mass destruction). This cold reality has left voters doubting the link

between impersonal, unaccountable, commercialized sciences and

'progress' (cf. Kuhn1960). AsO'Farrellasks:

Wasadevastatednaturalenvironment theonlyoutcomeof thescientific

search to improve our physical living conditions? Clearly there was

something verywrong indeedwith thewhole idea that unaidedReason

andRationalitycouldsaveus. (O'Farrell1999: 14)

This lossof faith in experimental sciencepromptedLyotard to define

postmodernism as an attitude of 'incredulity towards metanarratives'(Lyotard1984: 105), and inspiredothers to identify the 'deaths' or 'ends'

of social norms that were previously taken for granted. These deaths

included:

1.the end of history - skepticism about the idea of progress, and the

way in which histories are written (e.g.. the re-presentation of the

SecondWorldWarinJapaneseschooltextbooks);

2.theendof 'man' - 'mankind' wasnowseenasasocialandhistorical

invention; and

3.thedeathofthereal - realityhadbecomeincreasinglyconstructedby

signs: "theimagebearsnorelationtoanyrealitywhatever: itisitsownpuresimulacrum" (Baudrillard1988: 170).

These 'deaths,' and the consequent postmodern preoccupation with

exhaustion, pessimism, irrationality and disillusionment, express the

confusion of a world which has lost faith in 'modern' 'scientific'

metanarratives.


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IV. ChangingWorlds

Thelossofthecornerstonesof 'absoluteknowledge' 'absolutetruth' and

'objectiveinquiry' didnotcausescientiststogiveuptheirstudies, however.

Onthecontrary, newpostmodernbranchesofscienceappeared (e.g. chaos

theory, complexity theory, game theory, model theory, quantum phsyics,

systems theory, and string theory) and the applied technology that came

from them resulted inenhancedcommunication, facilitating thespreadof

mass media, satellite communications, and computer networks, (theInternet). Such unconstrained interaction between members of different

nations, cultures, and hierarchies quickly enabled (and highlighted) a

numberofsocialupheavals, asevidencedby:

1.anerosionofconventionaldistinctionsbetweenhighandlowculture;

2.fascinationwithhowour lives seem increasinglydominatedbyvisual

media;

3.a questioning of ideas aboutmeaning and communication, and about

howsignsrefertotheworld; and

4.a sense that definitions of human identity are changing, or ought to

change. (Ward2003: 11)

In addition to these perceptual changes, the unimpeded crossing of

previously well-defined and monitored borders led to a reappraisal of

physical and political geography. Soja (1989) argued that the primary

characteristicofpostmodernismisitsreplacementofhistoricalwithspatial

concepts. He also identified the 'non-spaces' (airports, motorway resting

places, shoppingmalls, the Internet, chatrooms, etc.) of postmodernism.

These 'non-spaces' share anumberof characteristics: i) they tend to be

independentoftheirgeographical (national) location; ii) theymixuniversal

and regional influences (globalmusic, fashion, technology, etc. alongside

localproductsandvariants); and iii) theyhighlightapostmodern tension

between sameness and difference (cf. Deleuze 1994). Such geographies

createnew, symbolicboundaries, whileerodingthethreemainconceptsof'modern' politics: i) nation; ii) class; and iii) belief in the wholesale

transformationoftheworld (Ward2003: 173).

V. ChangingEducations

Masseducationwasalsopartofthe 'modern' planforthebettermentof


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mankind, and set out to deliver progress, development and security,

throughaneducatedworkforce. However, asO'Farrellobserves:

Aschoolingsystemwhichpromisedsocialequalityandenlightenmentforallhasdone littlemore than reinforce socialdivisionandentrenchnew

formsofconformity, ignoranceandexclusion. Wasthisthehappinessand

socialharmonypromisedbytheEnlightenmentphilosopherJean-Jacques

Rousseauand19thcenturyeconomistKarlMarx? (O'Farrell1999: 13)

Educationhasbeennotableforitsresistancetopostmodernideas, sinceschools and universities have traditionally been prime agents of

Enlightenment ideals: "The project of liberalmass schooling and higher

education in the late twentieth century is built around the intellectual

authorityinheritedfromtheEnlightenment" (Peters1995: xxx). Itfollows,

therefore, that "postmodernism's emphasis on the decentred subject

constructedbylanguage, discourses, desireand theunconscious, seemstocontradict the very purpose of education and the basis of educational

activity" (Edwards & Usher1994: 2).

The role and nature of education has further been complicated by its

social purpose - helping individuals to become fit for society (cf. the

concept of 'Hongik-Ingan' ["Contributing to the overall benefit of

humankind" - Korea InstituteofCurriculumandEvaluation2005: p. 5]whichisattheheartofeducationpolicyinKorea). Thisgoalhasinvolved

the imposition and acceptanceof "well-regulated liberty" (Donald1992:

12), with thepedagoguesexerting theirauthority 'in thebest interests' of

the students: "The strict application of nurturing and protective attitudestowardchildrenhascreatedaparadoxicalsituationinwhichprotectionhascome tomeanexcluding theyoungfrommeaningful involvement in their

owncommunities" (Postman1995: 102). This is theparadoxofasystem

whichattemptstoprepareindividualsforademocraticsocietyanddoesso

through the autocratic, teacher-centered, compulsory classroom, thus

denyinganyopportunitiestoactdemocratically (cf. Chomsky2005).

Another postmodern aspect of contemporary education is its

commercialization. Hutcheonsituatesthepostmodern "squarelywithinbotheconomiccapitalismandculturalhumanism - twoofthemajordominants

of much of the western world" (1989: 13), and education in the

postmodern world has accordingly been made accountable to capitalist

market forces. This need to show ameasurable result in return for the

money invested, has been termed "the discourse of instrumentalism"

(Mockler 2004: 3), and was demonstrated by the U.S. presidential


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candidateG. W. Bush in the2000pre-electiondebate: "Youmusthave

mandatory testing. Youmust say that if you receivemoney, youmust

showuswhetherornotchildrenarelearningtoreadandwriteandaddand

subtract" (NewYorkTimes2000, citedinMockler2004: 3). Consequently,

the state, students, parents, schools and universities are no longer

concerned with intrinsic knowledge, but rather with its empirical

'usefulness' intermsofgettingajob, obtainingscholarshipsandgrants, or

holdingontostatefunding:

Inshort, knowledgeisnolongerassessedintermsofitstruthorfalsityor

itspromotionofjustice, but intermsof itsefficiencyatmakingmoney.

(Lyotard1984: 51)

IntheKoreancontext, theexcessiveattentionpaidtohigh-stakestesting

hasproducedaparticularvariantof thisphenomenon. Rather thanasking

the extrinsic "Will this lesson helpme to learn English for use in the

globalvillage?", or the reflexive "Will this lessonhelpme learnhow to

learnEnglish?", ortheintrinsic "Willthislessonhelpmetomaximizemy

love of language and showme the beauty inherent in language learning

andculturalexchange?", highschoolstudents inKorea typicallyask (and

aresupportedbytheirparentsindoingso) "WillthisinformationbeontheCSAT?" If theanswer is "No," thenstudents turn theirattention tomore

obviously instrumental learning texts, such as those issued by the

EducationalBroadcastingService (EBS).

A furtherexampleof thecommercializationofeducation inKoreacan

befoundintheproliferationofprivatelanguageinstitutes. Theseinstitutes

exist to help students pass theCSAT, TOEFL, TOEIC, TEPS and even

high-school-entrance tests, though they also teach conversational (and

business-oriented) use-of-English. In thewords ofKim See-bong, the

ownerofsuchaninstitute:

Children fromnursery school tohigh schoolgo to fiveor sixhagwons

(private institutions) aweek. Some take inasmanyasnine. When theycome backhome, they stillhave toprepare for the schoolwork." (Kim

2005)

The Korean Educational Development Institute (KEDI), has reported

that "sevenoutof10studentsarereceivingtutoring, withprivateeducation

expenses taking up an average of 12.7 percent of the household

expenditure" (Soh 2004). The 'grand postmodern metanarrative' in this


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situation is the urge to make money and obtain secure employment,

whateverthesacrificeincurredintermsofHongik-Ingan.

Itisevidentthateducationinthepostmoderneracannolongerseeitself

as independent of historical, economic and cultural factors, and schools

must come to termswith the demands of a postmodern society. In this

context, EdwardsandUsher (1994) offersomesuggestionsforshapingan

appropriatepostmoderneducationsystem:

1.Educationshouldbemorediverse intermsofgoalsandprocessesand

consequentlyintermsoforganisationalstructures, curricula, methodsand

participants.

2.Educationshouldnolongerfunctionasameansofreproducingsociety

orasaninstrumentinlarge-scalesocialengineering. It [should] become

limitlessbothintimeandspace.

3.There should be no attempt to place education into a straitjacket of

uniformprovision, standardised curricula, technicized teachingmethods,

anduniversal 'messages' ofrationalityormorality.

4.Educationinthepostmodernworldmustenablesgreaterparticipationin

adiversityofwaysbyculturallydiverselearners.

5.Education in thepostmodernworld is likely tobemarked bothby a

generaldecentringandagenerallooseningofboundaries. (Adaptedfrom

Edwards & Usher1994: 211-212)

Postman, in a postmodern postscript to these suggestions, notes that

"amongthe 'new' ideasnowcurrentinseveralplacesistheorganizationof

schoolingaroundthemes. Thisisaprogressiveidea, pointingasitdoesto

theneedforprovidingmeaning ineducation" (Postman1995: 101). This

'theme-based' approachappears inEnglishLanguageTeaching (ELT) as

project-basedteaching (Legutke & Thomas1991), anextensionofTBLT,

andprovidesa suitable introduction to adiscussionofpostmodernism in

ELTandTEFLinparticular.

VI. ChangingEnglishes

6.1PostmodernisminELT

Hutcheon speaksof the attemptbypostmodernism to "'de-doxify' our

cultural representations and their undeniable political import" (1989: 3).

This de-politicization has important implications for TEFL, which has

been ameans of spreading cultural, economic and religious values (e.g.


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evangelicalEnglish teaching inKorea) under theassumptionofuniversal

"correctness," described by Phillipson as "English linguistic hegemony"

(Phillipson 1992: 73). The imposition of such external values has led

Bococktocallforthe "re-introductionofphilosophical, rationaldiscussion

ofvaluesandpolitics intosocial theoryand thesocialsciences" (Bocock

1986: 123). Benson and Voller point to "a growing recognition of the

politicalnatureoflanguagelearning" (Benson & Voller1997: 6) andnote

that terms such as 'ideology' and 'empowerment' have entered the

vocabularyof language education, mirroring a growing concernwith thesocial implicationsof language learningand theculturally invasivenature

ofmuchlanguageeducation (Phillipson1992; Pennycook1998).A postmodern approach to language learning therefore challenges

previous linguistic and cultural representations and their political

associations. Many 'modern' metanarrativesnormally takenforgrantedby

teachers and implicit in their practices (e.g. teacher-direction, teacher

control, textbooks, standardizedtests, experimentalresearch, and 'standard'

pronunciation), are in fact cultural andman-made, with various 'hidden

agendas' derivingfromanEnlightenmentviewofreality.

Harrisonwarnsthat "Whatwedoin the languageclassroomisaffected

by who we are, the views we hold, and the societies we are part of"

(Harrison1990: 1), andHollyaddsthatEnglish "canalsoactasameansofpolitico-cultural colonizationof the spirit, serving the interests of themost powerful concentrations of economic power the world has ever

known" (Holly1990: 18). Phillipsonthereforecallsfora "macro-societal

theoretical perspective" (Phillipson 1992: 2) of language pedagogy, and

calls attention to Stern's comment that "Social scientists ... have hardly

recognized the importance of theories and descriptions of society and

cultureforlanguageteaching" (Stern1983: 282).

The successofEuropean colonization, and in particular the scope and

breadth of theBritishEmpire (onwhich the sun never set), meant that

Westernreligions, moresandculturalnormsweredisseminatedthroughout

the 'civilized' world. Theparallelprocessof linguisticcolonizationwhich

accompanied this 'civilization' has been documented by authors such as

Phillipson (1992), Pennycook (1998) andCanagorajah (1999), while the

postcolonial rejection of 'linguistic imperialism' has found expression

throughthecurrentinterestinWorldEnglishes (Kachru & Nelson2001).

The 'linguistic imperialism' debate highlights postmodern, postcolonial

attempts to diversify English language learning, and to make a

decentralized 'Lingua Franca,' free of totalizing cultural and intellectual


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agendas. This is one of the many inter-linked facets of postmodern

languageteachingandlearning, asitemizedinTable2.

TABLE2: AcomparisonofmodernandpostmodernELTmetanarratives

ModernELTmetanarratives PostmodernELTmetanarrativesHigh-stakes, standardizedtesting

Normative, summativemeasurement

'One-off' mid-termand 'final' tests.Focusontheproductoflearning

Centralization, Totalization

Classroom-BasedPerformanceAssessment

Absolute, formativemeasurementContinuousassessment

Portfolios, journals, self/peer-assessment

Focusonthelearningprocess.

DeconstructionofstandardizedtestingCompetition

Aggression, Division

Individualization, 'winner-takes-all'MutuallyExclusiveGoalsAttainment

(MEGA) (Kohn, 1992)

Collaboration

Inter-personalandintra-personalresponsibilityingroupwork

Sociallearning, teamworkDecentralization

StudyingEnglishthroughits 'highest

achievements' -EnglishliteratureStrictboundariesRestrictionsofgenre

LearningEnglishthroughpop-culture,

comics,cartoons,movies,theInternet,etc.Pluralityofgenres

Boundary-crossingEclecticism

Structural,propositionalsyllabi

Totalization

Process,task-based/project-basedsyllabi

Deconstructionoftraditionallanguagelearningconcepts

Behaviorism

Languagelearningaspredictableandindependentofemotions

Recognitionofaffectiveandsocialfilters

Languagelearningassocial, cultural,emotionalandunpredictable

Linear,sequentiallearning

LanguageascodeStructuralsyllabi

'Absolute', grammatical 'truths

Cyclic,contextuallearning

Meta-languageandlearningstrategies

Complex, dynamic, cycliclearning

Self-reflexiveness, Self-reference

Linguisticandculturalimperialism

Standardized,WesternEnglish

The 'native-speaker' ofEnglish

Studyingandimposingthecultureofthetargetlanguage

Centralization,Colonialism

Totalization

Postcolonialism, De-colonialism

RegionalEnglishes, dialectsand

pronunciations(e.g. 'Konglish') expresslocal

cultures.

Deathofthe 'nativespeaker'Studyingregionalandglobalculturesthroughthetargetlanguage

Regionalism,Globalism,Diversification

Quantitative,experimental

, 'objective

'researchStatisticalmeasurementofrigorouslyisolatedandindependentlyobserved

'truths'

'Absolute' 'scientific' 'truth'

Qualitative,subjective

,action

research

RecognitionthatbeliefsandperceptionscontrollearningSystemsanalysisofthewholelearning

environment. Triangulation

Subjective, individual, personaltruthsPsychologicalRelativism

Teacher-centeredlearning

Teacher-controlledlearningAutocraticinstruction

Student-centeredlearningInvolvingstudentsintheirlearningRecognizingindividualdifferencesinlearning


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TeachingthesamethingtoeveryoneatthesametimeTeacherasfountofknowledge

Transferofknowledgetothe 'empty

vessels' ofthestudents

Grammar-translation

Totalization, Centralization

needs, learningstyles, learningpreferences,

proficiencylevels, etc.TeacherasfacilitatoroflearningFacilitationoftheappropriatelearningexperiencefortheappropriatestudentattheappropriatetime

Task-BasedandProject-Basedlearning

Decentralization, Empowerment

Unfortunately, thereisnospaceinthispapertodiscussallthefactorsin

Table 2. However, it is noticeable that the educational theories and

practicesoutlined in the right-hand column ofTable 2have arisen as a

result of professional inquiry, and that the postmodernism perspective

provides a means of bringing them all together under the pluralist

umbrellas of border-crossing, deconstruction, decentralization,

post-colonialism, regionalism, relativismandself-reflexiveness.

The multiplicity of factors and influences in TEFL is itself amanifestationofthepostmodernsciencesofsystemstheoryandcomplexity

theory. According to these, a system (such as a language learner) will

interactwithothersystemsatthesamelevel, orathigherandlowerlevels

(e.g. parents, classmates, friends, TV, computer games, internet sites,

movies, andreligion), andwilldevelopandchangethroughthesecomplex,dynamic interactions. This will lead to the emergence of a unique

collection of needs, intelligences, learning preferences, learning styles,

beliefs, perceptions and attitudes, which arenot simply the sum of their

constituent parts (Finch 2004b: 29). This scenario can be applied to

hierarchies of systems, from the learner (him/herself a collection of

subsystems) to the learning environment, the teacher, the school, the

education system, researchers, authors of academic texts, and theTEFL

professionitself.

In likemanner, TEFLpedagogyhas 'emerged'(Finch2004b: 32) in its

currentformasaresultofthecomplexanddynamicinteractionsbetween

approaches, authors, teachers, researchers, students, learningcommunities,

cultures, andinnumerableotherfactors.

6.2Tasks: apostmodernteachingparadigm

Theproduct/processparadigmshiftdescribedbyBreen (1987) occurred

in response to the inadequacy of a pre-existing metanarrative (the

propositionalsyllabus) andled to theemergenceof the 'task' asaunitof


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analysis (rather thangrammar, situation, topic, or lexis) andas "acentral

pedagogical tool for the language teacher as well as a basic unit for

language syllabusdesignand research" (Williams & Burden1997: 168).

Leaver and Willis point out that TBLT satisfies US governmental

accountabilityrequirements (cf. thediscourseofinstrumentalism):

It is a tribute to the efficacy of task-based instruction (TBI) that this

methodhasbecome theoneofchoice in thebestgovernmentprograms.

Sincethe1980s, nearlyallgovernmentinstitutionshaveusedTBIintheir

foreignlanguageprograms. (Leaver & Willis2004: 47)

Ellis also suggests that "tasks can be seen as tools for constructing

collaborative acts" (2003: 178) and that they can cater for learning by

providingopportunitiesforlearners:

1.to use new language structures and items through collaborationwith

others;

2.tosubsequentlyengage inmore independentuseof thestructures they

haveinternalizedinrelativelyundemandingtasks;

3.to finallyuse the structures in cognitivelymore complex tasks. (Ellis

2003: 178)

A task-based approach combines and promotes many postmodern

features of TEFL theory and practice: collaboration (border-crossing),

autonomy (de-colonization), student-centeredness (decentralization), and

negotiation of meaning (deconstruction). In addition, tasks involve the

students in their learning (self-referencing), and in doing so, promote

decision-making, problem-solving, criticalthinking, andresponsibilityfor

learning (decentralization). Furthermore, TBLThasbecomeassociatedwith

the development of learning strategies, which are an essential part of

autonomous learning. Formative self-assessment thus requires learners to

set goals, assess their achievements, and reflect on their needs

(self-reflexiveness). Finally, TBLT enables form and performance to be

combined (border-crossing) inaForm-FocusedInteraction (FFI) approach

(Finch 2006), in which students learn the grammar by using it

meaningfullyintheclassroom.

A major field of research in TBLT has been concerned with thecategorization of tasks and the construction of valid sequences of tasks

according to linguistic, affective, and cognitive goals (Candlin 1987;

Skehan 1998; Willis 1996). Table 3 presents a classification of


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language-learningtasksaccordingtocommunicativecomplexity (one-way

vstwo-way) andtasktypes. Whenconstructingasequenceoftaskstofit

agiven teachingaim, itcanbeeffective tofollow this table, progressing

from static, one-way, Discovery Tasks (Table 3, top left corner) to

complex, dynamic, two-wayIndividualTasks (bottomrightcorner). This

progression allows students to acquire new language through static,

experiential tasks (controlled language), andgradually introduces them to

morechallenging, complex, autonomoustasks (unpredictablelanguage).

TABLE3: Aclassificationoftask-types (Finch2004c: 97-98)

TaskTypes Static (one-way) Dynamic (two-way)DiscoveryTasks wordsearches

internet-basedlanguagepuzzlesmatchingactivities

interactivedictionaryactivities (pairs,

groups)

languagetriviagames/puzzles

groupmatchinggamesExperienceTasks

memorygames

reviewactivities (one-way)

simplelexisactivities (grammar,

vocabulary)

questionnaires (one-way)

brainstorming

reviewactivities (two-way)

basicinterviews

questionnaires (two-way)storytelling

GuidedTasks classroomEnglish

structuralactivities (drills)comprehensionactivitiesdictationactivities

discoveryactivities

groupproject-workdramas

role-playSharedTasks

pair-work(informationgap,

informationtransfer)

group-work(informationgap,

informationtransfer)tasksaboutclassmemberssimpledialogslanguagegames

pair-work(e.g. interviews)

group-work(problem-solving,

opinion-gapactivities)igsawactivitiespyramidactivities

role-plays & simulations

error-correction

peer-assessment

discussions, surveys

IndependentTaskshomework

self-study (books, internet)

self-assessment

independentprojectswritingtoanemailpal

web-quests

When this approach is extended by letting tasks grow into projects

(Legutke & Thomas1991), a formofTEFLemergeswhichcanbe said

both to be a result of, and to contribute to, effective and meaningful

languageeducationinthepostmodernera. Ratherthanexpectingeveryone

toacquire thesame languageat thesame timeandat thesamerate, and

then giving everyone the same test (totalization), a project approach


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recognizes the diversity of learning needs, learning styles, language

proficiencies, beliefs, attitudes and levels, that exist in the typical EFL

multilevelclass, andallowsstudentstosatisfytheirlearningneeds, in the

manner that is best for them. By putting students 'in the driving seat'

(decentralization), theprojectsyllabus fostersactivecommunicationskills

(cooperation, discussion, negotiation, etc.) as well as

problem-identification, goal setting, self-assessment and reflection

(Legutke & Thomas 1991: 160). The role of the teacher in this new

situation is to facilitate learning by being a language resource andproviding guidance (linguistic, emotional, cognitive and social) where

appropriate.Such an approach is influenced by and demonstrates the postmodern

sciencesofChaosandComplexity: "Itisusefultoregardtheclassroomas

acomplexadaptivesystem" (VanLier1996: 38) inwhich "languagesgo

throughperiodsofchaosandorderasdootherlivingsystems. Furthermore,

their creative growth occurs at the border between these two"

(Larsen-Freeman 1997: 158). This borderline between order and chaos

describes the capacity for learning that complex adaptive systems have

when they are neither settled nor chaotic - a concept with various

implicationsforthelanguageclassroom:

Theeducationalcontext, with theclassroomat itscenter, isviewedasa

complexsysteminwhicheventsdonotoccurinlinearcausalfashion, but

inwhichamultitudeofforcesinteractincomplex, self-organizingways,

and create changes and patterns that are part predictable, part

unpredictable. (VanLier1996: 148)

Task-Based and project-based teaching thus offer a postmodernapproach to thepostmodernsituation inwhich teachersandstudentsnow

findthemselves. Inthissituation, anumberofissuescometothefore:

1.Knowledge is now less important than the ability to access and use

thatknowledge.

2.Oneskillisnolongersufficientforalifetime. Instead, educatorsmust

developintheirstudentstheabilitytore-skillmanytimes.

3.Language is no longer a means of imposing Western cultural,

economic and philosophical systems and concepts. Instead, Regional

Englishesofferstudentsameansofusing 'English' toexpresstheirown

cultural, religiousandpersonaltruths.


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4.Memory and other (easy to test) low-order thinking skills have

becomeredundant, duetotheabilityofcomputerstostore (andretrieve)

factsmoreefficientlythanhumans.

5.High-order thinking skills (problem-solving, critical thinking,

creativity, inferencing, deducing, etc.) are vital for survival and

developmentinacontinuallychangingworld.

6.Language learning is no longer separate from its social context.

Languagelearnersandteachersmustbeawareofglobalissues (pollution,

global warming, over-population, etc.) caused by thoughtlessconsumerismandcolonialism.

7."Onesize" doesnot "fitall." Studentscannotlearn (anddonotneed)

the entire English language. Instead, they need the ability to acquire

many specific types of English (Academic English, Business English,

ComputerEnglish, EngineeringEnglish, MediaEnglish, MedicalEnglish,

TourismEnglish, etc.).

A task-based/project-based approach to language learning offers a

well-researchedandpedagogicallysoundmeansofaddressingtheseissues.

Inaddition, it is interesting tonote that thisapproach focusesonholistic

learning (education of the whole person), and develops individual

(intrapersonal) and group (interpersonal) responsibility, while promoting

critical, informed problem-solving and accountability - goals that the

propositional paradigm and the 'modern' educationmovement ostensibly

aimedatbutsubvertedthroughautocraticcentralizationandtotalization.

VII. Conclusion

Postmodern TEFL theory presents English as a lingua franca with

regional variations - a global language in which there are no native

speakers, no standard pronunciations or grammars, and no target culture

(de-colonization, diversification, and regionalization). Western-oriented

practices (andpolitics) oflanguageteachingarebeingreinterpretedinthelight of indigenous learning needs and sociopolitical factors, and the

MEGA ethic of classroom competition and high-stakes testing

(totalization) is being replaced bymore effective and socially desirable

collaborativestudyingmodels (decentralization). 'Learningtolearn' isseen

as a lifelongprocess, inwhich language is used as ameans of learning

language (self-reference). Meanwhile, the mass media has successfully


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colonized the profession, bringing its global messages of financial

accountability, consumerism, andthe 'image' asreality.

In this situation, TEFL as a profession cannot make any modernist

claimstobeprogressive, unifiedoruniversalinitsapproachesorpractices,

though it is a postmodern contradiction and 'doubleness' that various

establishments and schools of thought (e.g. the "peace as a global

language" movement) continue in this endeavor, and that postmodern

approaches include both neo-liberal and neo-conservative views on

education reform. Perching on thismetaphoricborder betweenorder andchaos, the postmodern perspective does, however, hold out hope for the

futureaswellasdescribingthedisillusionmentwiththepast. AsO'Farrell

concludes:

If education can be amachine for social conformity, it can also be a

machinefortheinvestigationofnewhorizonsandnewpossibilities. The

proliferationof 'difference' anduncertainty in thepostmodernworld, far

from being a problem, is a constant invitation to imagine the

unimaginable. (O'Farrell1999: 17)

ThepostmodernTEFL situationcanbe seenasheraldinganumberof

ELT deaths: i) the death of the 'native speaker' ii) the death ofstructuralism; iii) the death of imperialism; and iv) the death of the

'teacher.' Rather thanremaining inpostmoderndespairabout the inability

of 'modern' concepts to explain postmodern reality, however, it is

importantthatthese 'deaths' bealsoseenasthebirthsofnewteachingand

learning paradigms: i) the birth of multi-lingual, indigenous

('home-grown'), facilitators of learning; ii) the birth of an integrated,

holistic learning approach; iii) the birth of a Korea-specific, regional

English; andiv) thebirthofstudent-directedlearning, withthe 'teacher' as

consultant, languageresource, andmentor.

Thispaperthereforeembraces, andalsogoesbeyondpostmodernism, by

suggesting that aTBLT approach toTEFL inKorea represents a viable

pathfor thepresentand the future. Byshiftingresponsibility for learningand assessment to the learner, by focusingon the acquisitionof learning

skillsandsocialskillsinagroupcontext, andbyofferingtheopportunity

to learn inself-directed learningprojects, TBLT, andproject learning in

particular, canprovideafeasibleapproachtolanguagelearninginthe21st

century "through an awareness of howwe use language, how language

usesus, andwhatmeasuresareavailable toclarifyourknowledgeof the


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worldwemake (Postman1995: 87).

VIII. Recommendations

This paper is theoretical, and there is no space to discuss the

practicalitiesandlogisticsofTBLT, thoughitisafeatureofthisapproach

thatthesehavebeenwellresearched, bothinternationally (Ellis, 2003) and

in Korea (Finch 2006). However, it must be recognised that

language-learninginKoreaisculturallyspecific, andcannotbedescribedby theories originating in other learning environments (e.g. the ESL

environments of theUS, theUK, Australia, NewZealand, etc.). Just as

regionalEnglishesofferameansofmakingEnglishspecifictothecultural

and personal 'truths' of world citizens, it is important that TBLT be

adaptedtoitsKoreancontext.

Itisrecommended, therefore, thatfurtherresearchintotheuseofTBLT

be carried out in Korea, and that this research should lead to the

constructionofanationaltask-basedlanguagecurriculum. Thiscurriculum

would be appropriate to the learning needs (cognitive, affective, social,

economic, and cultural) of the students, andwould (at secondary level)

mix structural components (grammar) with language performance, in a

holistic approach - Form-Focused Interaction. As students progress andbecomemoreawareoftheir learningneeds, theywould (at tertiary level)

move into project-based work, in which they would learn the specific

languageneededfor theircareers (BusinessEnglish, EngineeringEnglish,

NursingEnglish, TourismEnglish, etc.).

LanguageproficiencyinsuchaTask-BasedNationalCurriculumwould

be assessedbyongoing, formative, Classroom-BasedAssessment (CBA)

(portfolios, etc.) (Finch & Shin 2005), and performance assessment

(projects, presentations, etc.). TheCSATwouldcarrylessweight, but (if

suitably redesigned) could be a useful means of demonstrating

higher-orderthinkingskills. Inthiscase, CSATquestionswouldfocuson

application, ratherthanmemorizationofconcepts. Gradingoftheanswerswouldfocusonlogicalthinkingandexpressionofreasonedarguments.

If such a Task-Based National Curriculum were designed, extensive

in-servicetraininginTBLTandperformanceassessmentwouldbeneeded.

Itwouldalsobeimportanttoensurethatacollaborative, holistic, viewof

learning should replace the current test-driven classroom. Rather than

asking "Is thison the test?" studentsand teachersshouldbeasking "Will


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this lesson helpme to become a responsible, honest, diligent, creative,

critical-thinking, problem-solvingworldcitizen?"

Finally, Korea is famous for itspersonal andnational committment to

education. Becauseofthis, studentsinhighschoolsfollowstudyschedules

thatareunthinkableinthewest. Atpresentthislearningiscompetitiveand

mostlyfact-based, andhighschoolgraduatespossesslittleabilitytoapply

the concepts they have learned in real life (Gardner, 1993: 3). If a

National Task-Based Curriculum were able to produce a society of

higher-orderthinkers, Korea'sworkethicwouldindeedbearfruit.

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paper considers the implications of this situation and reviewspostmodern trends inTeachingEnglishasaForeignLanguage

(TEFL) theory and practice, suggesting ways in which

Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) might make foreign

languageacquisitionapersonally relevant, sociallymeaningful,

andculturallyacceptableprocess.