Population n Ecosystem-krt

8/3/2019 Population n Ecosystem-krt

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LECTURE 12:POPULATION ECOLOGY & ECOSYSTEM

2. Light in

Oxygen out

1.Carbon dioxide in

3. Water in

Food out


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Population Ecology


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Ecology is the study of

interactions among organismsand their environment

Not concerned with individuals Populations - same area, same time

Population ecology - looks at the

dynamics of populations that are similarbetween species


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Population density - number of individuals of a

given species in a specific area at a given time Range - geographic area or limit of a population

Dispersion - frequency or patterns of individualswithin a range:

uniform random

clumped


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Population change

Growth rate = births - deaths+immigration - emigration

Doubling rate (time it takes for apopulation to double) = 0.7/growth rate(see page 911)

Biotic potential = maximum rate ofpopulation growth given idealcircumstances


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Limits on growth

Environmental resistance - combinationof the limiting factors and effects

Limiting Factors - any resource orrequirement that acts to limit populationwhen in short supply

Carrying capacity (K) - the greatestpopulation that can be maintained

indefinitely by a given system or place


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Density dependent factors

As population increases the rate ofgrowth is slowed by densitydependent factors either by

increasing the death rate ordecreasing the birth rate

predation, disease, intraspecifc

(within a species) competition andinterspecific competition


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Density independent factors

Weather events

Natural disasters (=bencana alam)


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Survival tactics - reproduction r strategies - (r = growth rate) - small

body size, large brood, short lifespan, may be opportunistic andfound in disturbed or variable

environments

K strategies - (K=carrying capacity) -large body small brood, long life, care

for young, constant or stableenvironments


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Human population growth

1800 human population reaches 1billion

1930 - in 130 years 2 billion 1960 - in 30 years 3 billion

1975 - in 15 years 4 billion

1987 - in 12 years 5 billion 1999 - in 12 years 6 billion


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What are the densitydependent limits to growth

acting on human population?


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Demographic transition

Preindustrial stage - high birth anddeath rates - slow population growth

transitional stage - lower death ratebut birth rate remains high - rapid

population growth industrial stage - birth rate declines -

rate of growth slows

post industrial stage - low birth anddeath rates


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Communities of organisms

Producers - autotrophs

Consumers - heterotrophs

primary and secondary Decomposers - heterotrophs


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Producers in an Ecosystem

Categories of Organism in an ecosystem

Autotrophsself-nourished species (e.g.plants)

Heterotrophs

other-nourished species(humans and animals)

1. Producers:Green Plants responsible forphotosynthesis and the release of energy intoan ecosystem.


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Consumers and Decomposers2. Consumers

a) Primary Consumers - Herbivoresb) Secondary Consumers Carnivoresc) Tertiary Consumers - Carnivoresd) Multiple-level Consumers - Omnivores

3. a) Detritivorese.g. crab (kepiting), vulture(burung hering), termites (rayap)

b)Decomposers e.g. fungi and bacteria


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No organism lives inisolation. Every living thing is

part of a community.

Predation pursuit (=mengejar) andambush (menyerang)

Defenses (=bertahan) camouflage(=menyamar), chemical defense,

mimicry - (batesian mimicry or mullerianmimicry)


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Interactions among species in anEcosystemPlants compete amongst themselves for:

1. water, 2. nutrients 3. sunlight and 4. space

Animals compete over

1. food, 2. water, 3. mating and 4. territory

2 main types of relationships Predation one species (the predator) feeds on

the other (prey) e.g. cat and mouse Symbiosis species live in an intimate

association with each other


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Types of symbiotic relations Parasitism - one species feeds on another

(the host) and may kill it.

Mutualism both parties benefit equallyfrom the relationship (flowers and butterflies)

Commensalism the relationship benefitsone species but neither helps nor harms theother


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Mutualism

A symbiotic relationship

both partners benefit

rhizobium bacteria and plants

pilot fish and sharks (=ikan hiu)?


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Commensalism

One benefits , the other is neither harmed(=dirugikan) nor helped

epiphytes

sea ducks and sting rays (=ikan pari)


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Parasitism

Parasite and host

pathogen - parasite that causes disease


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Niche

The ecological role of an organism is itsniche

fundamental niche - potential niche

realized niche - actual interspecific competition leads to

competitive exclusion - absolute

overlap cannot exist in nature


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Diversity in communities

Isolated or places with harsh(=keras/kasar) environments have lessdiversity

edge effect - diversity is usuallygreatest at the margins

old communities (tropical rainforests)

tend to be more diverse than newcommunities (Canadian shield, artic)


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Succession Primary succession - change in species

composition over time in a habitat notpreviously inhabited by organisms

Pioneer community - first community to

appear

Secondary succession - change in speciescomposition over time in a habitat already

modified by previous organisms Climax community -


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Ecosystems andEnvironment


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Biogeochemical cycles

All materials flow through the environment overtime - materials cycle through the environment

Comprise processes through which elementsthat sustain life (water, carbon, phosphorus and

nitrogen) are continuously made available toliving organisms.

Nitrogen cycle

Hydrological cycle Carbon cycle

Phosphorus cycle


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Most plants depend on bacteria tosupply nitrogen


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The Hydrological Cycle


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The Carbon Cycle


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Phosphorus Cycle

Phosphorus is the key to energy in livingorganisms, for it is phosphorus that movesenergy from ATP to another molecule,

driving an enzymatic reaction, or cellulartransport. Phosphorus is also the glue thatholds DNA together, binding deoxyribosesugars together, forming the backbone of

the DNA molecule. Phosphorus does thesame job in RNA.


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RocksIn some cases,

phosphorous will travelto a lake, and settle onthe bottom. There, it mayturn into sedimentaryrocks, limestone, to bereleased millions ofyears later. Sosedimentary rocks actslike a back, conservingmuch of the phosphorusfor future eons.


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Interruptions in an Ecosystem

Causes:a) Natural causes volcanic eruptions

b) Human causes e.g. construction,

agriculture, mining, etc.List some of the consequences that canresult from an abrupt interruption in the

smooth functioning of an ecosystem?


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What lessons can we learn from theway a natural ecosystem operates? Natural ecosystems gain resources, use it and

dispose of wastes through recycling. Ecosystems sustain themselves by running on Solar

Energy which is exceedingly abundant, nonpolluting,constant and long lasting. Far less of Carnivores can be supported by each

ecosystem. Many would soon face extinction(=kepunahan)

Every species in a community play an important role inthe sustenance (=makanan) of the ecosystem


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Energy

Energy flows through the environment

Sunlight to chlorophyll to photosynthesisto sugars to plant biomass to.

Food chains - energy passes from oneorganism to another - it is a one way trip-energy passed through the environmentin a linear fashion- unlike materials


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Food chains

Trophic levels

Available energy and biomassdecrease at each trophic level

Gross primary productivity - rate atwhich energy is captured and stored inplant tissues

Net primary productivity - energy afterplants requirements


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The Food Chain A food chain orfood web is represented by a

sequence of organisms through which energy and

nutrients flow from one organism to another.

A major step in the transfer of energy through the

food chain is termed as a Trophic level Primary consumers First trophic level Secondary consumers - Second trophic level

Tertiary Consumers - Third trophic level The amount of usable energy in the food chain

decreases as we move down the trophic level


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An example of a marine food chainPhytoplankton is the firstlevel of marine food chainZooplanktons are eaten bykrill and other Small fishwhich are all eaten in turnby Big fish, includingpenguins, seals andwhales. The marine foodchain continues when thesebig fishes are eaten byMammals like polar bears
http://drake.marin.k12.ca.us/stuwork/rockwater/PLANKTON/types%20of%20phytoplankton.htmlhttp://drake.marin.k12.ca.us/stuwork/rockwater/PLANKTON/zooplankton.htmlhttp://drake.marin.k12.ca.us/stuwork/rockwater/PLANKTON/zooplankton.htmlhttp://drake.marin.k12.ca.us/stuwork/rockwater/PLANKTON/zooplankton.htmlhttp://drake.marin.k12.ca.us/stuwork/rockwater/PLANKTON/zooplankton.htmlhttp://drake.marin.k12.ca.us/stuwork/rockwater/PLANKTON/zooplankton.htmlhttp://drake.marin.k12.ca.us/stuwork/rockwater/PLANKTON/zooplankton.htmlhttp://drake.marin.k12.ca.us/stuwork/rockwater/PLANKTON/zooplankton.htmlhttp://drake.marin.k12.ca.us/stuwork/rockwater/PLANKTON/zooplankton.htmlhttp://drake.marin.k12.ca.us/stuwork/rockwater/PLANKTON/types%20of%20phytoplankton.html


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A marine food chainA marine foodchain Polar bear - 5 Seal (anjing laut) - 4 Cod - 3 Krill - 2 Algae - 1


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A terrestrial-based food chainA Terrestrial foodchain

Hawk Snake eaten by hawk Frog eaten by snake Grasshopper eaten byfrog


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The path ofenergy from onefeeding level toanother.

(chain reaction)

Which direction

is the energyflow?


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What is missing from the food web?


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Tertiary Consumer

SecondaryConsumer

Primary Consumer

Decomposer

Food Pyramid


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Food Pyramid


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Energy Flow

Photosynthesis explainshow energy from the sun iscaptured by green plantsand used to make food.

Most of this energy is usedto carry on the plant's lifeactivities.

The rest of the energy is

passed on as food to thenext level of the food chain.


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Impact of pesticides (i.e., DDT) on thespecies of an ecosystem

M j


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Major ecosystems Biomes - large distinct ecosystem

Tundra (=padang lumut)

boreal forest (=hutan cemara) temperate rainforest temperate deciduous forest temperate grasslands

Chaparral (=vegetasi xerophyta /tanaman tahankering) Deserts (=daerah dengan curah hujan kurang) Savanna (=padang rumput dengan pohon yang

bertebaran)

tropical rainforests


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Factors Affecting Ecosystems Soil

Available Water

Temperature

Sunlight Abiotic factors will determine biotic factors

Climates (sunlight, temperature and rainfall)

will determine which types of vegetation canexist which will determine what type ofanimals can exist.


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Soil pH of soil determines which

plants grow best. Soil Layers

Litter - the upper layer of soil,composed mainly of partiallydecomposed leaves or grasses

Topsoil - the soil layer beneaththe litter, composed of smallparticles of rock mixed withhumus

Humus - decaying plant andanimal matter

Subsoil - the soil layer beneaththe topsoil, usually containingmore rock particles and lessorganic matter than the topsoil

Bedrock - the layer beneath thesoil, composed of rock


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Available Water

The amount of available water isdetermined by the amount and type ofprecipitation.

Amounts of rainfall determined by distanceform equator, mountains ranges oceanand wind currents.

The amount of available water will

determine the type of vegetation that canexist


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Temperature

Plants and animals must be well adapted to thetemperatures that exist within their ecosystems.

Chinophobes snow haters (ex. Geese)

Chinoeuphores snow adaptors (ex. Snowshoe hare) Chinophiles snow lovers (ex. Polar bears)

Temperature also influences rates ofevaporation which can influence the amount of

available water.

Plant Adapted for Specific Habitats


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Plant Adapted for Specific Habitats

Xerophytes plants that live in the

desert biome

Epiphytes plants that are not rootedin soil but grow directly on other plants

A ti t


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Aquatic ecosystems Lakes and ponds (=danau dan kolam)

littoral zones - nearest to shore (=tepi)

limnetic zones - open water

profundal zone (=tempat yang paling dalam) - nolight

Marine (=laut) Intertidal (= bagian pantai yang terkena pasang

surut) - very productive

pelagic - open ocean

euphotic - light is present (100 m) neritic - 100 m to 200 m

oceanic - no light

St tifi ti i t


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Stratification in water In summer warm layers on top, colder

at the bottom, separated by thermocline in fall, water turns over and some

mixing between layers occurs

in winter cold at top, warmer at bottom in spring another turnover!

Spring turnover stimulates algae

growth...

E i t l ff t


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Environmental effects

living factors in the environmentaffect the species that are present

like temperature, amount of

rainfall, predation, availability offood, and population size. As a

result, organisms may evolve.

Group Discussion: Discuss each

environmental effect and possible outcomes


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How do organisms evolve?

by adapting to their environments,

two or more organisms evolve

together.

To "make the best of" where theylive, organisms make use of other

organisms by eating them, living onor in them, and/or building a

"partnership" with them.


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Predation

describes an interaction where a

predator organism feeds on

another living organism ororganisms known as prey(=mangsa).


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Habitats


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A habitatis the place where livingthings live.

It is more than just a home it includesthe whole surrounding area.

The habitat provides the animal or plantwithfood orshelter.


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People and their habitats

People can live all over theworld.


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We can do thisbecause we are

able to build homesfor differentconditions.

Also we can change our clothes


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Also we can change our clothesto best suit the temperaturearound us.

White clothesreflect the heat

Animal skin and furact as insulators andkeep heat in.

Animals and plants


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Animals and plants

Most plants and animals are speciallyadapted to survive in a particularhabitat.

They have developed special featuresto suit the demands of theirenvironment.

This is called adaption.


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Some examples of

adaption

All birds have similar


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All birds have similarcharacteristics.

But many water birdshave features that aredifferent from thosebirds live on land. Long legs are good for wading

These wings act as flippers

Webbedfeet forswimming

Some animals are Thi li bl d i ll


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Some animals arecamouflaged to blend inwith their surroundings.

This keeps them safe as it ismore difficult for otheranimals to see them or

catch them for food.This lizards skin is sosimilar to the rockcolour.

These zebra couldeasily be mistakenfor bushes froma distance.

This lion blends in wellwith the grassybackground.


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Aquatic animalshave streamlined

bodies to movemore easliy in thewater.

These animals have


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These animals haveadapted to live inthe hot climate of

the desert.

Camels store water in theirhumps.

Ostriches havelong eyelashes tokeep out the sand.Snakes glide across the hot

sands and can shed their skin

These animals have L s f f t k th


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These animals haveadapted to be moresuited to cold

temperatures.

Layers of fat keep theseals body warm, and smallears stop heat loss.

Polar bears are kept warm bytheir body fat.

Deer have awarm layerof fur.

Even plants have


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Even plants haveadapted to theirhabitats.

The cactus has fleshy stemsthat store water.

The water provides support for this lilyas it has less developed roots to hold it

in place.

Dandelions seeds areeasily dispersed.

A i ls d l ts h l h th


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Animals and plants help each other

Plants and animals depend on eachother for a wide variety of things.

Food

Nests to reproduce

Shelter

Protection

Gas exchange

The Earth has many different


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The Earth has many different

environments, varying in temperature,

moisture, light, and many other factors.Each of these habitats has distinct life

forms living in it, forming complex

communities of interdependent

organisms. A complex community of

plants and animals in a region and aclimate is called a biome.

Some of the biomes on Earth include:
http://www.enchantedlearning.com/biomes/desert/desert.shtml


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Desert - very dry, either hot or cold

Tundra - cool, treeless, and dry

Chaparral or scrub - coastal area with hot, dry summers and mild, cool, rainy winters

Taiga or Coniferous Forest - cool and dry, with coniferous trees

Temperate Deciduous Forest - cool and rainy, with deciduous trees

Grassland - Windy, partly dry sea of grass with few trees, including tropical savanna,

prairie, steppe, pampas, etc.

Mountina biomes: there are a lot of different biomes that exist on a mountains, from

grasslands at low altitudes, taiga (coniferous forests) below the treeline, and alpine (the same

as tundra)

Temperate Rain Forest - cool and wet

Tropical Rain Forest - warm and very wet

Land Caves - cool and dark

Wetlands - there are many types of wetlands, including swamps, marshes, moors, bogs,

fens, sloughs, etc.

Freshwater Marsh - a wetland located near creeks, streams, rivers and lakesTemperate ponds

Marine (ocean or sea) - including benthic biomes (bottom), coral reef(warm shallow salt-

water environments based on coral formation), pelagic biomes (open seas near the surface),

littoral or intertidal zones, estuarine biomes (where rivers meet oceans), etc.

Sea Caves.
http://www.enchantedlearning.com/biomes/desert/desert.shtmlhttp://www.enchantedlearning.com/biomes/tundra/tundra.shtmlhttp://www.enchantedlearning.com/biomes/chaparral/chaparral.shtmlhttp://www.enchantedlearning.com/biomes/taiga/taiga.shtmlhttp://www.enchantedlearning.com/biomes/tempdecid/tempdecid.shtmlhttp://www.enchantedlearning.com/biomes/grassland/grassland.shtmlhttp://www.enchantedlearning.com/biomes/savanna/savanna.shtmlhttp://www.enchantedlearning.com/biomes/grassland/prairie.shtmlhttp://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/rainforest/animals/Rfbiomeanimals.shtmlhttp://www.enchantedlearning.com/biomes/cave/terrestrial.shtmlhttp://www.enchantedlearning.com/biomes/swamp/swamp.shtmlhttp://www.enchantedlearning.com/biomes/marsh/freshwater.shtmlhttp://www.enchantedlearning.com/biomes/pond/pondlife.shtmlhttp://www.enchantedlearning.com/biomes/coralreef/coralreef.shtmlhttp://www.enchantedlearning.com/biomes/intertidal/intertidal.shtmlhttp://www.enchantedlearning.com/biomes/intertidal/intertidal.shtmlhttp://www.enchantedlearning.com/biomes/coralreef/coralreef.shtmlhttp://www.enchantedlearning.com/biomes/pond/pondlife.shtmlhttp://www.enchantedlearning.com/biomes/marsh/freshwater.shtmlhttp://www.enchantedlearning.com/biomes/swamp/swamp.shtmlhttp://www.enchantedlearning.com/biomes/cave/terrestrial.shtmlhttp://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/rainforest/animals/Rfbiomeanimals.shtmlhttp://www.enchantedlearning.com/biomes/grassland/prairie.shtmlhttp://www.enchantedlearning.com/biomes/savanna/savanna.shtmlhttp://www.enchantedlearning.com/biomes/grassland/grassland.shtmlhttp://www.enchantedlearning.com/biomes/tempdecid/tempdecid.shtmlhttp://www.enchantedlearning.com/biomes/taiga/taiga.shtmlhttp://www.enchantedlearning.com/biomes/chaparral/chaparral.shtmlhttp://www.enchantedlearning.com/biomes/tundra/tundra.shtmlhttp://www.enchantedlearning.com/biomes/desert/desert.shtml


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Deserts

Little rainfall

High evaporation

Low humidity

Biodiverse

Arid or semiarid

Desertification

Dry Shrublands Woodlands


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Dry Shrublands, Woodlands,and Grasslands

Drought and fires

More rain thandeserts

Drought-tolerantplants

Hot summers, coldwinters

Chaparral

Savannas

Grazing animals

Tropical Rain Forests and


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Tropical Rain Forests andBroadleaf Forests

Canopy Trees Evergreen Broadleafs

Tropical rain forests

Rapid decomposition and mineral cycling Humus poor

Deciduous Broadleafs

Leaves drop

Tropical and Temperate Forests

Decomposition not as rapid

Tropical Rain Forests and


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Tropical Rain Forests andBroadleaf Forests


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Coniferous Forests

Canopy Trees

Coniferous

Boreal

Southern pine

Evergreen

Conifers

T d


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Tundra

Treeless plain between polar ice cap and

boreal forests

Cool short summers Below freezing winters

Sunlight nearly continuous in summers

Permafrost

L k E t


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Lake Ecosystems

Standing freshwater

Seasonal Changes in Lakes


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Seasonal Changes in Lakes

Changes in

density and

temperature

Spring

overturn

Fall overturn

Seasonal Variation in Primary


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Production in Oceans

Phytoplankton blooms

Upwelling Along Coasts in the


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Up e g o g Coasts t eNorthern Hemisphere

Environmental Issues


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EnvironmentalIssues

Habitat destruction

pollution

foreign or exotic species

deforestation global warming

ozone depletion


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Population n Ecosystem-krt