POLS 550 Seminar Comparative Politics

A Primer on Cultural Approaches in Comparative Politics

Date: November 9, 2006

Cultural Approaches

Cultural arguments are probably the most maligned Cultural arguments are probably the most maligned (by social scientists) and the most misused (by social scientists) and the most misused approach, especially by pundits and other “arm-approach, especially by pundits and other “arm-chair” analystschair” analysts

But even comparativists sometimes misuse or But even comparativists sometimes misuse or misunderstand “culture” misunderstand “culture”

On the surface, there’s an obvious reason for this, On the surface, there’s an obvious reason for this, which is simply that the cultural perspective seems which is simply that the cultural perspective seems cut-and-dry, but really is much more complicated cut-and-dry, but really is much more complicated and nuanced than it appearsand nuanced than it appears

Cultural Approach

Consider this question:Consider this question: How would you use culture the lack of democracy How would you use culture the lack of democracy

in the Middle East? in the Middle East?

Cultural Approach

Here’s an example of “bad” cultural argument purporting to explain the lack of democracy in the Middle East:

There is a reason political pluralism, individual liberty and self-rule do not exist in any of the 16 Arab nations in the Middle East. Cultural traditions there tend toward anti-intellectualism, religious zealotry and patriarchy, values which provide little fertile ground for progressive thinking.

What’s wrong with this argument?

Cultural Approach

The problem with the foregoing argument can be summed up very simply: It assumes that culture is essentially fixed, monolithic, and one-directional

Fixed: Cultures don’t ever change.

Monolithic: Within a culture, there is but a single, unchallenged and unquestioned “voice”

One-directional: Culture is either an obstacle to change, or it’s not; it is either progressive or regressive, but not both

Cultural Approach

The First Basic Lesson We must begin with the assumption that culture is highly

malleable, multivocal, and multidirectional (with regard to causation)

Malleable: Cultures can and do change, both quickly and slowly.

Multivocal: People of a “single” culture can and do disagree, sometimes in a fundamental manner.

Multidirectional: Culture can have contradictory and complex effects; in different contexts, at different times, culture may block change or it may be a source of change.

Cultural Approach

The First Basic Lesson

Culture, in sum, is complex and highly contingent

Cultural Approach

What is culture?

One general definition asserts culture “is a worldview that explains why and how individuals and groups behave the way they do, and includes cognitive and affective [emotional] beliefs about social reality and assumptions about when, where, and how people in one’s culture and those in other cultures are likely to act in particular ways.”

More simply, we may say that culture “marks a distinctive way of life” that members of the culture share and upon which they forge a common and unique identity (important note: cultures can be relatively limited; that is, they do not necessarily encompass entire societies).

Cultural Approach

What is culture?

What are the specific elements of culture? That is, what “things” constitute the worldview or distinctive “way of life” that define culture?

Consider some general categories:

Religious beliefs and values

Political beliefs and values

Philosophical belief and values

Ideological beliefs and values

Cultural Approach

What is culture?What is culture?

A Key Point: Culture is as a “worldview,” as a set of cognitive beliefs and A Key Point: Culture is as a “worldview,” as a set of cognitive beliefs and values, as a “shared identity” is inherently and unavoidably values, as a “shared identity” is inherently and unavoidably subjective subjective (as (as opposed to objective), or more accurately, opposed to objective), or more accurately, intersubjectiveintersubjective

The The subjectivesubjective nature of culture means, in part, that culture is nature of culture means, in part, that culture is intangibleintangible; it ; it exists only “inside our (collective) heads” exists only “inside our (collective) heads”

The The intersubjectiveintersubjective nature of culture means that it is subject to continual nature of culture means that it is subject to continual “negotiation” and (re)interpretation, since it must be “negotiation” and (re)interpretation, since it must be reproducedreproduced over and over and over again*over again*

* * This tells us, in large part, why culture is never fixed or monolithicThis tells us, in large part, why culture is never fixed or monolithic

Cultural Approach

The Significance of CultureThe Significance of Culture

Understanding that culture is intangible and inherently Understanding that culture is intangible and inherently subjective/intersubjective, however, does not mean that culture subjective/intersubjective, however, does not mean that culture is unimportant or insignificant in human affairsis unimportant or insignificant in human affairs

This leads to a second basic lesson …This leads to a second basic lesson …

Cultural Approach

Second Basic LessonSecond Basic Lesson Understanding the cultural approach means recognizing Understanding the cultural approach means recognizing

that the ideas, beliefs, values and identities societies that the ideas, beliefs, values and identities societies embrace and by which they define themselves embrace and by which they define themselves have have powerpower. .

These ideas, beliefs, values and identities have power at These ideas, beliefs, values and identities have power at both the individual and collective levelsboth the individual and collective levels

They can compel individuals and whole peoples to act and They can compel individuals and whole peoples to act and behave in certain ways, to make profound sacrifices and even behave in certain ways, to make profound sacrifices and even give up their very lives for the sake of a larger goodgive up their very lives for the sake of a larger good

Cultural Approach

Culture as a political resource or assetCulture as a political resource or asset

The power of culture gives it huge potential as a The power of culture gives it huge potential as a political political resourceresource or or assetasset

Significantly, the power of an ostensibly single culture can be Significantly, the power of an ostensibly single culture can be harnessedharnessed or or co-optedco-opted by opportunistic leaders and others to by opportunistic leaders and others to achieve self-serving goalsachieve self-serving goals

Consider, Bosnia, Rwanda, and Consider, Bosnia, Rwanda, and al Qaida …al Qaida …

Cultural ApproachCulture as a political resource Culture as a political resource

or assetor asset

In these three cases, political leaders co-opted culture to serve their own political ends. Culture and cultural “differences” were used to motivate collective action for horrendous political goals.

Cultural ApproachCulture as a political resource Culture as a political resource

or assetor asset

On the other hand, culture can serve as a rallying cry, a force of broad based mobilization, for progressive change. This was the On the other hand, culture can serve as a rallying cry, a force of broad based mobilization, for progressive change. This was the case in the Philippines (the “People Power” movement, in Poland, in the former Soviet Union, and in the US with the Civil Rights case in the Philippines (the “People Power” movement, in Poland, in the former Soviet Union, and in the US with the Civil Rights MovementMovement

Cultural Approach

Important Caveats

It is important to remember, however, that …

culture is not tangible

in addition, culture is, by definition, “public”: everyone has access to culture, unlike other types of material resources.

lastly, despite its intersubjective and malleable nature, there is an enduring or historical substance to most any culture. Cultures cannot simply be created out of whole cloth.

For all these reasons, a comparativist must avoid reducing culture to a mere resource or asset

Cultural Approach

Intersecting ForcesIntersecting Forces

One Last Caveat:One Last Caveat: When attempting to incorporate culture When attempting to incorporate culture into your analysis, it’s critical to understand that cultural into your analysis, it’s critical to understand that cultural forces rarely, if ever, can be understood without examining forces rarely, if ever, can be understood without examining them within specific contextsthem within specific contexts

Thus, it is more appropriate to see culture as Thus, it is more appropriate to see culture as intersectingintersecting with political, social, economic and other forces to produce with political, social, economic and other forces to produce specific outcomes in specific places and time periodsspecific outcomes in specific places and time periods

Cultural Approach

Intersecting ForcesIntersecting Forces

Cultural forces

Economic forces

Political forces

Institutional factors

Transnational factors

“Outcome”

Historical forces

Cultural Approach

In sum …In sum …

culture is complex culture is complex

It is malleableIt is malleable

Its effects are sometimes obvious, but frequently subtle and even Its effects are sometimes obvious, but frequently subtle and even hidden and contradictoryhidden and contradictory

Culture has power, but it is not always or necessarily a causal power; Culture has power, but it is not always or necessarily a causal power; the power of culture, moreover, does not always flow in the same the power of culture, moreover, does not always flow in the same directiondirection

Culture does not act alone toCulture does not act alone toproduce outcomesproduce outcomes

Cultural Approach

Culture as an Independent VariableCulture as an Independent Variable

Many social scientists dismiss culture because its causal power is difficult, Many social scientists dismiss culture because its causal power is difficult, even impossible, to evaluateeven impossible, to evaluate

Some argue that culture is simply a reflection of more basic forcesSome argue that culture is simply a reflection of more basic forces

Some argue that culture, at most, affects the “framework of action” Some argue that culture, at most, affects the “framework of action” and is, therefore, only indirectly important (e.g., a rational choice and is, therefore, only indirectly important (e.g., a rational choice analyst may argue that culture affects the strategic environment, but is analyst may argue that culture affects the strategic environment, but is not a fundamental element of behavior)not a fundamental element of behavior)

Some argue that culture is simply irrelevant because it cannot be Some argue that culture is simply irrelevant because it cannot be quantified or measured--in part because culture is inherently subjectivequantified or measured--in part because culture is inherently subjective

Cultural Approach

Culture as an Independent VariableCulture as an Independent Variable

The debate about culture’s causal powers cannot be resolved The debate about culture’s causal powers cannot be resolved easily; however, one way to think about culture is to see it as both easily; however, one way to think about culture is to see it as both cause and effectcause and effect

In this view, culture is understood as a product of underlying social, In this view, culture is understood as a product of underlying social, economic or political forces, but once established, certain cultural economic or political forces, but once established, certain cultural practices and beliefs tend to perpetuate themselves from generation to practices and beliefs tend to perpetuate themselves from generation to generationgeneration

Culture, in short, becomes “independent” over time: it takes on a “life Culture, in short, becomes “independent” over time: it takes on a “life of its own” and begins to operate as an autonomous or semi-of its own” and begins to operate as an autonomous or semi-autonomous forceautonomous force

Cultural Approach

Culture as an Independent VariableCulture as an Independent Variable

An example …An example …

In the Terminator, a computer network based In the Terminator, a computer network based on artificial intelligence is produced by on artificial intelligence is produced by scientists (I.e., it is the product of outside scientists (I.e., it is the product of outside forces). Once created, however, it becomes forces). Once created, however, it becomes sentient: it not only “thinks,” but acts to sentient: it not only “thinks,” but acts to defend itself. It takes on a life of its owndefend itself. It takes on a life of its own

Although the analogy is not perfect, this is a Although the analogy is not perfect, this is a useful way of understanding how a culture, useful way of understanding how a culture, once created by “outside forces,” can also once created by “outside forces,” can also take on a life of its owntake on a life of its own

Cultural Approach

Culture as an Independent VariableCulture as an Independent Variable

Key PointKey Point

Once culture “takes on a life of its own,” it can be analyzed as an Once culture “takes on a life of its own,” it can be analyzed as an independent variableindependent variable

Remember, though, that culture is Remember, though, that culture is notnot static, nor is it tangible. Thus, static, nor is it tangible. Thus, as an independent variable, it must be treated with extreme careas an independent variable, it must be treated with extreme care

Cultural Approach

Culture as an Independent VariableCulture as an Independent Variable

ConclusionConclusion

Using culture in an analysis is not easy; indeed, it can be quite Using culture in an analysis is not easy; indeed, it can be quite confusing. confusing.

The key is to avoid treating culture as an unambiguous set of The key is to avoid treating culture as an unambiguous set of unchanging values, norms and beliefs that define and unchanging values, norms and beliefs that define and unproblematically shape, and even determine, the social, political, unproblematically shape, and even determine, the social, political, and economic fates of individuals, societies and countries.and economic fates of individuals, societies and countries.

Instead recognize that culture is contested, profoundly political, and Instead recognize that culture is contested, profoundly political, and inherently fluid.inherently fluid.

Cultural Approach

References on “State of Democracy” in the WorldReferences on “State of Democracy” in the World

INDICES OF FREEDOM (Compiled on Wikipedia) (Compiled on Wikipedia)