Political Discourse Analysis in Translation

ltSECTION artgtltSECTION deb TITLE Debatesgt

debates

Political Discourse Analysis

Journal of Language and Politics 31 (2004) 117ndash150

issn 1569ndash2159 e-issn 1569ndash9862copyJohn Benjamins Publishing Company

ltTARGET sch DOCINFO AUTHOR Christina SchaumlffnerTITLE Political Discourse Analysis from the point of view of Translation StudiesSUBJECT JLP Volume 31KEYWORDS Translation Studies transcultural interaction translational behaviour translational norms translation effects translation profiles translation of politics politics of translationSIZE HEIGHT 220WIDTH 150VOFFSET 4gt

from the point of viewof Translation Studies

Christina Schaumlffner

Political discourse very often relies on translation Political Discourse Analysis(PDA) however has not yet taken full account of the phenomenon of trans-lation This paper argues that the disciplines of Translation Studies (TS) andPDA can benefit from closer cooperation It starts by presenting examples ofauthentic translations of political texts commenting on them from the pointof view of TS These examples concern political effects caused by specifictranslation solutions the processes by which information is transferred viatranslation to another culture and the structure and function of equallyvalid texts in their respective cultures After a brief survey of the discipline ofTranslation Studies the paper concludes with outlining scope for interdisci-plinary cooperation between PDA and TS This is illustrated with referenceto an awareness of product features multilingual texts process analysis andthe politics of translation

Keywords Translation Studies transcultural interaction translationalbehaviour translational norms translation effects translation profilestranslation of politics politics of translation

1 Introduction Political Discourse Analysis Topics and Methods

Political discourse analysis is concerned with the analysis of political discourseThis may sound like a trivial statement but it raises the following questionswhat is political discourse What are characteristic features of political dis-course With which methods can it be analysed Political discourse has beendescribed as ldquoa complex form of human activityrdquo (Chilton and Schaumlffner

ltLINK sch-r10gt

1997207) based on the recognition that politics cannot be conducted without

118 Christina Schaumlffner

language Equally the use of language in the constitution of social groups leads towhat is called ldquopoliticsrdquo in a broad sense But how ldquobroadrdquo can this sense be Inother words what counts as ldquopoliticsrdquo and subsequently as ldquopolitical discourserdquo

It is generally acknowledged that the mass media play an important role indisseminating politics and in mediating between politicians and the public alsoin a critical sense (cf the concept of mediatisation of politics Ekstroumlm

ltLINK sch-r14gt

2001564) The topics which quality newspapers discuss in texts on their frontpages in editorials and comments should therefore be good examples ofpolitical texts In February and March 2003 the topical political events whichmake the headlines in the mass media are the Iraq conflict and the Middle Eastcrisis topics which will easily be described as political ones by everybodyHowever if we look back to see what made the headlines a year ago the pictureis different For example the main topic for The Times on 12 April 2002 wasDavid Beckhamrsquos broken foot The title of an article on page 1 was ldquoBeckhamrsquosfoot becomes Blairrsquos bone of contentionrdquo and the first sentences of the text areas follows

(1) Forget the Middle East And who cares about next weekrsquos Budget Theone issue that had Tony Blair and his ministers on tenterhooks at yester-dayrsquos Cabinet meeting mdash together with the rest of the country mdash wasDavid Beckhamrsquos footSuch has become the national obsession with the broken bone in theEngland captainrsquos left foot sustained during Manchester Unitedrsquos Euro-pean Cup quarter-final clash with Spainrsquos Deportivo La Coruna onWednesday night that the Prime Minister interrupted the Cabinet meet-ing to declare that ldquonothing was more importantrdquo to the countryrsquosWorld Cup preparations than the state of Beckhamrsquos foot

Another issue which made the headlines in The Times on the same day was thatthe German Chancellor Schroumlder had sued a journalist for saying he was dyinghis hair This topic was even worth an editorial in which a link was establishedbetween hair colour and the credibility of politicians In another article on thesame issue on the same day we read (The Times 12 April 2002 p16)

(2) The Christian Democrat deputy Karl-Josef Laumann added to theChancellorrsquos fears when he said ldquoA man who colours his hair is certainlycapable of trimming statisticsrdquo

Politologists have used the label ldquopolitainmentrdquo (Doumlrner 2001) to describe this

ltLINK sch-r13gt

recent phenomenon of a symbiosis of politics and entertainment ie the

Political Discourse Analysis from the point of view of Translation Studies 119

reduction of actual content to a minimum and the addition of aspects ofentertainment to ldquosellrdquo politics These examples show that ldquopoliticsrdquo is indeeda rather wide and flexible notion Seen from a functional perspective we can saythat any topic can become political or politicised (cf Muntigl 2002) In other

ltLINK sch-r32gt

words what is considered ldquopoliticalrdquo depends on the participants in thecommunicative context Nevertheless there are some types of texts and formsof talk which are political in a more narrow or prototypical sense These aretexts that either discuss political ideas beliefs and practices of a society or somepart of it (eg textbooks academic papers essays) or texts that are crucial inconstituting a political community or group (eg treaties a manifesto of apolitical party a speech by a politician)

It is mainly these ldquoprototypicalrdquo political texts that have been the object ofdiscourse analysis A range of analytic methods have been applied includingtextual pragmatic discourse-historical and socio-cognitive approaches to avariety of phenomena of political discourse in the media and other domains (cfthe bibliography in Chilton and Schaumlffner 1997 also the contributions in

ltLINK sch-r10gt

Chilton and Schaumlffner 2002) In Chilton and Schaumlffner (1997211) we defined

ltLINK sch-r10gtltLINK sch-r10gt

the task of political discourse analysis as to relate the fine grain of linguisticbehaviour to politics or political behaviour Political situations and processescan be linked to discourse types and levels of discourse organisation by way offour strategic functions as an intermediate level We proposed the followingfour functions (i) coercion (ii) resistance opposition and protest (iii) dissim-ulation (iv) legitimisation and delegitimisation Research can proceed bothprospectively and retrospectively ie an analyst can ask with which linguisticmeans a specific function can best be fulfilled in a particular context or shecan start with the linguistic choices identified in a specific text and relate themto the strategic functions

A retrospective analysis can also try to find an answer to the question ofwhy a specific word phrase structure was chosen rather than some otherpossible one If we look again at example (2) above we notice that a directquote from a German politician has been used However the reader is notprovided with the exact words used by Karl-Josef Laumann but with an Englishversion of his original German statement which had been taken from a Germannewspaper In other words a process of translation was involved as an interme-diary process for the production of the text as it was finally published in TheTimes Translation is a very regular phenomenon for practically all types ofpolitical discourse A few examples will suffice to illustrate this In January andFebruary 2003 the German news magazine Der Spiegel published translated

extracts of the book The Threatening Storm by Kenneth Pollack to accompanyits reports about the Iraq crisis It also published a series of essays on the sametopic written by intellectuals who argue for or against waging war also com-menting on each otherrsquos arguments (intertextuality) Among those intellectualsare John le Carreacute and Leon de Winter and their essays are published in Germantranslations It is statements from the German versions that are taken up andcommented on in the subsequent essays A group of members of the Atlantik-Bruumlcke a German-American friendship association published A Message to thePeople of the United States of America in the New York Times on 16 February2003 and a German version in the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung on 22February 2003 A Radio Address by President Bush of 7 March 2003 is madeavailable on the Internet in a German translation produced by the GermanPress Agency dpa The text of the UN Iraq Resolution 1414 adopted in Novem-ber 2002 is valid in the six official languages of the UN (Arabic ChineseEnglish French Russian and Spanish) A German translation is available on theInternet and extracts in German are repeatedly quoted in speeches of Germanpoliticians and in articles in the mass media A letter signed by eight Europeanheads of government and expressing support for the US policy towards Iraq ispublished in several European newspapers (30 and 31 January 2003) each timein the local language A political statement entitled ldquoWe Stand for Peace ampJus t i cerdquo i s ava i l ab le on the Inter ne t in the Eng l i sh or ig ina l(httpwwwzmagorgwspjindexcfmlanguage=eng) in March 2003 togetherwith translations into Portuguese Spanish Turkish French Italian andannouncing translations into Korean Macedonian Dutch Chinese PolishGreek Japanese Russian hellip to come

What these examples illustrate is that political discourse relies on transla-tion translation is in fact part of the development of discourse and a bridgebetween various discourses It is through translation that information is madeavailable to addressees beyond national borders and it is very frequently thecase that reactions in one country to statements that were made in anothercountry are actually reactions to the information as it was provided in transla-tion As said above political discourse analysis relates linguistic behaviour topolitical behaviour The linguistic behaviour may well reflect evidence ofmediated behaviour ie mediated by translation It is therefore important totake full account of the phenomenon of translation in analysing political textsMy claim is that so far Political Discourse Analysis has not yet paid sufficientattention to aspects of translation In this paper I want to argue that (i) thediscipline of Translation Studies (TS) has much to offer to Political Discourse

Analysis (PDA) and that (ii) TS and PDA already share certain concerns andconcepts which should be exploited to the benefit of both disciplines I will startwith presenting a few examples of authentic cases of translations (political orpolitically relevant texts mainly involving the language pair German andEnglish) and comment on them from the point of view of Translation StudiesThese examples concern political effects to the choice of specific translationsolutions the processes by which information is transferred via translation toanother culture and the structure and function of equally valid texts in theirrespective cultures In short these examples concern both the translation ofpolitics and the politics of translation After the discussion of examples I willpresent some of the main issues that are being discussed in the discipline ofTranslation Studies which has become a discipline in its own right I will concludewith some comments on shared concern between Political Discourse Analysis andTranslation Studies thus pointing to scope for interdisciplinary cooperation

2 Political Discourse in Translation

21 Lexical Choice

One focus of attention in Political Discourse Analysis (PDA) and also in CriticalDiscourse Analysis (CDA) has been a critical reflection on the strategic use ofpolitical concepts or keywords for achieving specific political aims There iswidespread agreement in modern linguistics that meanings are not inherent towords neither are they stable It is rather the case that language users assignmeanings in communicative contexts and in this process of meaning construc-tion the information presented in the text interacts with previously storedknowledge and mental models (cf van Dijk 2002) Political concepts too are

ltLINK sch-r52gt

relative to the discourse of a cultural or political group and thus contestableThe experiential and socio-cultural background of language users also needs tobe taken into account when it comes to translation The following extract froma newspaper article shows how a particular word that had been used in thetranslation led to an accusation of a politician

(3) ldquoHungarian Prime Minister Viktor Orban has been accused of breachingEU entry criteria by using a term synonymous with Nazi-era Germany[hellip] he used the word Lebensraum (lsquoliving spacersquo) in a debate aboutgranting preferential treatment to ethnic Hungarians from neighbouringstates The term was notoriously used by Adolf Hitler when he talked

about providing Germany with lsquoliving spacersquo in the eastlsquoThis language is distastefulrsquo said Watson lsquoThe sentiments it betrays areincompatible with the Copenhagen criteria for entry into the EUrsquo [hellip]But a spokeswoman for Orban said he had actually used the Hungarianword eletter While this could be translated as lebensraum in German italso corresponds to the English term lsquoroom for manoeuvrersquo the spokes-woman addedrdquo (The European Voice 14ndash20 February 2002)1

This example reflects a case of multiple mediation an English politiciancriticising a Hungarian politician with reference to a word that appeared in thetranslation into German In his speech Orban had recommended to link theeconomic living space (eacuteletteacuter) of Hungarians living across the border with thatof the Hungarians living in Hungary so that the national economy couldperform better Although ldquoeacuteletteacuterrdquo was and is used with reference to the politicsof Hitler-Germany the word does not exclusively belong to Nazi vocabulary Itis also used in other contexts eg in the field of animal behaviour or in thename of a foundation (Magyar Eletteacuter Alapitvany mdash Hungarian Living-spaceFoundation) without any negative associations in both cases)2 Following thecritical reactions abroad also in Hungary itself the political sense of the wordwas reactivated That is a debate was initiated on the basis of a translation andthe lexical choice that had been made by the translator (deliberately unawareof the association under time pressure) was exploited eventually to theadvantage of politicians who are not in favour of admitting former Communistcountries as new members to the European Union

There are however also cases where translators or interpreters had beeninstructed to use specific terms and avoid others Translating and interpretingas the two main modes of mediated communication share certain features butthey also have their own distinctive characteristics (cf eg Gile in press)3 Incontrast to translators interpreters are physically present at a communicativeevent and thus visible However both translators and interpreters operate incontexts which are shaped by social aims and ideologies which is particularlyobvious in the field of politics For example Hermann Kusterer who interpret-ed at meetings between the first German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer and theFrench President Charles de Gaulle reported that in 1962 he had been told bya German minister to avoid the word ldquoUnionrdquo whenever the French ldquounionrdquocame up in speaking about the bilateral relations He was required to use thesynonym ldquoZusammenschluszligrdquo instead which was less forceful as a politicalkeyword The reason was that the German government had considered ittantamount at that time of the Cuba missile crisis to put more emphasis on

Germanyrsquos relations to the USA and not to France (Frankfurter Rundschau 22January 2003) Political motivations were also the reason for the existence oftwo different German translations of the Quadripartite Agreement on WestBerlin signed in 1971 The authentic texts were in English French and RussianThe paragraph dealing with the relations between West Berlin and the FederalRepublic of Germany says that the ties will be developed Ties (liens in theFrench version) had been translated as Verbindungen in the East German and asBindungen in the West German version with Verbindungen denoting relationsthat are not so tight as those denoted by Bindungen (see Kade 198057ff)

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Although neither of the two German versions was a politically valid documentpolitical decisions and practical steps were nevertheless justified with referenceto the wording (ie Bindungen or Verbindungen)

That word choice in the context of politically sensitive issues is not onlyrelevant with reference to the past can be seen in the following example Inreporting on the Middle East problem in April 2002 the German news maga-zine Der Spiegel published an interview with Mosche Kazaw the President ofIsrael On the following day the British daily The Times reported on thisinterview quoting selected passages The aspect of information selection itselfis of interest to Political Discourse Analysis (which passages have been selectedand why) as is the question of the discursive employment of the selectedinformation (cf the concepts of reformulation recontextualisation inter-textuality eg Sauer 1996 Fairclough 1995) I am interested in the recontext-

ualisation from the point of view of translation

(4) a Der Spiegel In Europa wird inzwischen sogar uumlber Handels-sanktionen debattiertKazaw Europa macht einen Fehler Ich habe keine Angst voroumlkonomischem Schaden Aber Europa vergisst dass wir gegen Ter-ror kaumlmpfen Dem sollten sich die Europaumler anschlieszligen Doch ihrePosition ermutigt Terror Sie haben das falsche Ziel im Visier [hellip]Der Spiegel Deutschland denkt sogar uumlber eine Teilnahme an einerinternationalen Nahost-Schutztruppe nach Koumlnnen Sie sich deut-sche Soldaten in Israel vorstellenKazaw Unsere Erfahrung mit Uno-Truppen ist nicht gut Im Suumld-libanon marschieren die Hisbollah-Kaumlmpfer einfach an den Blau-helmen vorbei und greifen uns an Uno-Truppen koumlnnen keinenTerror stoppen (Der Spiegel 15 April 2002)

The original question-answer schema has been turned into a reporting style inThe Times but some of Katzavrsquos answers are presented as direct speech4

(4) b ldquoEurope is making a mistakerdquo Mr Katzav told the German newsmagazine Der Spiegel ldquoEurope forgets that we are fighting a waragainst terror which they should be part of Yet their position en-courages terror they have the false target in their sightsrdquo [hellip]President Katzav said yesterday ldquoOur experience with United Na-tions troops is not goodrdquo He added that in southern LebanonldquoHizbollah fighters simply marched past the peacekeepers and at-tacked us UN troops cannot stop terrorrdquo(The Times 15 April 2002)

There is no reference in the texts as to the language in which the interview wasactually conducted (it might well have been in Hebrew) but since the Englishtext refers to the German one the German version becomes the source text forthe subsequent English text A comparison of the English and the Germanversion points to some interesting aspects In the second quote the use ofpresent tense (ldquomarschieren hellip vorbei greifen hellip anrdquo) indicates repeated regularbehaviour whereas the past tense in the English version (ldquomarched pastattackedrdquo) reflects a single event In the first quote the addition of ldquowarrdquo in theEnglish version (ldquodass wir gegen Terror kaumlmpfenrdquo mdash ldquowe are fighting a waragainst terrorrdquo) is indicative of ideological considerations After September11th US-President Bush declared to fight a ldquowarrdquo against worldwide terrorisman announcement which was received critically in large circles in Europe InGermany for example most politicians and the media objected to the use ofldquoKriegrdquo (ldquowarrdquo) and preferred to speak of the less dramatic ldquoKampfrdquo (ldquofightrdquo)In the case of the renewed violence in the Middle East in spring 2002 there wasagain a debate on the appropriateness of describing Palestinian suicide attackson Israel as ldquoterrorismrdquo and the Israeli governmentrsquos military campaign in theWest Bank as ldquowar against terrorismrdquo The Israeli government argued that theywere entitled to speak of ldquowar against terrorismrdquo which means that the Englishversion has brought President Katzavrsquos discourse in line with the officialgovernment discourse Alternatively if the German text too had been a transla-tion from an interview conducted in Hebrew it could be that ldquoKriegrdquo had beenavoided equally signalling ideological considerations

This example may look trivial and admittedly the position of a politicianusually becomes clear in a text as a whole even if specific microstructures seemto have been ldquotoned downrdquo or ldquoexaggeratedrdquo But texts including translations

fulfil functions in their social contexts they are used mdash quoted referred tocommented on mdash in other texts It is in those intertextual and interdiscursivecontexts where interpretations are often made solely on the basis of a translatedversion Politicians or political analysts usually do not go back to the originaltext neither do they request a detailed comparative analysis of the original textand the translation Once produced translations as texts lead a life of their ownand are the basis on which people acquire information and knowledge

I will briefly illustrate how a political dispute on the future of the EuropeanUnion between the UK and Germany in 1994 was caused by a translation (fora detailed discussion see Schaumlffner 1997) The case in point is the choice of

ltLINK sch-r42gt

ldquohard corerdquo for ldquofester Kernrdquo in the English translation of a German documentproduced by the parliamentary group of the German Christian DemocraticUnion Christian Social Union (CDUCSU) with Wolfgang Schaumluble (the thenCDU parliamentary floor leader) and Karl Lamers as co-authors In one of itssections this document argued for the formation of an inner group of closelyintegrated EU member states which would lead the way to further EU integrationThis inner group is referred to in the German original as ldquoein fester Kernrdquo cf

(5) a ldquoDaher muszlig sich [hellip] der feste Kern von integrationsorientiertenund kooperationswilligen Laumlndern [hellip] weiter festigenDer feste Kern hat die Aufgabe den zentrifugalen Kraumlften in derimmer groumlszliger werdenden Union ein starkes Zentrum entgegen-zustellen und damit die Auseinanderentwicklung [hellip] zu ver-hindernrdquo(Uumlberlegungen zur Europaumlischen Politik 1 September 1994 p7)

The document was translated by in-house translators in Germany and madeavailable abroad One day after its publication in Germany an extract of thedocument was published in The Guardian using the translation that had beenproduced in Germany The authentic English translation of the extract above isas follows

(5) b ldquo[hellip] that existing hard core of countries oriented to greater integra-tion and closer cooperation must be further strengthened [hellip]The task of the hard core is by giving the Union a strong centre tocounteract the centrifugal forces generated by constant enlargementand thereby to prevent [hellip] drifting apartrdquo(Reflections on European Policy 1 September 1994 p7 also TheGuardian 7 September 1994)

There were other issues raised as well in the total of fourteen typed pages of thedocument but the highly controversial political debates that followed centredaround the notion of ldquohard corerdquo ldquoFester Kernrdquo was to be interpreted in apositive way suggesting a firm commitment to European integration Howeverthe choice of ldquohard corerdquo had significantly shifted the tone of the document inits English version ldquoHard corerdquo is frequently associated with people and thingsthat are tough immoral and incorrigible Therefore the British Governmentand the media typically argued against any attempt of the core countries (andin particular Germany) trying to impose their ideas on all member states In akeynote speech in The Netherlands on 7 September 1994 the then PrimeMinister John Major in responding to the document said that he saw ldquoa realdanger in talk of a hard corerdquo and that there ldquoshould never be an exclusive hardcore either of countries or of policiesrdquo (The Times 8 September 1994)

As a consequence to the critical debates in the UK the conceptual metaphorof the ldquocorerdquo was discursively elaborated in German political discourse Whenchallenged that his idea of a ldquoKerneuropardquo would mean that a few take theinitiative in decision-making processes thus leaving others outside Schaumlublelinked it to another metaphor the magnet cf

(6) ldquoWir haben immer das Bild des Magnetfelds gebraucht Der Kern ziehtan und stoumlszligt nicht abrdquo (Der Spiegel 12 February 1996)[We have always used the image of the magnetic field the magnetic coreattracts it does not repel mdash my translation CS]

From a translational point of view it can be said that the translator had onlyaccounted for the metaphorical expression (ldquoKern mdash corerdquo) without reflectingabout underlying conceptual metaphors (cf Lakoff and Johnson 1980 Chilton

1996 Schaumlffner in press a) The consequence was a mdash politically motivated mdashheated debate in Great Britain and in Germany which ultimately resulted in ashift from an orientational metaphor (HAVING CONTROL IS BEING AT THECENTRE) to a structural metaphor (THE EU IS A MAGNET) This exampleshows that translation solutions can have specific effects for internationalpolitical discourse and equally for policy making

22 Information selection and transfer

The media play an important role in disseminating information about politicalideas and decisions of other countries People will form their opinions on thebasis of such reports and political leaders too may take their decisions on the

basis of information provided to them via the media It is important that theinformation provided is reliable If a quality newspaper reports about state-ments made by a politician we usually accept that these statements have reallybeen made However tracing the origin of statements provided in translationby the media can result in more or less surprising findings As I have shownelsewhere (Schaumlffner 2001) comments attributed to the German Chancellor

ltLINK sch-r42gt

Gerhard Schroumlder had turned out to have been made by somebody else InDecember 1999 a number of British newspapers reported about a policystatement made by Schroumlder on 3 December 1999 in the Bundestag the lowerhouse of parliament In this statement Schroumlder outlined the position whichthe German Government was going to take at the EU summit meeting inHelsinki in mid-December One of the issues that were on the agenda of theHelsinki Summit meeting was tax harmonisation which was favoured by theGerman Government but fiercely opposed by the UK Government Before thesummit the media were reporting that a heated debate on the issue of a cross-border savings tax was to be expected Their tenor in reporting about Schroumlderrsquosspeech was rather critical for example ldquoSchroumlder gave a fresh twist to the rowwith Britainrdquo (The Guardian 4 December 1999) ldquoGerman fury at Blair over taxlsquointransigencersquo [hellip] the German Chancellor lashed out at Britainrdquo (DailyTelegraph 4 December 1999) The most important point for all papers was thatSchroumlder had threatened unilateral action if an EU-wide agreement could notbe reached quoting him verbatim

(7) According to the German chancellor ldquoWe will exert pressure at all levelsto find an EU-wide solution If that doesnrsquot work then if necessary weshould consider a national solutionrdquo (The Guardian 4 December 1999)

It is exactly this statement however which was never made by Schroumlder As can beseen from the stenographic records of that particular session of the Bundestag theonly reference to a solution without the UK came in the speech by WolfgangSchaumluble who was speaking on behalf of the opposition party CDU cf

(8) ldquoIch moumlchte zu erwaumlgen geben ob wir unseren britischen Freundennicht sagen sollten Wenn sie partout nicht wollen daszlig wir in derEuropaumlischen Union zu einer Harmonisierung der Besteuerung derKapitaleinkuumlnfte kommen dann gehen wir diesen ersten Schritt imRahmen der Eurozone mdash das ist flexibles Vorgehen - dann harmonisierenwir die Besteuerung der Kapitaleinkuumlnfte in der Eurozone[I would like to suggest to tell our British friends If they do resist achievingharmonisation in capital taxation within the European Union then we will

take this first step within the Euro-zone mdash this is flexibility mdash then we willharmonise capital taxation in the Euro-zonerdquo mdash my translation CS]

However it was not a national solution that was suggested by Schaumluble but one forthe Euro-zone Such a ldquomistakerdquo raises the question how the media interpretationhad come about Schroumlderrsquos policy statement had been translated into English bythe translation service of the German government (made available on the InternetPress release 71299 httpwwwbundesregierungdeenglish) It is commonpractice that the translations are made available to journalists and dependingon the type of speech and the context in which it is made this happens eitherbefore or after the actual delivery5 In this specific case the journalists obviouslydid not refer to an official translation for whatever reason As a result thereaders of British newspapers were given information which was inaccurateThe choice of words such as ldquorow fury lash outrdquo in the articles quoted contrib-uted to the impression that Germany mdash once more mdash wanted to impose adecision on other EU member states The Helsinki Summit did not reach anagreement on the tax package It may well be that the style of reporting inBritain had contributed to Blairrsquos tough negotiating position

What this example reveals is that the selection of information whether dueto lack of linguistic competence or to carelessness nevertheless fits into atraditional way of reporting about Germany in the UK press and seems to revealdeep-seated perceptions and stereotypes about the Germans A more recent casecan serve as another example of how pre-conceived notions can have an impacton text reception

In April 2002 the German Government debated Germanyrsquos potential rolein solving the Middle East conflict The magazine Der Spiegel reported in a verydetailed way how arguments made by Chancellor Schroumlder had been reportedby the international press On Monday 8 April 2002 Schroumlder gave a talk in theGerman town Hannover to high-ranking military officers He was askedwhether it would be necessary for Europeans in general and for Germany inparticular to show more engagement once a peaceful settlement in the MiddleEast had been reached According to Der Spiegel Schroumlder replied in a vaguestyle as characteristic of diplomatic discourse that in order to give peace achance the United Nations would need to consider not only sending observersbut also whether it might become necessary to use military means legitimatedby the United Nations He added that it would be premature to discuss the rolethat Germany might play in this respect6

Der Spiegel goes on to say that at 559 pm the same day the news agencyReuters reported that an international military action in the Middle East hadbecome a possibility and that the participation of the German army could nolonger be ruled out Following this report various newspapers ran articles onreactions to the ldquoGerman plan to send troops to Israelrdquo The Times had invitedits readers to join the discussion on that issue In one of the readersrsquo letters thatwas published in response to the question ldquoIs Germany right to offer to sendpeacekeeping troops to Israelrdquo we read

(9) ldquoThe German suggestion of sending its troops to the Middle East makes myblood run cold [hellip] One gets the feeling that they would like to finish thejob that came close to reality half a century agordquo (The Times 16 April 2002)

Although these examples may not represent prototypical instances of what isunderstood by ldquotranslationrdquo they nevertheless involve processes of mediatedcommunication across languages and cultures Journalists use information asprovided by the (translation service of) news agencies or they produce ldquotransla-tionsrdquo themselves In these contexts of mediated text production it is notalways the case that a complete target text is produced on the basis of a com-plete source text It may as well be that in view of specific needs only extractsare selected for a translation process But also in the case of complete texts theconditions of text production and the purposes which the texts are to serve intheir respective cultures must be taken into account With the followingexample I want to illustrate that also supposedly identical texts reveal traces ofculture-specific sensitivities

23 Illusion of identity

The example is the policy document ldquoEurope The Third WayDie Neue Mitterdquowhich was officially launched on 8 June 1999 in London and presented inEnglish and in German as a joint paper by Tony Blair as leader of the BritishLabour Party and Gerhard Schroumlder as leader of the German Social DemocraticParty (SPD) Both texts were presented to the public at the same time and asidentical copies The document argues for modernising Social Democracy andits function is to mobilise party members to carry out this task

The idea for a joint policy paper originated in the SPD and the Germanside produced a draft outline which was largely written in German with someparagraphs in English (ie those that dealt specifically with political develop-ments in the UK) Based on this draft the actual full text was then produced in

English by New Labour and then translated again into German In the follow-ing revision stages all paragraphs that were amended or added by either sidewere translated into the other language That is both the German and theEnglish version of (parts of) the text functioned alternatively as source text andtarget text The whole process of text production was done by a small team ofpolitical officials led by Peter Mandelson then Britainrsquos trade minister andBodo Hombach then head of the chancellery and a close aide of Schroumlderrsquos

The paper caused a stir in Germany especially within the SPD itself and thetrade unions but it was hardly noticed in the UK In comparing the textualprofiles of the two versions I was able to explain some of the reactions to theGerman text in Germany (for a detailed discussion see Schaumlffner 2003) Two

ltLINK sch-r42gt

examples will suffice here The document argues for ldquoa newly defined role foran active staterdquo in relation to industry trade unions and the people In this newrole the state is to allow for sufficient flexibility and freedom for economy andbusinesses and shall renounce its responsibility to provide welfare for every-body The following paragraphs which are slightly different in the English andin the German text reflect different perceptions and ideological traditions inBritain and in Germany cf

(10) a ldquoOur countries have different traditions in dealings between stateindustry trade unions and social groups but we share a convictionthat traditional conflicts at the workplace must be overcome Thisabove all means rekindling a spirit of community and solidaritystrengthening partnership and dialogue between all groups in societyand developing a new consensus for change and reform We want allgroups in society to share our joint commitment to the new direc-tions set out in this Declarationrdquo

b ldquoUnsere Staaten haben unterschiedliche Traditionen im Umgangzwischen Staat Industrie Gewerkschaften und gesellschaftlichenGruppen aber wir alle teilen die Uumlberzeugung daszlig die traditionel-len Konflikte am Arbeitsplatz uumlberwunden werden muumlssen Dazugehoumlrt vor allem die Bereitschaft und die Faumlhigkeit der Gesellschaftzum Dialog und zum Konsens wieder neu zu gewinnen und zustaumlrken Wir wollen allen Gruppen ein Angebot unterbreiten sich indie gemeinsame Verantwortung fuumlr das Gemeinwohl einzubringenrdquo(Second and third sentence literally This above all means regainingand strengthening societyrsquos willingness and ability for dialogue andconsensus We want to make an offer to all groups to join into thecommon responsibility for the public weal)

ldquoCommunityrdquo ldquocommunity spiritrdquo and ldquopartnershiprdquo are core concepts of theideology of New Labour Thinking in terms of communitarianism is identicalwith the rejection of a state interfering in a successful market economy and alsoincludes relying on initiatives of individuals (see also Fairclough 200037ff) In

ltLINK sch-r16gt

Germany however with strong trade unions and corporate ownership patternsthere has always been a political culture of consultation with the aim of achiev-ing consensus Therefore communitarianism and partnership would not havebeen interpreted as a new offer for society The German text reflects thetradition of consultations among the main social forces ie governmentemployers trade unions to work for the common good (and not inviting themimmediately to share the commitment to the objectives as laid down in theBlairSchroumlder paper as the English text does)

The following extract too reflects a difference in the two versions TheGerman text accounts for the traditionally strong role of trade unions It givesthem assurance that they will be needed in a changed world whereas theEnglish text allows the inference that only modern (ie not ldquooldrdquo left-wing)trade unions will be supported cf

(11) a ldquoWe support modern trade unions protecting individuals againstarbitrary behaviour [hellip]rdquo

b ldquoWir wollen daszlig die Gewerkschaften in der Modernen Welt ver-ankert bleiben Wir wollen daszlig sie den einzelnen gegen Willkuumlrschuumltzen [hellip]rdquo (Literally We want trade unions to remain anchoredin the modern world hellip)

As indicated above it was in fact political officials who acted as translatorsTheir main argument for not employing professional translators was that theywould not understand the subtleties and sensitivities involved in politicaldiscourse However had competent translators with specific subject expertisein the domain of politics been involved the resulting political debate might nothave been equally fierce Be that as it may the more or less subtle differencesbetween the English and the German text reflect different ideological phenome-na both texts thus serving as windows onto ideologies in the two politicalcultures The document however was presented as a joint paper as evidence ofBlair and Schroumlder ldquospeaking the same languagerdquo To the addressees thereforethe two versions gave only an illusion of identity (cf Koskinen 2000)

ltLINK sch-r27gt

What all these examples were meant to show is that textual features need tobe linked to the social and ideological contexts of text production and recep-tion In other words texts and discourses are framed by social and political

structures and practices This aspect links TS to PDA and CDA Fairclough and

ltLINK sch-r16gt

Wodak (1997258) describe the aim of CDA as to make the ldquoideological loadingof particular ways of using language and the relations of power which underliethemrdquo more visible In CDA this is usually done on the basis of discourse inone language and one culture In the case of translation however textualfeatures ideological contexts and underlying relations of power apply both tothe source text and culture and to the target text and culture The discipline ofTranslation Studies has developed concepts with which it is possible to describeand explain target text profiles the translation strategies used the appropriate-ness of those strategies the conditions under which the translator operated andthe effects a text has had in its receiving culture Some of these concepts havebeen ldquoimportedrdquo and incorporated into TS from neighbouring disciplinesespecially (applied) linguistics communication studies discourse analysiscultural studies comparative literature In the following section I will give ashort overview of the emergence of modern Translation Studies introducesome of the key concepts used and present some of the current researchinterests This presentation will be selective in view of my aim to propose waysfor cooperation between Political Discourse Analysis and Translation Studies

3 Translation Studies as a discipline

Translation and interpreting as activities have existed for many centuriesThroughout history translators have contributed to the development ofalphabets and of national languages to the development of national literaturesto the dissemination of knowledge the advancement of science and to thetransmission of cultural values (cf Delisle and Woodsworth 1995) The

ltLINK sch-r11gt

increasing need for translation and interpreting in a variety of domains resultedin the development of Translation Studies as an academic discipline in thesecond half of the 20th century Theoretical principles have been formulatedwhich are the basis for the description observation and teaching of translationHowever there is no unified theory and no general agreement on centralconcepts of the discipline What we have instead is a multiplicity of approacheseach of which focuses on specific aspects looks at the product or the process oftranslation from a specific angle andor analyses the socio-political causes andeffects of translations (for an overview see Gentzler 1993 Stolze 1994 Baker

ltLINK sch-r17gtltLINK sch-r46gtltLINK sch-r4gt

1998 Munday 2001 and the contributions in Venuti 2000) The label ldquoTranslation

Studiesrdquo traditionally covers research into both translating and interpreting

although more recently there have been attempts to highlight the specific profile ofldquoInterpreting Studiesrdquo (see the introductory chapter in Poumlchhacker and Shlesinger

ltLINK sch-r37gt

2002 and the contributions in Schaumlffner in press b) In the following discussion Iwill focus on TS in the narrower sense ie excluding interpreting research

After the Second World War a more systematic reflection on the nature oftranslation set in very much influenced by (applied) linguistics Translationwas initially studied as a linguistic phenomenon as a process of meaningtransfer via linguistic transcoding and consequently Translation Studies wasconceived as a linguistic discipline Attempts were made to develop a ldquoscienceof translationrdquo (eg Nida 1964) or a linguistic theory of translation (Catford

1965) whose aim it was to give a precise description of the equivalence relationsbetween signs and combinations of signs in the source language (SL) and thetarget language (TL)

Since translation involves texts with a specific communicative function thelimitations of a narrow linguistic approach soon became obvious Thus fromthe 1970s insights and approaches of text linguistics pragmatics discourseanalysis sociolinguistics communication studies were adopted to translationstudies Translation was defined as text production as retextualising a SL-textaccording to the TL conventions The text moved into the centre of attentionand notions such as textuality context culture communicative intentionfunction text type genre and genre conventions have had an impact onreflecting about translation (eg Reiss 1971 Hatim and Mason 1990 1997

Neubert and Shreve 1992 Trosborg 1997) Texts are produced and received

with a specific purpose or function in mind This is the main argumentunderlying functionalist approaches to translation initiated by Vermeer (1978)

ltLINK sch-r54gt

with his Skopos Theory (derived from the Greek word ldquoskopoacutesrdquo which meanspurpose aim goal objective) The basic assumptions are as follows translationis a specific kind of communicative action each action has a specific purposeand therefore the most decisive criterion for any translation is its purpose(Skopos) Translation is a purposeful activity (Nord 1997) initiated by a

ltLINK sch-r36gt

translation commission and resulting in a target text (TT) which is appropriate-ly structured for its specified purpose The starting point for any translation istherefore not the (linguistic surface structure of the) source text (ST) but thepurpose of the target text The Skopos of the ST and the Skopos of the TT canbe either identical or different resulting in different but equally valid types oftranslation (cf documentary and instrumental translation equifunctional andheterofunctional translation Nord 1997 overt and covert translation House

1997) Since language and culture are interdependent translation is transfer

between cultures a specific kind of culture-determined text production (cf Reiss

ltLINK sch-r40gt

and Vermeer 1991) This complex translatorial action (Holz-Maumlnttaumlri 1984) is

ltLINK sch-r23gt

realised by a translator as an expert in text production for transcultural interactionIt can be said that functionalist approaches are representative of the shift

from linguistic and rather formal translation theories to a more functionallyand socioculturally oriented concept of translation which set in in the 1970sAnother major impetus came with Descriptive Translation Studies inspired bycomparative literature In a conference paper 1972 Holmes outlined the fieldof what he termed ldquoTranslation Studiesrdquo (which has become the widely accept-ed term) and its two main objectives (i) to describe the phenomena of translat-ing and translation(s) as they manifest themselves in the world of our experi-ence and (ii) to establish general principles by means of which these phenome-na can be explained and predicted (Holmes 198871) Descriptive Translation

ltLINK sch-r22gt

Studies (DTS) as a distinct branch next to Theoretical Translation Studies(ThTS) and Applied Translation Studies is subdivided into product-orientedfunction-oriented and process-oriented DTS7 In the early 1970s descriptiveanalyses were still missing within the discipline but once scholars startedundertaking such research they opened up the field of Translation Studies byintroducing new questions and perspectives For example through comparativedescriptions of translations of the same source text either in one single lan-guage or in various languages it could be shown how social and historicalconditions primarily in the recipient socio-culture had influenced the trans-lational behaviour Translational behaviour is contextualised as socialbehaviour with the act of translation ie the cognitive aspects of translation asa decision-making process embedded in a translation event ie the socialhistorical cultural ideological context Based on his descriptive analyses Touryintroduced the concept of norms as being central to both the act and the eventof translating Translational norms are understood as internalised behaviouralconstraints which embody the values shared by a community and translationis thus defined as norm-governed behaviour (Toury 1995)

ltLINK sch-r49gt

Identifying regularities in the behaviour of several translators at the sametime in the same culture8 can help to establish which particular general conceptof translation prevailed in a particular community at a particular time Anempirical and historical perspective also allows to study the position of translat-ed literature (central or peripheral) in a literature as a whole and its functionfor that literature (cf polysystem theory Even-Zohar 1978 the ldquoManipulation

ltLINK sch-r15gt

Schoolrdquo Hermans 1999) A norm-based theory of translation thus focuses on

ltLINK sch-r21gt

regularities of translation behaviour and the situational or cultural features

(norms) which may account for these regularities The empirical data for DTSscholars are the translations (as facts of the target culture) themselves and alsoldquoparatextsrdquo eg reviews of translations translatorrsquos prefaces footnotes thewhole discourse on translation DTS has thus paved the way to developing ahistory of translation and a sociology of translation (eg Simeoni 1998 who

ltLINK sch-r43gt

links his concept of the translatorrsquos habitus to Bourdieursquos writings)Since the early 1990s the discipline of Translation Studies has been inspired

to a considerable extent by Cultural Studies anthropology poststructuralistpostmodern and postcolonial theories (Bassnett and Lefevere 199012 speak of

ltLINK sch-r5gt

the ldquocultural turnrdquo in Translation Studies stressing that ldquotranslation has beena major shaping force in the development of world culturerdquo) These approachesfollow a number of different tendencies and agendas But in spite of this asArrojo states they share as ldquocommon ground a radical distrust of the possibilityof any intrinsically stable meaning that could be fully present in texts [hellip] andthus supposedly recoverable and repeated elsewhere without the interferenceof the subjects as well as the cultural historical ideological or political circum-stances involvedrdquo (Arrojo 199825) Translation is defined as a form of regulat-

ltLINK sch-r3gt

ed transformation as a socio-political practice and some scholars recommenda translation method which signifies the difference (Venuti 1995) and which

ltLINK sch-r53gt

allows the reader to discover the cultural other Venuti calls this recommendedtranslation method ldquoforeignizationrdquo and sets it apart from ldquodomesticationrdquoTranslations are to represent glimpses into other worlds where reality isperceived differently and this ldquoothernessrdquo it is argued needs to be respectedand represented Translation via a method of foreignisation thus becomes aform of political action and engagement (ldquoengagementrdquo also figures prominent-ly in CDA on the scope and limitations of engagement in respect of translationcf Tymoczko 2000)

ltLINK sch-r51gt

Empiricist-positivist traditions which regard translation as communicationand thus as a symmetrical exchange between cultures have been criticised forignoring power relations Scholars have shown that translation often involvesasymmetrical cultural exchanges (eg Tymoczko 1999 Niranjana 1992)

Consequently in postmodern theories the traditional conception of thetranslator as an invisible transporter of meanings has been replaced by that ofthe visible interventionist Translators are seen as being actively engaged inshaping communicative processes In this way new fertile areas for researchhave been opened up for example the study of translation and power (egAacutelvarez and Vidal 1996 see also Lefeverersquos concept of patronage as manifesta-

ltLINK sch-r2gt

tions of power mdash ideology economy status mdash which either promote or hinder

reading writing and rewriting [translating] of literature Lefevere 199215)

ltLINK sch-r30gt

translation and identity (eg Venuti 1994) translation and gender (eg Simon

1996) translation and ideology (eg Caldaza Peacuterez 2003) translation and ethics

ltLINK sch-r7gt

(eg the special issue of The Translator 72 2001)Modern Translation Studies is no longer concerned with examining

whether a translation has been ldquofaithfulrdquo to a source text (the notion of ldquoequiva-lencerdquo is almost a ldquodirtyrdquo word now) Instead the focus is on social culturaland communicative practices on the cultural and ideological significance oftranslating and of translations on the external politics of translation on therelationship between translation behaviour and socio-cultural factors In otherwords there is a general recognition of the complexity of the phenomenon oftranslation an increased concentration on social causation and human agencyand a focus on effects rather than on internal structures The object of researchof Translation Studies is thus not language(s) as traditionally seen but humanactivity in different cultural contexts (cf Witte 200026) The applicability of

ltLINK sch-r56gt

traditional binary opposites (such as source languagetextculture and targetlanguagetextculture content vs form literal vs free translation) is called intoquestion and they are replaced by less stable notions (such as hybrid texthybrid cultures space-in-between intercultural space cf the special issue ofAcross 22 2001) It is also widely accepted nowadays that Translation Studiesis not a sub-discipline of applied linguistics (or of comparative literature cfBassnett and Lefevere 199012) but indeed an independent discipline in its own

ltLINK sch-r5gt

right (cf the debate on ldquoshared groundrdquo Chesterman and Arrojo 2000 and

ltLINK sch-r9gt

responses in the subsequent issues of the journal Target) However sinceinsights and methods from various other disciplines are of relevance forstudying all aspects of translation as product and process Translation Studiesis often characterised as an interdiscipline (cf Snell-Hornby et al 1992) In

ltLINK sch-r45gt

other words translation itself being a crossroads of processes productsfunctions and agents its description and explanation calls for a comprehensiveinterdisciplinary approach9

It is the interest in human communicative activity in socio-cultural settingsespecially the interest in texts and discourses as products of this activity thatTranslation Studies and CriticalPolitical Discourse Analysis have in commonThere is thus much to gain from disciplinary interaction In the followingsection I will outline where such an interaction can be especially fruitful withrespect to political discourse

4 Translation Studies and Political Discourse AnalysisScope for interaction

With some of its roots in linguistics Translation Studies has always usedconcepts and methods of linguistics textlinguistics pragmatics and discourseanalysis in its own disciplinary discourse However Discourse Analysis CriticalDiscourse Analysis and Political Discourse Analysis have not made use ofTranslation Studies concepts to a similar extent although analyses wereconducted on the basis of translations For example Donahue and Prosser

ltLINK sch-r12gt

(1997) present analyses of UN addresses by several world leaders Many of thosepoliticians addressed the United Nations assembly in their native tongues(usually simultaneously interpreted and the speeches also made available intranslation) However all the ldquofindingsrdquo of their analyses (which combinemethods of discourse analysis and rhetorical analysis) have been arrived atsolely on the basis of the English versions The book is also intended as atextbook with exercises for students In one of those exercises students areasked to compare the personal references as used in the addresses by therepresentatives of the two Korean states and to derive conclusions about thesocio-cultural and ideological background mdash on the basis of the Englishversions Looking for specific features in a text and linking them to culturalissues however is risky if not applied to the original text itself We can onlycome up with relevant results if we have knowledge about the system ofpersonal references and personal pronouns in the Korean language Theanalysis of the specific conditions of the production of the English versionsthus needs to be an integral part of the ldquotoolkitrdquo of discourse analysis

As said above translators work in specific socio-political contexts producingtarget texts for specific purposes This social conditioning is reflected in thelinguistic structure of the target text That is translations (as target texts) reveal theimpact of discursive social and ideological conventions norms and constraintsBy linking translations (as products) to their social contexts causes and effects oftranslations can be discovered (cf Chesterman 1998) A causal model of transla-

ltLINK sch-r9gt

tion allows for questions such as What causal conditions (seem to) give rise toparticular kinds of translations and translation profile features What effects dogiven profile features (seem to) have on readers clients cultures (How) can weexplain effects that we find by relating them to profile features and to causalconditions Which translation strategies produce which results and which effectsWhich particular socio-cultural and ideological constraints influence the transla-tion policy in general and the target text production in particular

CDA and PDA also mediate between linguistic structures as evident in atext and the social political and historical contexts of text production andreception Scholars study the textual or discursive manifestations of powerstructures and ideologies and their specific linguistic realisations at lexical andgrammatical levels (see the overview on issues and methods in CDA inFairclough and Wodak 1997) These approaches link linguistic forms to social

ltLINK sch-r16gt

and hence also to political activity A translation perspective to politicaldiscourse can shed new light to understanding politics In the concluding partof this paper I will briefly outline which Translation Studies concepts andapproaches could be useful to PDA thus also indicating scope for cooperation

41 Awareness of product features

In analysing texts as products of discursive actions PDA researchers use eitheroriginal texts or translations In the latter case full attention needs to be givento the nature of those texts ie they need to be taken as what they are transla-tions ie target texts operating in a new socio-cultural context and based on asource text which functioned in its original socio-cultural context As transla-tions they have their own profiles which came about by decisions that weretaken by a translator who was working in specific conditions (cf translation asnorm-governed behaviour) We cannot tacitly assume that the target text is anexact copy of the source text or that the source text fulfilled the same functionThe translator may have used strategies to make the text correspond to thegenre conventions that apply in the target culture or to compensate fordifferent background knowledge or sensibilities of the new addressees (cftranslation as purposeful activity) Admittedly the examples I discussed abovewere extreme cases Not all translations show differences to their source texts insuch a drastic way but I chose them deliberately to raise our awareness to thevariety of factors that are involved in translation

Before we start with an analysis of a translation then we need to knowwhether we are dealing with an overt or a covert a documentary or an instru-mental translation a text produced by a strategy of domestication or foreign-isation Commenting on textual features (the target text profile) andor ondiscursive or socio-political effects is very risky if we rely solely on the targettext without having checked the conditions of text production andor comparedit to the source text (this is where the expertise of TS scholars could come in)It is particularly risky if the aim of the analysis is to illustrate linguistic or textualfeatures discursive practices or manifestations of power structures andor

ideologies which apply to the original language and culture For example if wewant to analyse the metaphors in the speech by the German Foreign MinisterJoschka Fischer delivered at Berlin Humboldt University on 12 May 2000 onthe finality of European Integration we might arrive at somewhat differentresults if we rely solely on the English translation A detailed comparisonbetween source text and target text reveals a number of cases where the meta-phorical expression in the source text has been replaced by a more generalexpression in the target text (demetaphorisation as a legitimate translationstrategy) cf the following example where the construction metaphor whichstructures the original German text is of less significance as a cohesive devise inthe English translation10

(12) a ldquo[hellip] muumlssen wir den letzten Baustein in das Gebaumlude dereuropaumlischen Integration einfuumlgen [hellip] bei diesem letztenBauabschnitt der Europaumlischen Union [hellip]rdquo

b ldquo[hellip] we must put into place the last brick in the building of Euro-pean integration [hellip] this latest stage of European Union [hellip]rdquo

Not everything which can be shown in the original text can be shown in thesame convincing way in a translation This is equally true for translations whichwe as scholars produce ourselves primarily because the publication policy offor example a journal requests the paper to be in English It happens regularlythat only English versions of analysed data are provided with the authorscommenting that they tried to be as accurate as possible in producing a transla-tion11 But even a close reproduction of the source text for illustrative purposes canactually conceal what is meant to be shown For example Hatim and Mason

ltLINK sch-r20gt

(1997) comment on cultural differences in the argumentative style in English andArabic with a preference for counter-argumentation and through-argumentationrespectively A close translation from English into Arabic will thus not immediatelyreveal the argumentation pattern For the function to be fulfilled it may becomenecessary to turn an implicit counter-argument into an explicit one by adding aconnector From the point of view of Translation Studies the tendency to publishin English only is dangerous since it limits the actual insights into textual structuresand functions It would always be better to provide the original text (and ifnecessary add a gloss into English) to prove what one wants to prove

A product-oriented analysis can of course have as a legitimate aim to studyprecisely what translations as texts in their own right look like independent ofthe source text Translation profiles can be compared to authentic texts of thesame genre in order to find out to what extent they are similar or different in

respect to genre conventions As has been shown it is often through translationthat new genres are introduced into a culture or that genre conventions change(eg Zauberga 2001 who illustrates how advertising has emerged as a new genre

ltLINK sch-r58gt

in post-Communist Latvia modelled on [translations from] English) If we askfor the causal conditions that gave rise to particular kinds of translations we seethat such changes often happen at times that are critical for the development ofa culture As Zauberga argues a culture in the process of development ortransition may be more open to input from outside and also more willing (ortolerant) to accept texts (including translations) which may look ldquostrangerdquo fromthe perspective of the linguistic system and discourse conventions of thereceiving culture At times of social change translations may thus move fromthe periphery into the centre of a socio-cultural polysystem

Conflicting genre conventions may also result in hybrid forms For exam-ple Tirkkonen-Condit (2001) illustrates this with English-language grant

ltLINK sch-r48gt

applications to the EU Commission as produced by Finns either independentlyor as a result of a translation process She describes these texts as ldquoa hybridwhich vacillates between three norms the Finnish rhetorical norm the intend-ed target norm (ie Anglo-American scientific rhetoric) and the hybrid targetnormrdquo of the EU (Tirkkonen-Condit 2001263) This EU-rhetoric can be

ltLINK sch-r48gt

imagined as having incorporated features from the various linguistic communi-ties which participate in its functions Describing such new or hybrid forms oftexts and discourse in relation to the conditions under which they came aboutis of interest to both discourse analysis and TS and the concepts and analyticaltools available in both disciplines can be combined for this purpose

42 Multilingual texts

The particular conditions and constraints in the context of the European Unionoffer a wide field for joint research Due to the EU language policy all officialdocuments are translated into all official EU languages ie all texts are equallyauthentic versions (cf Wagner et al 2002) Similarly the political parties in the

ltLINK sch-r55gt

European Parliament produce joint documents often combining parallel textproduction and translation Studying such texts as products raises a number ofissues which are of interest to both PDA and TS A few examples taken fromthe Manifestoes for the Elections to the European Parliament of 1999 adoptedby the Party of European Socialists (PES) and the European Peoples Party(EPP) respectively will suffice to indicate some of these points The first twoexamples refer to conceptual metaphors and their linguistic realisations

(13) ldquoEuropa muszlig mit einer Stimme in der Welt sprechen mdash We must act asone on the international scene mdash Nous devons parler drsquoune seule voixsur la scegravene internationalerdquo (EPP Manifesto 1999)

What we can see here is that different aspects of the common conceptualmetaphor EUROPE IS A PERSON are made explicit in the texts The Germantext has made the voice explicit (a part-whole metonymical relation) theEnglish one introduces a theatre scene ie the person as an actor and theFrench text has both these aspects combined The next example shows thatconceptual metaphors may be culture specific at a more specific level butculture overlapping (or maybe universal) at a more abstract level

(14) ldquoMit der Einfuumlhrung des EURO haben wir einen groszligen Schritt nachvorn getan Der EURO [hellip] Die EVP sieht darin den Beginn eines neuenProjektes [hellip] mdash We have already taken a great step forward towardsEuropean integration by introducing the Single Currency But the euro is[hellip] the foundation stone of what we intend to be a new era [hellip] mdashNous venons de faire un grand pas vers lrsquointeacutegration europeacuteenne aveclrsquoinstauration de la monnaie unique Mais llsquoeuro [hellip] est une eacutetape sur lavoie drsquoune union politique [hellip]rdquo (EPP Manifesto 1999)

All three texts have a reference to a movement metaphor POLITICS IS MOVE-MENT TOWARDS A DESTINATION (ldquoSchritt nach vorn getan taken a stepforward faire un pasrdquo) However the beginning of a new project is conceptual-ised as the start of a construction process in the English text (ldquofoundationstonerdquo) whereas the French text continues the movement metaphor (ldquoune eacutetapesur la voierdquo) and the German text uses a more general expression (ldquoBeginnrdquo) Allthese different expressions can be seen as realisations of a more abstract conceptualmetaphor PROGRESS IS GROWTH (cf Schaumlffner in press a)

The analysis of translations can thus help to find out more about universalculture-overlapping and culture-specific metaphors here in the field ofpolitical discourse The combined expertise of PDA and TS may help to explainother observed differences such as different lexical choices and omissionswhich may point to ideological and socio-cultural values In the followingexample the English version operates on the left-right opposition The Germanversion however systematically avoids the use of these ideologically chargedlabels cf

(15) a ldquoIn this election the parties of the Left challenge those of the Righton two fronts [hellip] We reject the posture of the Right [hellip] reject the

short-sighted focus of the Right on narrow national interest [hellip]rdquo(PES Manifesto 1999)

b ldquoBei dieser Wahl werden die sozialdemokratischen und sozial-istischen Parteien sich besonders in zwei Bereichen mit der Politikder Konservativen auseinander zu setzen haben [hellip] wir lehnen esab [hellip] wir lehnen die kurzsichtige Ausrichtung auf nationaleInteressen ab [hellip]rdquo[Literally In this election the Social-Democratic and Socialist partieswill have to challenge the policies of the Conservatives especially intwo areas [hellip] we reject [hellip] we reject the short-sighted focus onnarrow national interest [hellip]]

The concepts of intertextuality interdiscursivity and orders of discourse whichfigure very prominently in PDA and CDA are especially appropriate inexplaining such differences PDA and CDA aim at revealing the mediatedconnection between properties of text on the one hand and socio-political orsocio-cultural structures and processes on the other hand Postmodern transla-tion theories too link textual features to social conditions The concept of ordersof discourse however has not yet played a highly significant role in TS Theanalytical tools of PDA and CDA also allow to show the ldquodifferent implicationsof different readings for social actionrdquo (Fairclough and Wodak 1997279) In a

ltLINK sch-r16gt

cross-cultural perspective different social actions may be the result of differentreadings of an original text and its translation Such culture-specific or ideolo-gy-specific readings are related to and determined by orders of discourse Theconcepts of intertextuality and orders of discourse can thus also be fruitfullyapplied when it comes to translation evaluation andor criticism That is what maylook like a ldquomistranslationrdquo or a ldquotranslation lossrdquo at a first glance (or from alinguistic or text-specific point of view) will actually turn out to highlight thesocio-political or ideological structures processes norms and constraints in whichtranslations were produced (and received) Translation ldquocriticismrdquo can thuscontribute to revealing and ldquocriticisingrdquo socio-political practices and relationships

43 Process analysis

To account for such phenomena as illustrated in examples (13)ndash(15) PDA andTS scholars could ask how those equally valid versions actually come about ieresearching the process instead of or in addition to the products By studyingthe actual text production-cum-translation process one could find out whichfactors (linguistic textual cultural legal ideological hellip) have an impact on the

final versions of the texts From the point of view of Critical Discourse AnalysisWodak (2000) traced changes in the textual surface structures in the drafting

ltLINK sch-r57gt

process of a policy paper in an expert committee She discovered different typesof transformation which result from recontextualisation ie the succession ofmeetings at different times In the following example she records among otherchanges shifts from theme to rheme a transformation of a nominal group(ldquopublic opinionrdquo) to actors (ldquopeoplerdquo) and the replacement of a mentalprocess (ldquoperceiverdquo) by a physical one (ldquograsprdquo)

(16) Text version (a)ldquoThe breadth and urgency of the needed adaptations are indistinctlyperceived by public opinion which explains a widespread sense ofunease rdquo

Text version (b)ldquoIt has been difficult for people to grasp the breadth and urgency of nec-essary adaptations This explains a widespread sense of unease inequalityand polarisationrdquo (Wodak 2000100 ff)

ltLINK sch-r57gt

However she does not explicitly comment on the role of translation work inher analysis It would also be interesting to see whether the same types ofchanges have been made in other language versions Focussing on the specificimpact of translation in this respect would surely contribute valuable insights byproviding a missing link in the analysis In this way textual profiles could besystematically linked to the social conditions which governed their productionThe recontextualisation in Wodakrsquos example is still embedded in the sameinstitutional macro-setting Translations as products normally involverecontextualisation across cultures Studying how presumably identical texts arereceived by their addressees in different cultures and what effects they have onreaders and on cultures would thus also be a valuable topic for research jointlydone by PDA and TS scholars

44 Politics of translation

Postmodern translation theories argue that the crossing of linguistic geograph-ical and political spaces and the resulting encounters with the other should leadto new modes of thinking feeling and experiencing the world In realitycultures have learned about each other to a large extent by means of transla-tions Over the centuries it has been fairly common that ideas and conceptsincluding political ideas and concepts have travelled between cultures and

nations But not in each case has the experiencing of the other resulted inmutual understanding As Pym (1998124) points out the ldquowork of translators

ltLINK sch-r39gt

can effectively separate rather than bridge cultures flattening rather thanpluralising the image of the other edging towards transcultural mistrust ratherthan cooperative understandingrdquo In order to understand such phenomena oneneeds to reflect about the politics of translation which concerns questions suchas Who decides which texts get translated from and into which languagesWhere are the translations produced Who chooses and trains translators howmany for which language combinations Following the attacks of September11 for example the FBI Director Robert S Mueller III cited a critical need fortranslators especially of Arabic The FBI had ldquosuddenlyrdquo realised that they didnot have sufficient numbers of translators who were able to deal with thedocuments As The Washington Post (24 September 2001) pointed out transla-tors were required with competence in both the language and the underlyingcultural and ideological aspects Reading in early 2003 that the USA is trainingIraqi dissidents in a camp in Hungary to become translators and interpreters tobe deployed in Iraq after the end of the war (or to use the official discourse ofthe Bush Administration ldquoonce the country has been liberatedrdquo) can beinterpreted as a change in the translation policy of the country

In discussing the definition of political discourse at the beginning of thispaper I referred to four strategic functions (coercion resistance oppositionprotest dissimulation legitimation and delegitimation) with which to linkpolitical situations and processes to discourse types and levels of discourseorganisation These functions can also be applied to translation both at amacro-level and at a micro-level in the following way

Coercion Power can be exercised through controlling access to information egselection of source texts to be made available in translation to the home culture(in view of topics authors cultures) checking the end product using transla-tions in the service of home agendas (ie the politics of translation powerrelations publishing strategies censorship)

Resistance opposition and protest Many of the discourse strategies used by thepowerful for coercion may be counter-deployed by those who regard themselvesas opposing power Translators themselves can be active in selecting source textsto be made available in translation thus making the home audience appreciate theldquootherrdquo give voice to neglected or oppressed minorities (ie the politics oftranslation) Resistance can also mean resisting dominant translation practices andstrategies and be innovative (cf foreignisation resistancy norms engagement)

Dissimulation Quantitative or qualitative control of information ie preventingpeople from receiving information by not allowing texts to be made available intranslation or providing only selected extracts of source texts in translation ordeliberately publishing inaccurate translations (ie politics of translation ethicsand also translation of politics since it may be political ideas from abroadwhich those in power do not wish their people to know about cf also thediscussion about the translatability of the Koran mdash if translated it is usuallypresented as a ldquocommentaryrdquo rather than a translation Halliday 2001)

ltLINK sch-r19gt

Legitimisation and delegitimisation Positive self-presentation and negativepresentation of the others explicitly or implicitly by using specific translationstrategies by using and abusing texts for purposes of national ideologies Forexample Kadric and Kaindl (1997) illustrate how the Asterix translations into

ltLINK sch-r26gt

Croatian reinforced negative feelings towards the former war-time enemySerbia (ie politics of translation ethics)

Translation as product and as process can highlight sociocultural and politicalpractices norms constraints which can be of particular relevance in the fieldof political discourse Combining concepts and methods of modern TranslationStudies and of Political Discourse Analysis can thus result in a more extensivestudy of political discourse

1 The diacritic signs are missing in the Hungarian word the correct spelling is ldquoeacuteletteacuterrdquo and theGerman ldquoLebensraumrdquo should be spelled with an initial capital letter in both occurrences

2 I am grateful to my colleague Eva Szantho for providing this information A two-volumeGerman-Hungarian and Hungarian-German dictionary published by Akadeacutemiai KiadoacuteBudapest in 1983 and 1985 respectively lists ldquoLebensraumrdquo and ldquoeacuteletteacuterrdquo as a pair withoutany further information as to restricted use or associative senses

3 In a somehow simplified way translation denotes a written target-language reformulationof a written source text whereas interpreting denotes a non-written re-expression of a non-written source text Both translators and interpreters have to deal with problems raised byinter-linguistic intercultural and thematic issues The main differences in the processes oftranslation vs interpreting have to do with technical constraints (time sources of informa-tion working environment) (for more details see Gile in press) In this paper the focus is ontranslation

4 The German and the English texts reflect different transcription conventions for Hebrewproper names Kazaw Katzav

5 If a speech is distributed before the event there is the statement ldquoCheck against deliveryrdquoon top of the text In the case of a translation the standard phrase is ldquoAdvance translationrdquo

6 ldquoEr teile die lsquoin der Frage angedeutete Ansichtrsquo so Schroumlder laut Wortprotokoll derBundeswehr Wenn der Frieden eine Chance erhalten solle muumlsse man bei den VereintenNationen lsquonicht nur uumlber Beobachter nachdenkenrsquo sondern auch daruumlber ob es notwendigsei mdash lsquoich glaube das wird man mit Ja beantworten muumlssenrsquo mdash bei den Konfliktparteieneine friedliche Entwicklung lsquodurch Druck von auszligen einzuleiten auch zu trennen und dafuumlreben auch legitimiert durch die Vereinten Nationen militaumlrische Mittel einzusetzenrsquo Er derKanzler koumlnne lsquojedenfalls nicht voumlllig ausschlieszligen dass man sich mit einer solchen Fragebefassen mussrsquo Welche Rolle Deutschland darin zu spielen haumltte sollte lsquoman nicht imVorgriff diskutierenrsquordquo (Der Spiegel 15 April 2002)

7 Research into the actual cognitive processes of translation (the translation act) began inthe mid-1980s with the study by Krings (1986) using Think-aloud protocols (TAPs) as

ltLINK sch-r28gt

research method

8 More recently the development of corpus studies has proved highly relevant for identify-ing such regularities in translational behaviour (eg Bowker and Pearson 2002)

ltLINK sch-r6gt

9 Prunc (2002267) however warns that a broad concept of translation which includes

ltLINK sch-r38gt

almost any kind of cultural transformation could lead to the dissolution of TranslationStudies as an independent discipline since it would loose its genuine object of research Heargues that the boom which was initiated by the ldquocultural turnrdquo could thus turn into aboomerang

10 It is highly probable that the translator did not make these changes deliberately withsome hidden agenda behind But this example also highlights the need for a systematictraining in discourse analysis as part of translator training

11 Cf one authorrsquos comment in a recent issue of the journal Discourse amp Society ldquospecialcare has been taken in translating the transcriptions so that they are as lsquotrue to genrersquo aspossiblerdquo

References

Across Languages and Cultures Special issue on Hybrid Texts and Translation (guest editors

ltDEST sch-r1gt

Christina Schaumlffner and Beverly Adab) 2(2) 2001Aacutelvarez Romaacuten and Vidal M Carmen-Aacutefrica (eds) 1996 Translation Power Subversion

ltDEST sch-r2gt

Clevedon Multilingual MattersArrojo Rosemary 1998 The revision of the traditional gap between theory and practice and

ltDEST sch-r3gt

the empowerment of translation in postmodern times The Translator 4(1) 25ndash48Baker Mona (ed) 1998 Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies London and New

ltDEST sch-r4gt

York RoutledgeBassnett Susan and Lefevere Andreacute (eds) 1990 Translation History and Culture London

ltDEST sch-r5gt

Pinter

Bowker Lynne and Pearson Jennifer 2002 Working with Specialized Language A Practical

ltDEST sch-r6gt

Guide to Using Corpora London and New York RoutledgeCaldaza Peacuterez Maria (ed) 2003 Apropos of Ideology Translation Studies on Ideology mdash

ltDEST sch-r7gt

Ideologies in Translation Studies Manchester St JeromeCatford JC 1965 A Linguistic Theory of Translation London Oxford University Press

ltDEST sch-r8gt

Chesterman Andrew 1998 Causes translations effects Target 10(2) 201ndash230

ltDEST sch-r9gt

Chesterman Andrew and Arrojo Rosemary 2000 Shared ground in translation studiesTarget 12(1) 151ndash160

Chilton Paul 1996 Security Metaphors Cold War Discourse from Containment to Common

ltDEST sch-r10gt

House New York LangChilton Paul and Schaumlffner Christina 1997 Discourse and Politics In Teun van Dijk (ed)

Discourse Studies A Multidisciplinary Introduction vol 2 Discourse as Social InteractionLondon Sage 206ndash230

Chilton Paul and Schaumlffner Christina (eds) 2002 Politics as Text and Talk AnalyticApproaches to Political Discourse Amsterdam and Philadelphia Benjamins

Delisle Jean and Woodsworth Judith (eds) 1995 Translators Through History Amsterdam

ltDEST sch-r11gt

and Philadelphia Benjamins UNESCO PublishingDonahue Ray T and Prosser Michael H 1997 Diplomatic Discourse International Conflict

ltDEST sch-r12gt

at the United Nations mdash Addresses and Analysis Greenwich Connecticut and LondonAblex Publishing Corporation

Doumlrner Andreas 2001 Politainment Politik in der medialen Erlebnisgesellschaft Frankfurt a

ltDEST sch-r13gt

M SuhrkampEkstroumlm Mats 2001 Politicians interviewed on television news Discourse amp Society 12(5)

ltDEST sch-r14gt

563ndash584Even-Zohar Itamar 1978 Papers in Historical Poetics Tel Aviv Porter Institute for Poetics

ltDEST sch-r15gt

and SemioticsFairclough Norman 1995 Critical Discourse Analysis London Longman

ltDEST sch-r16gt

Fairclough Norman 2000 New Labour New Language Routledge LondonFairclough Norman and Wodak Ruth 1997 Critical discourse analysis In Teun van Dijk

(ed) Discourse Studies A Multidisciplinary Introduction vol 2 Discourse as SocialInteraction London Sage 258ndash284

Gentzler Edwin 1993 Contemporary Translation Theories Routledge London

ltDEST sch-r17gt

Gile Daniel in press Translation research vs interpreting research Kinship differences and

ltDEST sch-r18gt

prospects for partnership In Christina Schaumlffner (ed) Translation Research andInterpreting Research Traditions Gaps and Synergies Clevedon Multilingual Matters

Halliday Fred 2001 Words and States the Politics of Language in the Middle East Paper

ltDEST sch-r19gt

presented to seminar series at Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies 10 October 2001 (draftmanuscript)

Hatim Basil and Mason Ian 1990 Discourse and the Translator London Longman

ltDEST sch-r20gt

Hatim Basil and Mason Ian 1997 The Translator as Communicator London RoutledgeHermans Theo 1999 Translation in Systems Descriptive and System-Oriented Approaches

ltDEST sch-r21gt

Explained Manchester St JeromeHolmes James 1988 Translated Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies

ltDEST sch-r22gt

Amsterdam Rodopi

Holz-Maumlnttaumlri Justa 1984 Translatorisches Handeln Theorie und Methode Helsinki

ltDEST sch-r23gt

Suomalainen TiedeakatemiaHouse Juliane 1997 Translation Quality Assessment A Model Revisited Tuumlbingen Narr

ltDEST sch-r24gt

Kade Otto 1980 Die Sprachmittlung als gesellschaftliche Erscheinung und Gegenstand

ltDEST sch-r25gt

wissenschaftlicher Untersuchung (Uumlbersetzungswissenschaftliche Beitraumlge 3) LeipzigEnzyklopaumldie

Kadric Mira and Kaindl Klaus 1997 Asteacuterix mdash Vom Gallier zum Tschetnikjaumlger Zur

ltDEST sch-r26gt

Problematik von Massenkommunikation und uumlbersetzerischer Ethik In Mary Snell-Hornby Zuzana Jettmarova and Klaus Kaindl (eds) Translation as InterculturalCommunication Selected Papers from the EST Congress mdash Prague 1995 Amsterdam andPhiladelphia Benjamins 135ndash146

Koskinen Kaisa 2000 Institutional illusions Translating in the EU Commission The

ltDEST sch-r27gt

Translator 6(1) 49ndash65Krings Hans P 1986 Was in den Koumlpfen von Uumlbersetzern vorgeht Eine empirische Unter-

ltDEST sch-r28gt

suchung zur Struktur des Uumlbersetzungsprozesses an fortgeschrittenen FranzoumlsischlernernTuumlbingen Narr

Lakoff George and Johnson Mark 1980 Metaphors We Live By Chicago University of

ltDEST sch-r29gt

Chicago PressLefevere Andreacute 1992 Translation Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame

ltDEST sch-r30gt

LondonNew York RoutledgeMunday Jeremy 2001 Introducing Translation Studies Theories and Applications London

ltDEST sch-r31gt

and New York RoutledgeMuntigl Peter 2002 Politicization and depoliticization Employment policy in the Europe-

ltDEST sch-r32gt

an Union In Paul Chilton and Christina Schaumlffner (eds) Politics as Text and TalkAnalytic Approaches to Political Discourse Amsterdam and Philadelphia Benjamins45ndash79

Neubert Albrecht and Shreve Gregory M 1992 Translation as Text Kent and London Kent

ltDEST sch-r33gt

State University PressNida Eugene 1964 Toward a Science of Translating With Special Reference to Principles and

ltDEST sch-r34gt

Procedures Involved in Bible Translating Leiden E J BrillNiranjana Tejaswini 1992 Siting Translation History Post-Structuralism and the Colonial

ltDEST sch-r35gt

Context Berkeley University of California PressNord Christiane 1997 Translating as a Purposeful Activity Functionalist Approaches

ltDEST sch-r36gt

Explained Manchester St JeromePoumlchhacker Franz and Shlesinger Miriam (eds) 2002 The Interpreting Studies Reader

ltDEST sch-r37gt

LondonNew York RoutledgePrunc Erich 2002 Einfuumlhrung in die Translationswissenschaft Band I Orientierungsrahmen

ltDEST sch-r38gt

Graz Institut fuumlr TranslationswissenschaftPym Anthony 1998 Lives of Henri Albert Nietzschean Translator In Ann Beylard-

ltDEST sch-r39gt

Ozeroff Jana Kraacutelovaacute and Barbara Moser-Mercer (eds) Translatorsrsquo Strategies andCreativity mdash Selected Papers from the 9th International Conference on Translation andInterpreting Prague September 1995 Amsterdam amp Philadelphia Benjamins 117ndash125

Reiss Katharina 1971 Moumlglichkeiten und Grenzen der Uumlbersetzungskritik Muumlnchen Hueber

ltDEST sch-r40gt

Reiss Katharina and Vermeer Hans J 1991 Grundlegung einer allgemeinen Translations-theorie Tuumlbingen Niemeyer

Sauer Christoph 1996 Echoes from Abroad mdash Speeches for the Domestic Audience Queen

ltDEST sch-r41gt

Beatrixrsquo Address to the Israeli Parliament Current Issues in Language and Society 3(3)233ndash267

Schaumlffner Christina 1997 Metaphor and interdisciplinary analysis Journal of Area Studies

ltDEST sch-r42gt

11 57ndash72Schaumlffner Christina 2001 Attitudes towards Europe mdash mediated by translation In Andreas

Musolff Colin Good Petra Points and Ruth Wittlinger (eds) Attitudes towards EuropeLanguage in the unification process Aldershot Ashgate 201ndash217

Schaumlffner Christina 2003 Third ways and new centres mdash ideological unity or difference InMaria Caldaza Peacuterez (ed) Apropos of Ideology Manchester St Jerome 23ndash41

Schaumlffner Christina in press a Metaphor and Translation Some implications of a cognitiveapproach Journal of Pragmatics

Schaumlffner Christina (ed) in press b Translation Research and Interpreting Research Tradi-tions Gaps and Synergies Clevedon Multilingual Matters

Simeoni Daniel 1998 The pivotal status of the translatorrsquos habitus Target 10(1) 1ndash39

ltDEST sch-r43gt

Simon Sherry 1996 Gender in Translation Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission

ltDEST sch-r44gt

London RoutledgeSnell-Hornby Mary Poumlchhacker Franz and Kaindl Klaus (eds) 1992 Translation Studies

ltDEST sch-r45gt

An Interdiscipline Amsterdam and Philadelphia BenjaminsStolze Radegundis 1994 Uumlbersetzungstheorien Eine Einfuumlhrung Narr Tuumlbingen

ltDEST sch-r46gt

The Translator 2001 Special Issue on The return to ethics guest editor Anthony Pym 7(2)

ltDEST sch-r47gt

Tirkkonen-Condit Sonja 2001 EU project proposals as hybrid texts Observations from a

ltDEST sch-r48gt

Finnish research project Across 2(2) 261ndash264Toury Gideon 1995 Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond Amsterdam and Philadel-

ltDEST sch-r49gt

phia BenjaminsTrosborg Anna (ed) 1997 Text Typology and Translation Amsterdam and Philadelphia

ltDEST sch-r50gt

BenjaminsTymoczko Maria 1999 Translation in a Postcolonial Context Manchester St Jerome

ltDEST sch-r51gt

Tymoczko Maria 2000 Translation and political engagement The Translator 6(1) 23ndash47van Dijk Teun A 2002 Political discourse and political cognition In Paul Chilton and

ltDEST sch-r52gt

Chistina Schaumlffner (eds) Politics as text and talk Analytic Approaches to PoliticalDiscourse Amsterdam and Philadelphia Benjamins 203ndash237

Venuti Lawrence 1994 Translation and the formation of cultural identities Current Issues

ltDEST sch-r53gt

in Language and Society 1(3) 201ndash217Venuti Lawrence (ed) 1995 The Translatorrsquos Invisibility London RoutledgeVenuti Lawrence 2000 The Translation Studies Reader London RoutledgeVermeer Hans J 1978 Ein Rahmen fuumlr eine allgemeine Translationstheorie Lebende

ltDEST sch-r54gt

Sprachen 23(2) 99ndash102Wagner Emma Bech Svend and Martiacutenez Jesuacutes M 2002 Translating for the European

ltDEST sch-r55gt

Union Institutions Manchester St JeromeWitte Heidrun 2000 Die Kulturkompetenz des Translators Begriffliche Grundlegung und

ltDEST sch-r56gt

Didaktisierung Tuumlbingen StauffenburgWodak Ruth 2000 From conflict to consensus The co-construction of a policy paper In

ltDEST sch-r57gt

Peter Muntigl Gilbert Weiss and Ruth Wodak (eds) European Union Discourses on

Unemployment An Interdisciplinary Approach to Employment Policy-Making andOrganizational Change Amsterdam amp Philadelphia Benjamins 73ndash114

Zauberga Ieva 2001 Discourse interference in translation Across 2(2) 265ndash276

ltDEST sch-r58gt

Authorrsquos address

Christina SchaumlffnerSchool of Languages and European StudiesAston UniversityAston TriangleBIRMINGHAM B4 7ETUK

Email CSchaeffnerastonacuk

About the author

Christina Schaumlffner is a Reader in Translation Studies (German) in the School of Languagesand European Studies at Aston University (Birmingham UK) Her main research interestsare translation studies political discourse analysis and metaphor research Her most recentpublications include Annotated Texts for Translation English-German (with U Wiesemann2001) The role of discourse analysis for translation and translator training (ed 2002) Politicsas Text and Talk Analytic Approaches to Political Discourse (co-ed with Paul Chilton 2002)

ltTARGET schgt

Political Discourse Analysisfrom the point of viewof Translation Studies



21 Lexical Choice




4 Translation Studies and Political Discourse Analysis Scope for interaction



43 Process analysis


Notes

References

Authors address

About the author

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 SUO ltFEFF004e00e4006900640065006e002000610073006500740075007300740065006e0020006100760075006c006c006100200076006f0069006400610061006e0020006c0075006f006400610020005000440046002d0061007300690061006b00690072006a006f006a0061002c0020006a006f006900640065006e002000740075006c006f0073007400750073006c00610061007400750020006f006e0020006b006f0072006b006500610020006a00610020006b007500760061006e0020007400610072006b006b007500750073002000730075007500720069002e0020005000440046002d0061007300690061006b00690072006a0061007400200076006f0069006400610061006e0020006100760061007400610020004100630072006f006200610074002d0020006a0061002000520065006100640065007200200035002e00300020002d006f0068006a0065006c006d0061006c006c0061002000740061006900200075007500640065006d006d0061006c006c0061002000760065007200730069006f006c006c0061002e0020004e00e4006d00e4002000610073006500740075006b0073006500740020006500640065006c006c00790074007400e4007600e4007400200066006f006e0074007400690065006e002000750070006f00740075007300740061002egt ITA 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 NOR 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 SVE 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 ENU 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 gtgtgtgt setdistillerparamsltlt HWResolution [2400 2400] PageSize [612000 792000]gtgt setpagedevice

language Equally the use of language in the constitution of social groups leads towhat is called ldquopoliticsrdquo in a broad sense But how ldquobroadrdquo can this sense be Inother words what counts as ldquopoliticsrdquo and subsequently as ldquopolitical discourserdquo

It is generally acknowledged that the mass media play an important role indisseminating politics and in mediating between politicians and the public alsoin a critical sense (cf the concept of mediatisation of politics Ekstroumlm

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2001564) The topics which quality newspapers discuss in texts on their frontpages in editorials and comments should therefore be good examples ofpolitical texts In February and March 2003 the topical political events whichmake the headlines in the mass media are the Iraq conflict and the Middle Eastcrisis topics which will easily be described as political ones by everybodyHowever if we look back to see what made the headlines a year ago the pictureis different For example the main topic for The Times on 12 April 2002 wasDavid Beckhamrsquos broken foot The title of an article on page 1 was ldquoBeckhamrsquosfoot becomes Blairrsquos bone of contentionrdquo and the first sentences of the text areas follows

(1) Forget the Middle East And who cares about next weekrsquos Budget Theone issue that had Tony Blair and his ministers on tenterhooks at yester-dayrsquos Cabinet meeting mdash together with the rest of the country mdash wasDavid Beckhamrsquos footSuch has become the national obsession with the broken bone in theEngland captainrsquos left foot sustained during Manchester Unitedrsquos Euro-pean Cup quarter-final clash with Spainrsquos Deportivo La Coruna onWednesday night that the Prime Minister interrupted the Cabinet meet-ing to declare that ldquonothing was more importantrdquo to the countryrsquosWorld Cup preparations than the state of Beckhamrsquos foot

Another issue which made the headlines in The Times on the same day was thatthe German Chancellor Schroumlder had sued a journalist for saying he was dyinghis hair This topic was even worth an editorial in which a link was establishedbetween hair colour and the credibility of politicians In another article on thesame issue on the same day we read (The Times 12 April 2002 p16)

(2) The Christian Democrat deputy Karl-Josef Laumann added to theChancellorrsquos fears when he said ldquoA man who colours his hair is certainlycapable of trimming statisticsrdquo

Politologists have used the label ldquopolitainmentrdquo (Doumlrner 2001) to describe this

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recent phenomenon of a symbiosis of politics and entertainment ie the

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21 Lexical Choice

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43 Process analysis

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research method

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References

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Pinter

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Amsterdam Rodopi

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About the author

ltTARGET schgt



21 Lexical Choice







43 Process analysis


Notes

References

Authors address

About the author


ltLINK sch-r32gt

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21 Lexical Choice

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43 Process analysis

ltLINK sch-r57gt

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research method

ltLINK sch-r6gt

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References

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Pinter

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Amsterdam Rodopi

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About the author

ltTARGET schgt



21 Lexical Choice







43 Process analysis


Notes

References

Authors address

About the author


21 Lexical Choice

ltLINK sch-r52gt

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43 Process analysis

ltLINK sch-r57gt

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research method

ltLINK sch-r6gt

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References

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About the author

ltTARGET schgt



21 Lexical Choice







43 Process analysis


Notes

References

Authors address

About the author


21 Lexical Choice

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43 Process analysis

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research method

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References

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Amsterdam Rodopi

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About the author

ltTARGET schgt



21 Lexical Choice







43 Process analysis


Notes

References

Authors address

About the author


ltLINK sch-r25gt

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43 Process analysis

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research method

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ltDEST sch-r57gt

ltDEST sch-r58gt

About the author

ltTARGET schgt



21 Lexical Choice







43 Process analysis


Notes

References

Authors address

About the author


ltLINK sch-r25gt

ltLINK sch-r42gt

ltLINK sch-r16gt

ltLINK sch-r27gt

ltLINK sch-r16gt

ltLINK sch-r11gt

ltLINK sch-r37gt

ltLINK sch-r54gt

ltLINK sch-r36gt

ltLINK sch-r40gt

ltLINK sch-r23gt

ltLINK sch-r22gt

ltLINK sch-r49gt

ltLINK sch-r15gt

ltLINK sch-r21gt

ltLINK sch-r43gt

ltLINK sch-r5gt

ltLINK sch-r3gt

ltLINK sch-r53gt

ltLINK sch-r51gt

ltLINK sch-r2gt

ltLINK sch-r30gt

ltLINK sch-r7gt

ltLINK sch-r56gt

ltLINK sch-r5gt

ltLINK sch-r9gt

ltLINK sch-r45gt

ltLINK sch-r12gt

ltLINK sch-r9gt

ltLINK sch-r16gt

ltLINK sch-r20gt

ltLINK sch-r58gt

ltLINK sch-r48gt

ltLINK sch-r55gt

ltLINK sch-r16gt

43 Process analysis

ltLINK sch-r57gt

ltLINK sch-r39gt

ltLINK sch-r19gt

ltLINK sch-r26gt

ltLINK sch-r28gt

research method

ltLINK sch-r6gt

ltLINK sch-r38gt

References

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Pinter

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Amsterdam Rodopi

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ltDEST sch-r54gt

ltDEST sch-r55gt

ltDEST sch-r56gt

ltDEST sch-r57gt

ltDEST sch-r58gt

About the author

ltTARGET schgt



21 Lexical Choice







43 Process analysis


Notes

References

Authors address

About the author


ltLINK sch-r42gt

ltLINK sch-r16gt

ltLINK sch-r27gt

ltLINK sch-r16gt

ltLINK sch-r11gt

ltLINK sch-r37gt

ltLINK sch-r54gt

ltLINK sch-r36gt

ltLINK sch-r40gt

ltLINK sch-r23gt

ltLINK sch-r22gt

ltLINK sch-r49gt

ltLINK sch-r15gt

ltLINK sch-r21gt

ltLINK sch-r43gt

ltLINK sch-r5gt

ltLINK sch-r3gt

ltLINK sch-r53gt

ltLINK sch-r51gt

ltLINK sch-r2gt

ltLINK sch-r30gt

ltLINK sch-r7gt

ltLINK sch-r56gt

ltLINK sch-r5gt

ltLINK sch-r9gt

ltLINK sch-r45gt

ltLINK sch-r12gt

ltLINK sch-r9gt

ltLINK sch-r16gt

ltLINK sch-r20gt

ltLINK sch-r58gt

ltLINK sch-r48gt

ltLINK sch-r55gt

ltLINK sch-r16gt

43 Process analysis

ltLINK sch-r57gt

ltLINK sch-r39gt

ltLINK sch-r19gt

ltLINK sch-r26gt

ltLINK sch-r28gt

research method

ltLINK sch-r6gt

ltLINK sch-r38gt

References

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Pinter

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Amsterdam Rodopi

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ltDEST sch-r56gt

ltDEST sch-r57gt

ltDEST sch-r58gt

About the author

ltTARGET schgt



21 Lexical Choice







43 Process analysis


Notes

References

Authors address

About the author


ltLINK sch-r42gt

ltLINK sch-r16gt

ltLINK sch-r27gt

ltLINK sch-r16gt

ltLINK sch-r11gt

ltLINK sch-r37gt

ltLINK sch-r54gt

ltLINK sch-r36gt

ltLINK sch-r40gt

ltLINK sch-r23gt

ltLINK sch-r22gt

ltLINK sch-r49gt

ltLINK sch-r15gt

ltLINK sch-r21gt

ltLINK sch-r43gt

ltLINK sch-r5gt

ltLINK sch-r3gt

ltLINK sch-r53gt

ltLINK sch-r51gt

ltLINK sch-r2gt

ltLINK sch-r30gt

ltLINK sch-r7gt

ltLINK sch-r56gt

ltLINK sch-r5gt

ltLINK sch-r9gt

ltLINK sch-r45gt

ltLINK sch-r12gt

ltLINK sch-r9gt

ltLINK sch-r16gt

ltLINK sch-r20gt

ltLINK sch-r58gt

ltLINK sch-r48gt

ltLINK sch-r55gt

ltLINK sch-r16gt

43 Process analysis

ltLINK sch-r57gt

ltLINK sch-r39gt

ltLINK sch-r19gt

ltLINK sch-r26gt

ltLINK sch-r28gt

research method

ltLINK sch-r6gt

ltLINK sch-r38gt

References

ltDEST sch-r1gt

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Pinter

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Amsterdam Rodopi

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ltDEST sch-r56gt

ltDEST sch-r57gt

ltDEST sch-r58gt

About the author

ltTARGET schgt



21 Lexical Choice







43 Process analysis


Notes

References

Authors address

About the author


ltLINK sch-r42gt

ltLINK sch-r16gt

ltLINK sch-r27gt

ltLINK sch-r16gt

ltLINK sch-r11gt

ltLINK sch-r37gt

ltLINK sch-r54gt

ltLINK sch-r36gt

ltLINK sch-r40gt

ltLINK sch-r23gt

ltLINK sch-r22gt

ltLINK sch-r49gt

ltLINK sch-r15gt

ltLINK sch-r21gt

ltLINK sch-r43gt

ltLINK sch-r5gt

ltLINK sch-r3gt

ltLINK sch-r53gt

ltLINK sch-r51gt

ltLINK sch-r2gt

ltLINK sch-r30gt

ltLINK sch-r7gt

ltLINK sch-r56gt

ltLINK sch-r5gt

ltLINK sch-r9gt

ltLINK sch-r45gt

ltLINK sch-r12gt

ltLINK sch-r9gt

ltLINK sch-r16gt

ltLINK sch-r20gt

ltLINK sch-r58gt

ltLINK sch-r48gt

ltLINK sch-r55gt

ltLINK sch-r16gt

43 Process analysis

ltLINK sch-r57gt

ltLINK sch-r39gt

ltLINK sch-r19gt

ltLINK sch-r26gt

ltLINK sch-r28gt

research method

ltLINK sch-r6gt

ltLINK sch-r38gt

References

ltDEST sch-r1gt

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Pinter

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Amsterdam Rodopi

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ltDEST sch-r55gt

ltDEST sch-r56gt

ltDEST sch-r57gt

ltDEST sch-r58gt

About the author

ltTARGET schgt



21 Lexical Choice







43 Process analysis


Notes

References

Authors address

About the author


ltLINK sch-r42gt

ltLINK sch-r16gt

ltLINK sch-r27gt

ltLINK sch-r16gt

ltLINK sch-r11gt

ltLINK sch-r37gt

ltLINK sch-r54gt

ltLINK sch-r36gt

ltLINK sch-r40gt

ltLINK sch-r23gt

ltLINK sch-r22gt

ltLINK sch-r49gt

ltLINK sch-r15gt

ltLINK sch-r21gt

ltLINK sch-r43gt

ltLINK sch-r5gt

ltLINK sch-r3gt

ltLINK sch-r53gt

ltLINK sch-r51gt

ltLINK sch-r2gt

ltLINK sch-r30gt

ltLINK sch-r7gt

ltLINK sch-r56gt

ltLINK sch-r5gt

ltLINK sch-r9gt

ltLINK sch-r45gt

ltLINK sch-r12gt

ltLINK sch-r9gt

ltLINK sch-r16gt

ltLINK sch-r20gt

ltLINK sch-r58gt

ltLINK sch-r48gt

ltLINK sch-r55gt

ltLINK sch-r16gt

43 Process analysis

ltLINK sch-r57gt

ltLINK sch-r39gt

ltLINK sch-r19gt

ltLINK sch-r26gt

ltLINK sch-r28gt

research method

ltLINK sch-r6gt

ltLINK sch-r38gt

References

ltDEST sch-r1gt

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Pinter

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Amsterdam Rodopi

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ltDEST sch-r57gt

ltDEST sch-r58gt

About the author

ltTARGET schgt



21 Lexical Choice







43 Process analysis


Notes

References

Authors address

About the author


ltLINK sch-r42gt

ltLINK sch-r16gt

ltLINK sch-r27gt

ltLINK sch-r16gt

ltLINK sch-r11gt

ltLINK sch-r37gt

ltLINK sch-r54gt

ltLINK sch-r36gt

ltLINK sch-r40gt

ltLINK sch-r23gt

ltLINK sch-r22gt

ltLINK sch-r49gt

ltLINK sch-r15gt

ltLINK sch-r21gt

ltLINK sch-r43gt

ltLINK sch-r5gt

ltLINK sch-r3gt

ltLINK sch-r53gt

ltLINK sch-r51gt

ltLINK sch-r2gt

ltLINK sch-r30gt

ltLINK sch-r7gt

ltLINK sch-r56gt

ltLINK sch-r5gt

ltLINK sch-r9gt

ltLINK sch-r45gt

ltLINK sch-r12gt

ltLINK sch-r9gt

ltLINK sch-r16gt

ltLINK sch-r20gt

ltLINK sch-r58gt

ltLINK sch-r48gt

ltLINK sch-r55gt

ltLINK sch-r16gt

43 Process analysis

ltLINK sch-r57gt

ltLINK sch-r39gt

ltLINK sch-r19gt

ltLINK sch-r26gt

ltLINK sch-r28gt

research method

ltLINK sch-r6gt

ltLINK sch-r38gt

References

ltDEST sch-r1gt

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ltDEST sch-r3gt

ltDEST sch-r4gt

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Pinter

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Amsterdam Rodopi

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ltDEST sch-r57gt

ltDEST sch-r58gt

About the author

ltTARGET schgt



21 Lexical Choice







43 Process analysis


Notes

References

Authors address

About the author


ltLINK sch-r42gt

ltLINK sch-r16gt

ltLINK sch-r27gt

ltLINK sch-r16gt

ltLINK sch-r11gt

ltLINK sch-r37gt

ltLINK sch-r54gt

ltLINK sch-r36gt

ltLINK sch-r40gt

ltLINK sch-r23gt

ltLINK sch-r22gt

ltLINK sch-r49gt

ltLINK sch-r15gt

ltLINK sch-r21gt

ltLINK sch-r43gt

ltLINK sch-r5gt

ltLINK sch-r3gt

ltLINK sch-r53gt

ltLINK sch-r51gt

ltLINK sch-r2gt

ltLINK sch-r30gt

ltLINK sch-r7gt

ltLINK sch-r56gt

ltLINK sch-r5gt

ltLINK sch-r9gt

ltLINK sch-r45gt

ltLINK sch-r12gt

ltLINK sch-r9gt

ltLINK sch-r16gt

ltLINK sch-r20gt

ltLINK sch-r58gt

ltLINK sch-r48gt

ltLINK sch-r55gt

ltLINK sch-r16gt

43 Process analysis

ltLINK sch-r57gt

ltLINK sch-r39gt

ltLINK sch-r19gt

ltLINK sch-r26gt

ltLINK sch-r28gt

research method

ltLINK sch-r6gt

ltLINK sch-r38gt

References

ltDEST sch-r1gt

ltDEST sch-r2gt

ltDEST sch-r3gt

ltDEST sch-r4gt

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Pinter

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Amsterdam Rodopi

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ltDEST sch-r57gt

ltDEST sch-r58gt

About the author

ltTARGET schgt



21 Lexical Choice







43 Process analysis


Notes

References

Authors address

About the author


ltLINK sch-r42gt

ltLINK sch-r16gt

ltLINK sch-r27gt

ltLINK sch-r16gt

ltLINK sch-r11gt

ltLINK sch-r37gt

ltLINK sch-r54gt

ltLINK sch-r36gt

ltLINK sch-r40gt

ltLINK sch-r23gt

ltLINK sch-r22gt

ltLINK sch-r49gt

ltLINK sch-r15gt

ltLINK sch-r21gt

ltLINK sch-r43gt

ltLINK sch-r5gt

ltLINK sch-r3gt

ltLINK sch-r53gt

ltLINK sch-r51gt

ltLINK sch-r2gt

ltLINK sch-r30gt

ltLINK sch-r7gt

ltLINK sch-r56gt

ltLINK sch-r5gt

ltLINK sch-r9gt

ltLINK sch-r45gt

ltLINK sch-r12gt

ltLINK sch-r9gt

ltLINK sch-r16gt

ltLINK sch-r20gt

ltLINK sch-r58gt

ltLINK sch-r48gt

ltLINK sch-r55gt

ltLINK sch-r16gt

43 Process analysis

ltLINK sch-r57gt

ltLINK sch-r39gt

ltLINK sch-r19gt

ltLINK sch-r26gt

ltLINK sch-r28gt

research method

ltLINK sch-r6gt

ltLINK sch-r38gt

References

ltDEST sch-r1gt

ltDEST sch-r2gt

ltDEST sch-r3gt

ltDEST sch-r4gt

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Pinter

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Amsterdam Rodopi

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ltDEST sch-r57gt

ltDEST sch-r58gt

About the author

ltTARGET schgt



21 Lexical Choice







43 Process analysis


Notes

References

Authors address

About the author


ltLINK sch-r16gt

ltLINK sch-r27gt

ltLINK sch-r16gt

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ltLINK sch-r9gt

ltLINK sch-r16gt

ltLINK sch-r20gt

ltLINK sch-r58gt

ltLINK sch-r48gt

ltLINK sch-r55gt

ltLINK sch-r16gt

43 Process analysis

ltLINK sch-r57gt

ltLINK sch-r39gt

ltLINK sch-r19gt

ltLINK sch-r26gt

ltLINK sch-r28gt

research method

ltLINK sch-r6gt

ltLINK sch-r38gt

References

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Amsterdam Rodopi

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ltDEST sch-r58gt

About the author

ltTARGET schgt



21 Lexical Choice







43 Process analysis


Notes

References

Authors address

About the author


ltLINK sch-r16gt

ltLINK sch-r11gt

ltLINK sch-r37gt

ltLINK sch-r54gt

ltLINK sch-r36gt

ltLINK sch-r40gt

ltLINK sch-r23gt

ltLINK sch-r22gt

ltLINK sch-r49gt

ltLINK sch-r15gt

ltLINK sch-r21gt

ltLINK sch-r43gt

ltLINK sch-r5gt

ltLINK sch-r3gt

ltLINK sch-r53gt

ltLINK sch-r51gt

ltLINK sch-r2gt

ltLINK sch-r30gt

ltLINK sch-r7gt

ltLINK sch-r56gt

ltLINK sch-r5gt

ltLINK sch-r9gt

ltLINK sch-r45gt

ltLINK sch-r12gt

ltLINK sch-r9gt

ltLINK sch-r16gt

ltLINK sch-r20gt

ltLINK sch-r58gt

ltLINK sch-r48gt

ltLINK sch-r55gt

ltLINK sch-r16gt

43 Process analysis

ltLINK sch-r57gt

ltLINK sch-r39gt

ltLINK sch-r19gt

ltLINK sch-r26gt

ltLINK sch-r28gt

research method

ltLINK sch-r6gt

ltLINK sch-r38gt

References

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Pinter

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Amsterdam Rodopi

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ltDEST sch-r57gt

ltDEST sch-r58gt

About the author

ltTARGET schgt



21 Lexical Choice







43 Process analysis


Notes

References

Authors address

About the author


ltLINK sch-r37gt

ltLINK sch-r54gt

ltLINK sch-r36gt

ltLINK sch-r40gt

ltLINK sch-r23gt

ltLINK sch-r22gt

ltLINK sch-r49gt

ltLINK sch-r15gt

ltLINK sch-r21gt

ltLINK sch-r43gt

ltLINK sch-r5gt

ltLINK sch-r3gt

ltLINK sch-r53gt

ltLINK sch-r51gt

ltLINK sch-r2gt

ltLINK sch-r30gt

ltLINK sch-r7gt

ltLINK sch-r56gt

ltLINK sch-r5gt

ltLINK sch-r9gt

ltLINK sch-r45gt

ltLINK sch-r12gt

ltLINK sch-r9gt

ltLINK sch-r16gt

ltLINK sch-r20gt

ltLINK sch-r58gt

ltLINK sch-r48gt

ltLINK sch-r55gt

ltLINK sch-r16gt

43 Process analysis

ltLINK sch-r57gt

ltLINK sch-r39gt

ltLINK sch-r19gt

ltLINK sch-r26gt

ltLINK sch-r28gt

research method

ltLINK sch-r6gt

ltLINK sch-r38gt

References

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Pinter

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Amsterdam Rodopi

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ltDEST sch-r58gt

About the author

ltTARGET schgt



21 Lexical Choice







43 Process analysis


Notes

References

Authors address

About the author


ltLINK sch-r40gt

ltLINK sch-r23gt

ltLINK sch-r22gt

ltLINK sch-r49gt

ltLINK sch-r15gt

ltLINK sch-r21gt

ltLINK sch-r43gt

ltLINK sch-r5gt

ltLINK sch-r3gt

ltLINK sch-r53gt

ltLINK sch-r51gt

ltLINK sch-r2gt

ltLINK sch-r30gt

ltLINK sch-r7gt

ltLINK sch-r56gt

ltLINK sch-r5gt

ltLINK sch-r9gt

ltLINK sch-r45gt

ltLINK sch-r12gt

ltLINK sch-r9gt

ltLINK sch-r16gt

ltLINK sch-r20gt

ltLINK sch-r58gt

ltLINK sch-r48gt

ltLINK sch-r55gt

ltLINK sch-r16gt

43 Process analysis

ltLINK sch-r57gt

ltLINK sch-r39gt

ltLINK sch-r19gt

ltLINK sch-r26gt

ltLINK sch-r28gt

research method

ltLINK sch-r6gt

ltLINK sch-r38gt

References

ltDEST sch-r1gt

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Pinter

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Amsterdam Rodopi

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ltDEST sch-r57gt

ltDEST sch-r58gt

About the author

ltTARGET schgt



21 Lexical Choice







43 Process analysis


Notes

References

Authors address

About the author


ltLINK sch-r43gt

ltLINK sch-r5gt

ltLINK sch-r3gt

ltLINK sch-r53gt

ltLINK sch-r51gt

ltLINK sch-r2gt

ltLINK sch-r30gt

ltLINK sch-r7gt

ltLINK sch-r56gt

ltLINK sch-r5gt

ltLINK sch-r9gt

ltLINK sch-r45gt

ltLINK sch-r12gt

ltLINK sch-r9gt

ltLINK sch-r16gt

ltLINK sch-r20gt

ltLINK sch-r58gt

ltLINK sch-r48gt

ltLINK sch-r55gt

ltLINK sch-r16gt

43 Process analysis

ltLINK sch-r57gt

ltLINK sch-r39gt

ltLINK sch-r19gt

ltLINK sch-r26gt

ltLINK sch-r28gt

research method

ltLINK sch-r6gt

ltLINK sch-r38gt

References

ltDEST sch-r1gt

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Pinter

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Amsterdam Rodopi

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ltDEST sch-r58gt

About the author

ltTARGET schgt



21 Lexical Choice







43 Process analysis


Notes

References

Authors address

About the author


ltLINK sch-r30gt

ltLINK sch-r7gt

ltLINK sch-r56gt

ltLINK sch-r5gt

ltLINK sch-r9gt

ltLINK sch-r45gt

ltLINK sch-r12gt

ltLINK sch-r9gt

ltLINK sch-r16gt

ltLINK sch-r20gt

ltLINK sch-r58gt

ltLINK sch-r48gt

ltLINK sch-r55gt

ltLINK sch-r16gt

43 Process analysis

ltLINK sch-r57gt

ltLINK sch-r39gt

ltLINK sch-r19gt

ltLINK sch-r26gt

ltLINK sch-r28gt

research method

ltLINK sch-r6gt

ltLINK sch-r38gt

References

ltDEST sch-r1gt

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Pinter

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Amsterdam Rodopi

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ltDEST sch-r57gt

ltDEST sch-r58gt

About the author

ltTARGET schgt



21 Lexical Choice







43 Process analysis


Notes

References

Authors address

About the author


ltLINK sch-r12gt

ltLINK sch-r9gt

ltLINK sch-r16gt

ltLINK sch-r20gt

ltLINK sch-r58gt

ltLINK sch-r48gt

ltLINK sch-r55gt

ltLINK sch-r16gt

43 Process analysis

ltLINK sch-r57gt

ltLINK sch-r39gt

ltLINK sch-r19gt

ltLINK sch-r26gt

ltLINK sch-r28gt

research method

ltLINK sch-r6gt

ltLINK sch-r38gt

References

ltDEST sch-r1gt

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Pinter

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Amsterdam Rodopi

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ltDEST sch-r58gt

About the author

ltTARGET schgt



21 Lexical Choice







43 Process analysis


Notes

References

Authors address

About the author


ltLINK sch-r16gt

ltLINK sch-r20gt

ltLINK sch-r58gt

ltLINK sch-r48gt

ltLINK sch-r55gt

ltLINK sch-r16gt

43 Process analysis

ltLINK sch-r57gt

ltLINK sch-r39gt

ltLINK sch-r19gt

ltLINK sch-r26gt

ltLINK sch-r28gt

research method

ltLINK sch-r6gt

ltLINK sch-r38gt

References

ltDEST sch-r1gt

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Pinter

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ltDEST sch-r57gt

ltDEST sch-r58gt

About the author

ltTARGET schgt



21 Lexical Choice







43 Process analysis


Notes

References

Authors address

About the author


ltLINK sch-r20gt

ltLINK sch-r58gt

ltLINK sch-r48gt

ltLINK sch-r55gt

ltLINK sch-r16gt

43 Process analysis

ltLINK sch-r57gt

ltLINK sch-r39gt

ltLINK sch-r19gt

ltLINK sch-r26gt

ltLINK sch-r28gt

research method

ltLINK sch-r6gt

ltLINK sch-r38gt

References

ltDEST sch-r1gt

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ltDEST sch-r4gt

ltDEST sch-r5gt

Pinter

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Amsterdam Rodopi

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ltDEST sch-r56gt

ltDEST sch-r57gt

ltDEST sch-r58gt

About the author

ltTARGET schgt



21 Lexical Choice







43 Process analysis


Notes

References

Authors address

About the author


ltLINK sch-r58gt

ltLINK sch-r48gt

ltLINK sch-r55gt

ltLINK sch-r16gt

43 Process analysis

ltLINK sch-r57gt

ltLINK sch-r39gt

ltLINK sch-r19gt

ltLINK sch-r26gt

ltLINK sch-r28gt

research method

ltLINK sch-r6gt

ltLINK sch-r38gt

References

ltDEST sch-r1gt

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Pinter

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Amsterdam Rodopi

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ltDEST sch-r56gt

ltDEST sch-r57gt

ltDEST sch-r58gt

About the author

ltTARGET schgt



21 Lexical Choice







43 Process analysis


Notes

References

Authors address

About the author


ltLINK sch-r16gt

43 Process analysis

ltLINK sch-r57gt

ltLINK sch-r39gt

ltLINK sch-r19gt

ltLINK sch-r26gt

ltLINK sch-r28gt

research method

ltLINK sch-r6gt

ltLINK sch-r38gt

References

ltDEST sch-r1gt

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Pinter

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Amsterdam Rodopi

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ltDEST sch-r57gt

ltDEST sch-r58gt

About the author

ltTARGET schgt



21 Lexical Choice







43 Process analysis


Notes

References

Authors address

About the author


ltLINK sch-r16gt

43 Process analysis

ltLINK sch-r57gt

ltLINK sch-r39gt

ltLINK sch-r19gt

ltLINK sch-r26gt

ltLINK sch-r28gt

research method

ltLINK sch-r6gt

ltLINK sch-r38gt

References

ltDEST sch-r1gt

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Pinter

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Amsterdam Rodopi

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ltDEST sch-r57gt

ltDEST sch-r58gt

About the author

ltTARGET schgt



21 Lexical Choice







43 Process analysis


Notes

References

Authors address

About the author


ltLINK sch-r57gt

ltLINK sch-r39gt

ltLINK sch-r19gt

ltLINK sch-r26gt

ltLINK sch-r28gt

research method

ltLINK sch-r6gt

ltLINK sch-r38gt

References

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Pinter

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Amsterdam Rodopi

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ltDEST sch-r57gt

ltDEST sch-r58gt

About the author

ltTARGET schgt



21 Lexical Choice







43 Process analysis


Notes

References

Authors address

About the author


ltLINK sch-r39gt

ltLINK sch-r19gt

ltLINK sch-r26gt

ltLINK sch-r28gt

research method

ltLINK sch-r6gt

ltLINK sch-r38gt

References

ltDEST sch-r1gt

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Pinter

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Amsterdam Rodopi

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ltDEST sch-r58gt

About the author

ltTARGET schgt



21 Lexical Choice







43 Process analysis


Notes

References

Authors address

About the author


ltLINK sch-r19gt

ltLINK sch-r26gt

ltLINK sch-r28gt

research method

ltLINK sch-r6gt

ltLINK sch-r38gt

References

ltDEST sch-r1gt

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Pinter

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Amsterdam Rodopi

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ltDEST sch-r58gt

About the author

ltTARGET schgt



21 Lexical Choice







43 Process analysis


Notes

References

Authors address

About the author


ltLINK sch-r28gt

research method

ltLINK sch-r6gt

ltLINK sch-r38gt

References

ltDEST sch-r1gt

ltDEST sch-r2gt

ltDEST sch-r3gt

ltDEST sch-r4gt

ltDEST sch-r5gt

Pinter

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Amsterdam Rodopi

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ltDEST sch-r57gt

ltDEST sch-r58gt

About the author

ltTARGET schgt



21 Lexical Choice







43 Process analysis


Notes

References

Authors address

About the author


ltDEST sch-r6gt

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Amsterdam Rodopi

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ltDEST sch-r56gt

ltDEST sch-r57gt

ltDEST sch-r58gt

About the author

ltTARGET schgt



21 Lexical Choice







43 Process analysis


Notes

References

Authors address

About the author


ltDEST sch-r23gt

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ltDEST sch-r25gt

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ltDEST sch-r56gt

ltDEST sch-r57gt

ltDEST sch-r58gt

About the author

ltTARGET schgt



21 Lexical Choice







43 Process analysis


Notes

References

Authors address

About the author


ltDEST sch-r41gt

ltDEST sch-r42gt

ltDEST sch-r43gt

ltDEST sch-r44gt

ltDEST sch-r45gt

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ltDEST sch-r54gt

ltDEST sch-r55gt

ltDEST sch-r56gt

ltDEST sch-r57gt

ltDEST sch-r58gt

About the author

ltTARGET schgt



21 Lexical Choice







43 Process analysis


Notes

References

Authors address

About the author


ltDEST sch-r58gt

About the author

ltTARGET schgt



21 Lexical Choice







43 Process analysis


Notes

References

Authors address

About the author


Documents

Political Discourse Analysis in Translation