PLUTARCH

TheAgeofAlexanderTenGreekLivesbyPlutarch

ArtaxerxesPelopidasDionTimoleonDemosthenesPhocionAlexanderEumenes

DemetriusPyrrhus

Revisededition

TranslatedbyIANSCOTT-KILVERTandTIMOTHYE.DUFF

IntroductionsandNotesbyTIMOTHYE.DUFF

WithSeriesPrefacebyCHRISTOPHERPELLING

PENGUINBOOKS

Contents

PenguinPlutarch,byChristopherPellingPrefacetotheRevisedEditionAbbreviationsGeneralIntroductionListofSurvivingLivesbyPlutarchFurtherReading

THEAGEOFALEXANDER

ARTAXERXESIntroductiontoArtaxerxesLifeofArtaxerxes

PELOPIDASIntroductiontoPelopidasProloguetotheLivesofPelopidasandMarcellusLifeofPelopidas

DIONIntroductiontoDionProloguetotheLivesofDionandBrutusLifeofDion

TIMOLEONIntroductiontoTimoleonLifeofTimoleonComparisonofAemiliusandTimoleon

DEMOSTHENESIntroductiontoDemosthenesProloguetotheLivesofDemosthenesandCiceroLifeofDemosthenes

PHOCIONIntroductiontoPhocionProloguetotheLivesofPhocionandCatotheYoungerLifeofPhocion

ALEXANDERIntroductiontoAlexanderProloguetotheLivesofAlexanderandJuliusCaesarLifeofAlexander

EUMENESIntroductiontoEumenesLifeofEumenesComparisonofSertoriusandEumenes

DEMETRIUSIntroductiontoDemetriusProloguetotheLivesofDemetriusandAntonyLifeofDemetrius

PYRRHUSIntroductiontoPyrrhusLifeofPyrrhus

Notes

ChronologyHistoricalEventsAftertheDeathofAlexander(323301BC)BiographicalNotesonAlexandersGeneralsandSuccessors

Maps1.AtticaandBoeotia2.GreeceandtheAegean3.EmpireofAlexander4.SouthernItalyandSyracuse5.AsiaMinor

PENGUIN CLASSICS

THEAGEOFALEXANDER

PLUTARCH(c.AD45120)wasaGreekphilosopherfromthesmalltownofChaeroneainBoeotia.HelivedattheheightoftheRomanEmpireandisauthorofoneofthelargestcollectionsofwritingstohavesurvivedfromClassicalantiquity.Hisworkistraditionallydividedintotwo:theMoralia,whichincludeavastrangeofphilosophical,scientific,moralandrhetoricalworks,andtheLivesorbiographies.Almostfiftysuchbiographiessurvive,mostfromhiscollectionofParallelLives,inwhichbiographiesofGreekandRomanstatesmenarearrangedinpairs.PlutarchsphilosophicalandmoralinterestsareapparentintheLives,asarehisconsiderableliterarytalent,hisvastknowledgeoftheancientworldandhiscarefulresearch.BoththeLivesandMoraliahavebeenextremelyinfluentialsincetheywerefirsttranslatedintheRenaissance.

IANSCOTT-KILVERTwasDirectorofEnglishLiteratureattheBritishCouncilandeditorofWritersandTheirWorks.HealsotranslatedCassiusDiosTheRomanHistoryaswellasPlutarchsTheRiseandFallofAthens:NineGreekLivesandMakersofRomeforPenguinClassics.Hediedin1989.

TIMOTHYE.DUFFisReaderinClassicsattheUniversityofReading.HeisauthorofPlutarchsLives:ExploringVirtueandVice(1999)andtheGreekandRomanHistorians(2003)andhaspublishedextensivelyonPlutarch.

CHRISTOPHERPELLINGisRegiusProfessorofGreekatOxfordUniversity.HehaspublishedacommentaryonPlutarchsLifeofAntony(1988)andacommentaryonPlutarchsLifeofCaesar(2011).HisotherbooksincludeLiteraryTextsandtheGreekHistorian(2000).MostofhisarticlesonPlutarchwerecollectedinhisPlutarchandHistory(2002).

PenguinPlutarch

ThefirstPenguintranslationofPlutarchappearedin1958,withRexWarner sversionofsixRomanLivesappearingasFalloftheRomanRepublic.Othervolumesfollowedsteadily,threeofthembyIanScott-Kilvert(TheRiseandFallofAthensin1960,MakersofRomein1965andTheAgeofAlexanderin1973),andthenRichardTalbertsPlutarchonSpartain1988.SeveralofthemoralessayswerealsotranslatedbyRobinWaterfieldin1992.Nowonlyfourteenoftheforty-eightLivesremain.ItisplannedtoincludetheseremainingLivesinanewedition,alongwithrevisedversionsofthosealreadypublished.ThisisalsoanopportunitytodivideuptheLivesinadifferentway,althoughitisnot

straightforwardtodecidewhatthatdifferentwayshouldbe.NearlyallPlutarchssurvivingbiographieswerewritteninpairsasParallelLives:thusabookforPlutarchwasnotjustTheseusorCaesarbutTheseusandRomulusorAlexanderandCaesar.Most,butnotall,ofthosepairshaveabriefepilogueattheendofthesecondLifecomparingthetwoheroes,justasmanyhaveaprologuebeforethefirstLifegivingsomeinitialgroundsforthecomparison.NotmuchattentionwaspaidtothiscomparativetechniqueatthetimewhenthePenguinseriesstartedtoappear,anditseemednaturalthentoseparateeachLifefromitspairandorganizethevolumesbyperiodandcity.Thecomparativeepilogueswerenotincludedinthetranslationsatall.Thatnowlooksveryunsatisfactory.Thecomparativetechniquehascometobeseenasbasicto

Plutarchsstrategy,underlyingnotonlythosebriefepiloguesbutalsotheentirepairings.(Itistrue,though,thatinthelastfewyearsscholarshavebecomeincreasinglyalerttothewaythatalltheLives,notjustthepairs,arecraftedtocomplementoneanother.)ItisverytemptingtokeepthepairingsinthisnewseriesinawaythatwouldrespectPlutarchsownauthorialintentions.Aftersomeagonizing,wehavedecidedneverthelesstokeeptosomethingliketheoriginalstrategy

oftheseries,thoughwithsomerefinement.Thereasonisapracticalone.Many,perhapsmost,readersofPlutarchwillbereadinghimtoseewhathehastosayaboutaparticularperiod,andwillwishtocomparehistreatmentofthemajorplayerstoseehowthedifferentpartsofhishistoricaljigsawfittogether.Ifonekeptthepairings,thatwouldinevitablymeanbuyingseveraldifferentvolumesoftheseries;andif,say,oneorganizedthosevolumesbytheGreekpartner(sothat,forinstance,PericlesFabius,NiciasCrassusandCoriolanusAlcibiadesmadeonevolume),anyoneprimarilyinterestedintheRomanLivesofthelateRepublicwouldprobablyneedtobuythewholeset.Thatisnowaytoguaranteethesefinelycraftedworksofartthewidereadingthattheydeserve.KeepingtheorganizationbyperiodalsoallowssomeotherworksofPlutarchtobeincludedalongwiththeLivesthemselves,forinstancethefascinatingessayOntheMaliceofHerodotusalongwiththeLivesofThemistoclesandAristidesand(asbefore)severalSpartanessaysalongwiththeSpartanLives.Ofcoursethecomparativeepiloguesmustnowbeincluded,andtheywillnowbetranslatedand

printedalongwiththesecondLifeofeachpair,justastheprologuesareconventionallyprintedbeforethefirstLife.Eachvolumewillnowalsousuallyincludemoreextendedintroductionstoeach

Life,whichwilldrawattentiontotheimportanceofthecomparisonaswellasotherfeaturesofPlutarchstechnique.Thisisacompromise,andanuncomfortableone;butitstillseemsthebetterway.Thevolumeswill,however,sorttheLivesintomorelogicalgroups.TheearlyRomanfigureswill

nowbegroupedtogetherinasinglevolumeentitledTheRiseofRome;thelifeofAgesilauswillmigratefromtheTheAgeofAlexandertojointherestoftheSpartanLives,andtheLifeofArtaxerxeswilljointheTheAgeofAlexandercollection;therestofthenewtranslationsofRomanLiveswilljointhoseoftheGracchi,BrutusandAntonyinanewRomeinCrisisvolume.Theintroductionsandnoteswillberevisedwherenecessary.InduecoursewehopetoincludetheMoralEssaysintheprojectaswell.Inarecentbibliometricstudy(AncientSociety,28(1997),26589),WalterScheidelobservedthat

theproportionofscholarlyarticlesdevotedtomostclassicalauthorshadremainedmoreorlessconstantsincethe1920s.TheoneauthortostandoutwithanexceptionalrisewasPlutarch.ThatprofessionalpatternhasbeenmatchedbyasimilarsurgeintheinterestinPlutarchshownbythegeneralreadingpublic.ThePenguintranslationshaveplayedalargepartinfosteringthatinterest,andthisnew,morecomprehensiveprojectwillsurelyplayasimilarroleinthefuture.

ChristopherPelling2004

PrefacetotheRevisedEdition

Thisvolumewasfirstpublishedin1973.InthatfirsteditionIanScott-KilvertwasresponsibleforthetranslationsandnotesandG.T.GriffithsfortheIntroduction.FortheneweditionIhavecompletelyrewrittentheGeneralIntroductionandtheexplanatoryNotes(nowprintedasendnotes),addednewintroductionsandbibliographiestoeachLife,andpartlyrevisedtheChronology,HistoricalEventsandBiographicalNotes.IhavealsoaddedtranslationsoftwoLiveswhichwerenotincludedintheoriginalcollection:ArtaxerxesandEumenes.Tomakewayforthem,AgesilaushasnowbeenmovedtoPenguinsPlutarchonSparta.AlltheLivesincludedhereexceptArtaxerxesarefromPlutarchscollectionofParallelLives.In

thatcollectiontheLivesarearrangedinpairs,oneGreekfigurewithoneRoman;manypairsareprecededbyaprologue,whichintroducesbothmen,andmostarefollowedbyabriefcomparisonofthetwo.ThisandotherPenguinvolumesdonotreproducethisparallelstructure,butinsteadarrangeLivesaccordingtohistoricalperiod.Inthe1973editionthecomparisonsweresimplydiscardedandtheprologuesprinted,astheyusuallyare,aspartofthefirstLife.Inthisnewedition,IhaveaddedtranslationsofthecomparisonswhichfollowthetwosecondLivesincludedhere(TimoleonandEumenes);Ihavenumberedthechaptersofthesecomparisonsseparately,thoughgivingtheconventionalnumerationinbrackets.IhavealsoattemptedtodistinguishmoreclearlybetweentheprologuesandthestartoftheLiveswhichfollowthem,thoughinthiscaseIhaveretainedtheconventionalchapternumberingsystem,astodootherwisewouldhavemeantinterferingwiththenumerationofthewholeLife.Finally,IhavedeletedtheprologuetoAemiliusandTimoleon,whichinthefirsteditionwaswronglyplacedatthestartofTimoleon;itnowappearsinitsrightfulplaceatthestartofAemiliusinPenguinsTheRiseofRome.IhaveleftScott-Kilvertstranslationslargelyunchanged,exceptthatIhavecorrectedmistakesor

omissionswhereIfoundthem,removedinconsistenciesandoccasionallybroughtthetranslationclosertoPlutarchsownwording.Ihavealsoalteredthelayoutofpoeticquotations:briefversequotationsarenowmarkedsimplybyitalicsratherthanbeinginsetonseparatelines.Thiscommunicatesbetterthefeeloftheoriginal,wheresuchquotationsareintegratedintothesyntaxofPlutarchsprose.TheotherconsistentchangeIhavemadeconcernsthelinksbetweenepisodes.Scott-Kilvertstranslationhadatendencytoinsertatthestartofnewepisodesorparagraphsmarkersoftime,suchasnext,later orafterthis,wheretheydidnotappearinPlutarchsGreek;theresultwastogiveafalsesenseofchronologicalprogression.IhaveinsuchcasesattemptedtogivearenderingwhichbetterreflectsthelogicofPlutarchsoriginal.Finally,IwishtoexpressmythankstotheAlexandervonHumboldtFoundationfortheawardofa

fellowshipattheFreieUniversittBerlinduringwhichIcompletedmuchofthisvolume,andespeciallytoBerndSeidenstickeroftheInstitutfrGriechischeundLateinischePhilologieforhisunfailinghospitalityandsupportduringmystay.IamalsogratefultoChristopherPellingforhisadviceonthisprojectandonmuchelse;toMonicaSchmollerandallatPenguinfortheirpatienceinseeingthisvolumethroughtopress;andtothefollowingfriendsandcolleagueswhogenerously

readandcommentedondraftsofsomeoralloftheLivesinthisvolume:EmmaAston,EftychiaBathrellou,JeffreyBeneker,AlastairBlanshard,MarcDomingoGygax,LucyFletcher,RichardTalbertandPatWheatley.Theyarenot,ofcourse,responsibleforanymistakesthatmayremain.

TimothyE.Duff2011

Abbreviations

ANRW Haase,W.,andTemporini,H.(eds.),AufstiegundNiedergangderRmischenWelt(BerlinandNewYork:DeGruyter,1972)

Austin Austin,M.M.(ed.),TheHellenisticWorldfromAlexandertotheRomanConquest:ASelectionofAncientSourcesinTranslation(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1981)

Bergk Bergk,T.(ed.),PoetaeLyriciGraeci,3vols.(4thedn;Leipzig:Teubner,187882)CAHvi Lewis,D.M.,Hornblower,S.,andOstwald,M.(eds.),TheCambridgeAncientHistory,vol.

vi,TheFourthCenturyBC(2ndedn;Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1994)CAHvii Walbank,F.W.,Astin,A.E.,Frederiksen,M.W.,andOgilvie,R.M.(eds.),TheCambridge

AncientHistory,vol.vii,TheHellenisticWorld(2ndedn;Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2vols.,19849)

CQ ClassicalQuarterlyDeFalco

DeFalco,V.(ed.),DemadesOratore:TestimonianzeeFrammenti(2ndedn;CollanadiStudiGreci25,Naples:LibreriaScientificaEditrice,1954)

FGrHist Jacoby,F.(ed.),DieFragmentederGriechischenHistoriker,3vols.(Berlin:Werdmann,192330;Leiden:Brill,194058)

Harding Harding,P.(ed.),FromtheEndofthePeloponnesianWartotheBattleofIpsus(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1985)

KA Kassel,R.,andAustin,C.(eds.),PoetaeComiciGraeci,8vols.(BerlinandNewYork:DeGruyter,19832001)

Maehler Maehler,H.,andSnell,B.,Pindaricarminacumfragmentis,2vols.(Leipzig:Teubner,19879)

Page Page,D.L.(ed.),PoetaeMeliciGraeci(Oxford:ClarendonPress,1962)Pfeiffer Pfeiffer,R.(ed.),Callimachus,2vols.(Oxford:ClarendonPress,194953)PSI PapiriGrecieLatini:PubblicazionidellaSocietItalianaperlaRicercadeiPapiriGreci

eLatiniinEgitto(Florence:TipografiaAriani,1912)R&O Rhodes,P.J.,andOsborne,R.(eds.),GreekHistoricalInscriptions404323BC(Oxford:

OxfordUniversityPress,2003)Rose Rose,V.(ed.),AristotelisquiferebanturLibrorumFragmenta(Leipzig:Teubner,1886)TrGF Snell,B.,Kannicht,R.,andRadt,S.(eds.),TragicorumGraecorumFragmenta,5vols.

(Gttingen:Vandenhoeck&Ruprecht,19712004)Voigt Voigt,E.-M.(ed.),SapphoetAlcaeus(Amsterdam:Athenaeum,1971)West West,M.L.(ed.),IambietElegiGraecianteAlexandrumcantati,2vols.(2ndedn;

Oxford:ClarendonPress,198992)

GeneralIntroduction

ThisvolumecontainsaselectionoftenLives,writtenbytheGreekbiographerandphilosopherPlutarchandcoveringtheperiodfromthestartofthefourthcenturyBCtoearlyinthethird.ItincludesPlutarchsbiographiesofsomeofthemostfamousandimportantfiguresinGreekhistory,suchasDemosthenesandAlexandertheGreat.Italsoincludessomelesswell-knownfiguressuchasDionofSyracuseorEumenes,Alexander ssecretary.AlltheLivesincludedhereareextremelyimportanthistoricalsources.TheyalsoprovideavividpictureoftheGreekworldandbeyondatacrucialperiod,whichsawthecollapseofSpartanpower,theeclipsingofthecity-statesofmainlandGreecebyMacedonia,theconquestsofAlexandertheGreatandtheestablishmentofaseriesofMacedoniankingdomsinthewakeofthoseconquests.

PlutarchandhisWorks

PlutarchlivedwhentheRomanEmpirewasatitsheight(c.AD45120),andmoreofhisworksurvivesthanofalmostanyotherauthorfromClassicalantiquity.AboutPlutarchslifeweknowalmostnothingexceptwhathehimselftellsusinhiswritings,butfromthosewecanlearnagooddeal.Heseemstohavetravelledwidely,includingtoRome,andtohavebeenacquaintedwithmanyimportantRomanfigures.ButhishomewasinthesmallGreekcityofChaeroneainBoeotia,some60milesnorth-westofAthens,wherehewasamemberofthegoverningelite.Plutarchswritingscontainmanyreferencestothedinnerpartiesandphilosophicalconversationsheldathishouse,andgiveusalivelypictureoftheintellectualandsociallifeofhiscircle.InonefamouspassagehecomplainsofthedifficultiesofaccessingbooksinChaeronea,farawayfromthemainurbancentreslikeAthens:Iliveinasmallcity,hedeclares,andchoosetostaytheretopreventitsbecomingevensmaller (Demosthenes2).Plutarchsworks,allwritteninGreek,aretraditionallydividedintotwocategories:Moraliaand

Lives.Moraliameansliterallyethicalworks,butinfactthistitle,whichdoesnotseemtobePlutarchsown,israthermisleading:theMoraliaaremuchbroaderinnaturethanthetitleimplies,andtheLives,asweshallsee,arealsointheirownwayconcernedwithethics.OverseventydifferentworkssurviveintheMoralia;theyrangeincontentfrompracticaltreatises,suchasOncontrolofonesangerorHowtoprofitfromonesenemies,toheavyweightphilosophicalworks,suchascommentariesonPlatoorpolemicsagainstthedoctrinesoftheStoicorEpicureanphilosophies.TheMoraliaalsoincludeanumberofworksofpoliticaltheoryandguidance,suchasPoliticaladvice,anopenlettertoayoungaristocratabouttoenterpubliclifeinthecityofSardisinAsiaMinor.MostoftheseworksaresteepedinquotationandallusiontoearlierGreekliteratureanddisplayanimmenseerudition.ManyalsoshowtheinfluenceofPlato,especiallyinthelatter sunderstandingofhumanpsychology,andaconcernformorality:thatis,fortheartoflivingproperlyandwell.Plutarchsothergreatliteraryachievementwashisbiographies.AseriesofLivesoftheCaesars

waswrittenfirst.Unfortunately,onlytwoshortLivesoftheemperorsGalbaandOthosurvive,buttheseriesasawholeseemstohavecoveredtheRomanemperorsfromAugustustoVitellius(roughly

fromc.31BCtoAD69).ThisseriesprecededSuetoniusbetter-knownLatinLivesoftheCaesarsbyageneration,anditisagreatpitythatithaslargelybeenlost.Plutarchalsowroteafewstand-aloneLives,suchasthatofthePersianKingArtaxerxesII,whichisincludedinthisvolume.ButhismostfamousandinfluentialworkistheParallelLives,aseriesofpairedbiographiesofGreekandRomanstatesmen,anditisfromthatcollectionthatalltheotherbiographiestranslatedinthisvolumearedrawn.

ParallelLives

TheParallelLivesincludemanyofthegreatnamesofGreekandRomanhistory.EvennotcountingthefewLivesofmythicalorsemi-mythicalfigures,suchasTheseusandRomulus,thesupposedfoundersofAthensandRomerespectively,theyspansomesixcenturies,fromArchaicandClassicalGreeceandtheearlyRomanRepublictotheGreekkingsoftheHellenisticperiodandthedynastsofthelaterRomanRepublic,suchasPompey,JuliusCaesarandMarkAntony.TheParallelLiveswerewrittenbetweenaboutAD96and120,thatisaftermostoftheworksoftheMoralia,andareoftenregardedasthepinnacleofPlutarchsachievement.TheywereusedasasourcebyShakespeare,andhavesincetheRenaissanceexertedagreatinfluenceonbothwritersandstatesmen;intheeighteenthcenturynootherworkfromClassicalantiquitywassowidelyread.TheParallelLivesowetheirnametotheiruniquestructure.Theyweredesignedtobereadnotas

individualbiographiesbutinpairs,eachpairconsistingofthebiographyofaGreekstatesmanorgeneralandthebiographyofaRoman,usuallybutnotalwaysinthatorder.Thus,forexample,theLifeofAlexanderispairedwiththeLifeofCaesar,andtheLifeofDemostheneswiththeLifeofCicero.ManypairsofLivesbeginwithaprologue,whichintroducesbothmenandsetsoutsomeofthefactorswhichledPlutarchtopairthem.Inaddition,mostpairsofLivesarefollowedbyaComparison(inGreek,syncrisis),wherethetwosubjectsareweighedupagainsteachother.Togethertheseelementsprologue(whereitexists),firstLife,secondLife,andComparisonformasinglePlutarchanbook.Twenty-twosuchbookssurvive.SomeofthemenwhomPlutarchpaired,suchasthosejust

mentioned,hadalreadybeencomparedwitheachotherbywritersbeforePlutarch;inothercasesthepairingseemstohavebeenofPlutarchsowndevising.ButthepairedorparallelstructurewasplainlyofgreatimportancetoPlutarchsdesign.Itencouragesthereadertothinknotjustaboutaparticularindividualandthespecificsofhiscareer,orabouttheperiodorsocietyinwhichhelived;rather,weareencouragedtocompareandcontrast,tothinkaboutcommoncharactertraitsorexperiencessharedbythetwomenordifferencesbetweenthem,andaboutsimilaritiesordifferencesbetweenthetwomenssocieties.ManymodernreadersapproachtheParallelLivesprimarilyassourcesforhistory,andmostmoderneditions,suchasthisone,dispensewiththeparallelstructureandgroupLivesforconveniencebythemeorbyperiod.ButitisimportanttokeepinmindthatPlutarchsLiveswerenotdesignedtobereadonebyoneinchronologicalorder,norwasPlutarchsaimsimplytoprovideahistoricalnarrativeofanyparticularperiod.Rather,thereaderwasexpectedtoreadbothLivesofapairtogetherandtoreadtheseconddirectlyafterreadingthefirst.Furthermore,thecomparativeelementimpliedinthestructureoftheParallelLivesiscentraltotheirmeaning:theyweresupposedtobeanexerciseinculturalandbiographicalcomparison,andtoread

oneLifewithoutitspartner,orwithoutthecommonprologueorcomparisonwhichweldthetwoLivestogether,istomissmuchthatwasofimportancetoPlutarchandhisoriginalreaders.

ThePurposeoftheParallelLives

PlutarchhimselftellsussomethingofthepurposesofhisworkanditsmainconcernsintheprologueswhichintroducemanypairsofLives.PerhapsthemostfamousistheprologuetotheLivesofAlexanderandCaesar.Afternamingthetwosubjectsofthebook(Alexander,theking,andJuliusCaesar,theconquerorofPompey),Plutarchwarnshisreadersnottoexpectlarge-scalehistoricalnarrative.ThedeedsofAlexanderandCaesarwillnot,heclaims,benarratedindetail:

ForIamwritingLivesnothistory,andthetruthisthatthemostbrilliantexploitsoftentellusnothingofthevirtuesorvicesofthemenwhoperformedthem,whileontheotherhandachanceremarkorajokemayrevealfarmoreofamanscharacterthanbattleswherethousandsdie,hugetroopdeploymentsorthesiegesofcities.Whenaportraitpaintersetsouttocreatealikeness,hereliesabovealluponthefaceandtheexpressionoftheeyesandpayslittleattentiontotheotherpartsofthebody:inthesamewayitismytasktodwelluponthosedetailswhichilluminatetheworkingsofthesoul,andtousethesetocreateaportraitofeachmanslife,leavingtootherstheirgreatexploitsandbattles.

(Alexander1)

Tworelatedpointsstandouthere.First,Plutarchsfocusisonthecharacterofhissubjects.Secondly,inordertopursuethisinterestincharacter,Plutarchself-consciouslydeclaresthathewillbeselectiveinhischoiceofmaterial.Hewillnotofferanarrativeofhistoricaleventsperse,andwillnotattempttocoverallthesubjectsknownactions.Instead,justasaportraitpainterconcentratesparticularattentiononthefacebecauseitistherethathissubjectscharacterismostevident,soPlutarchwillchoosematerialthatwillmostbringoutcharacter;indeed,hewilloften,hesays,preferarevealinganecdoteorsayingtoadetailednarrativeofpoliticalandmilitaryevents.AninterestincharacteriscentraltoallPlutarchsLives.Butbycharacter Plutarchmeant

somethingslightlydifferentfromwhatamodernbiographermightmeanbytheterm.Todaywetendtothinkofcharacterashavingtodowithwhatmakesapersondistinctlythemselves;theuniquecollectionoftraitswhichsetsthemapartfromothers.Inantiquity,however,characterwasconceivedinmoralterms.Thus,whenPlutarchtalkshereabouthisconcerntobringoutthecharacterofhissubjects,thefocusisonjudgingthemaccordingtoacceptedstandardsofbehaviour(hencethereferencetovirtuesorvices).Furthermore,inancientthoughtapersonscharacterwasonlyrevealedthroughhisdeeds.ThusPlutarchsLivesdonotconcernthemselveswiththeinnerworldoftheindividualorwhatwemightcallhisprivatelife(aconceptthatwouldscarcelyhavemadesensetoPlutarchsreaders)butwithhisbehaviour,bywhichcharacterisactualizedandmademanifest.Thisfocusonthecharacterofthesubjectismeanttohaveforthereaderapracticalmoralbenefit.

Plutarchexplainsinanotherprologue,thattotheLivesofAemiliusandTimoleon(oneofthefewpairsofLivesinwhichtheRomanLifeprecedestheGreek):

WhenIfirsttookupthewritingoftheseLivesIdiditforthesakeofothers,butnowIfindthatIhavegrownfondofthetaskandcontinueitformyownpleasure,endeavouringsomehowinthemirrorofhistorytoadornmylifeandmakeitlikethevirtuesofthesemen.Itisasthoughwecouldtalkwiththemandenjoytheircompanyeveryday.Wereceiveeachoneoftheminturnandwelcomehimasourguest,whentheyvisitusthroughhistory,andexaminehowgreathewasandofwhatkind[Homer,Iliad24.630],takingfromhisdeedsthemostimportantandmostbeautifultoknow.Ah!Whatgreaterjoythanthiscouldyouobtainandwhatmoreeffectivefortheimprovementofcharacter?

(Aemilius1)

Plutarchimagineshimselfandhisreaderscommuningwiththegreatmenofthepast,learningfromthemandimitatingthem;trying,asheputsit,toadornmylifeandmakeitlikethevirtuesofthesemen.Hecomparesthisprocesstolookinginthemirror ofhistory.Thisisaverysignificantmetaphor.Plutarchimagineshimselfandhisreadersnotonlyobservingtheactionsofthestatesmenofthepast,assessingtheirbehaviourandjudgingitonamoralscale,butalsocomparingthemselveswiththosegreatmen:bylookinginthemirrorofhistoryoneseesoneselfreflected,goodpointsandbad,andconsidersonesownbehaviourinthelightofthatofthegreatmenofhistory.Suchself-examination,Plutarchexplains,withaquotationfromanowlostplayofSophocles(TrGFIVfragment636),ispleasurablebutalsoeffectivefortheimprovementofcharacter .Acentralgoal,then,oftheParallelLivesisthemoralimprovementofthereader.WeshouldnotconfusePlutarchsmoralaimswithhisbeingmoralistic,orimaginethatinthe

ParallelLivesPlutarchlectureshisreadersongoodorbadbehaviour.Infact,Plutarchveryrarelygoesinforovertmoralizing,buttendstoshapehisworksothatmoralissuesappeartoemergedirectlyfromhisnarrative,andtrustshisreadertonoticethem.Furthermore,aswellasprovidingexamplesofgoodorbadbehaviour,theLivesalsoseemtohighlightdifficultmoralproblemsordilemmas.TotakeanexamplefromtheLivesinthisvolume,whenDionofSicilysanctionstheassassinationofhistroublesomeopponentHeracleides,theSyracusans,thoughatfirstannoyed,soonrecognizethatthecitywouldhavehadnopeacewithbothmenalive(Dion53).Thismightsuggestthatthereadershouldapprove.ButearlierPlutarchhashadDionhimselfarguethatmurderingHeracleideswouldbeanactofmoralweakness(ch.47).Sowasthemurderanecessaryevilessentialtoensuringthegreatergoodoralamentablefailureofmoralnerve?Plutarchdrawshisreadersattentiontotheproblem,butdoesnotresolveit.Finally,Plutarchneverpaintshissubjectsasblack-and-whiteheroesandvillains.Itmaybeeasyto

labelsomeoftheiractionsasmoreorlessgoodorbad,butPlutarchpresentswholeLivesratherthanisolatedstories,andinallofhisLivestherearemanygreyareasandmuchfoodforthought.Totakejustoneexample,AlexandertheGreatcombinesgreatbraveryanddrive,andhisconquestsarepresentedasgloriousandpraiseworthy.Buthealsomurdershisfriendsanddiesfromheavydrinking,superstitiousandembittered.Thisisnotamodelforsimpleadulationorimitation;rather,PlutarchsAlexanderencouragesthereadertothinkdeeplyaboutmoralissues:whatmakesagoodleader?whatmakesagoodlife?ItisexactlyinthiscapacityoftheLivestomakethereaderthinkthattheirmoralpowerlies.

PlutarchsHistoricalSelectivity

WehavealreadynoticedhowintheprologuetoAlexanderandCaesarPlutarchdeclaresthathewillbeselectiveintheeventshechoosestonarrate.HerelatesthisselectivitynotonlytohismoralfocusbutalsotothefactthatheiswritingLivesnothistory(Alexander1).Thiswasamorecontroversialandstrikingclaimtohisoriginalreadersthanitnowseemstous,aspoliticalbiographyinPlutarchstimewasonlygraduallydevelopinganidentityasaseparategenre.Atanyrate,Plutarchdeclaresthathisaimisnottogiveacompleteorconsistentcoverageofaparticularhistoricalperiod,buttofocusonhisbiographicalsubjectandtogiveonlysuchbackgroundmaterialasthereadermayneedtounderstandhim.

Plutarchsselectivitycansometimesbefrustratingforthemodernhistorian.Hetendstoassumeknowledgeofthebasicnarrative,whichformsthebackgroundagainstwhichtheactionsofthesubjectoftheparticularLifeareset.Furthermore,Plutarchdoesnotattempttogiveafullcoverageevenoftheeventsinwhichthesubjectwasinvolved;insteadhetendstoselectforspecialtreatmentepisodeswhichheconsidersparticularlyrevealingofthesubjectscharacterandtoexplorethematlength,whileignoringorpassingquicklyoverothereventsorperiodsofthesubjectslifeentirely.Thisselectivitymeansthat,althoughwecanoftenfillinthegapsfromotherancientsources,therearetimeswhenPlutarchassumesknowledgeofthewiderperiodthatwesimplydonotpossess.Forexample,thefirstthirdorsoofPhocionconsistslargelyofanecdotesdesignedtobringoutPhocionscharacter.Asaresult,muchremainsunclearintheearlycareerofPhocion,andneitherthisLifenorthatofDemosthenesenablesustounderstandfullyAthenianforeignpolicyinthedecadesleadinguptoChaeroneain338BC.Similarly,EumenesconcentratesalmostexclusivelyonthelastsixyearsofEumeneslife,andeventhenfocusesmainlyonhisdifficultiesindealingwithhisMacedoniansubordinates,andonhisbetrayalbyhistroops,ratherthanongivingaclearnarrativeofthehugelyimportanteventswhichconvulsedGreeceandtheNearEastintheyearsafterAlexander sdeathandinwhichEumenesplayedamajorrole.InbothcasesPlutarchcertainlyhadaccesstosourceswhichwouldhaveinformedhimofthewidernarrative;hisdecisionnottorepeatthisnarrativeisadeliberateone.AlsochallengingforthehistorianisPlutarchstendencytobesympathetictothesubjectof

whicheverLifeheiswriting.Thisisperfectlyunderstandableinabiographer,andinPlutarchneverinvolvesawhite-wash.ButitdoesmeanthatineachLifePlutarchtendstoadoptsomethingofthepointofviewofthesubjectofthatLife.Asaresult,differentLivesgivequiteradicallydifferentpresentationsofthesameeventsorperiod.Forexample,Pelopidasportraystheeventsofthe370sand360sBCfromaThebanpointofview,whereasAgesilausportraysthemfromaSpartanone.Similarly,DemosthenesandPhociongiveverydifferenttakesonthequestionofAthenianresistancetoorcollaborationwithMacedonia.InneithercasearethedifferencesexplicableintermsofPlutarchsaccesstoinformationorofhisownpersonalbeliefs;rathertheyflownaturallyfromhissingle-mindedbiographicalfocus.ThistendencytofocalizethroughthesubjectofeachLifecanbeseenparticularlyclearlyinArtaxerxes,theonestand-aloneLifeinthisvolume(i.e.,theonlyonewhichisnotpartoftheParallelLives);heretheGreeksaremerebit-players,seenfromthepointofviewofthePersiancourt(thoughthetermsinwhichPlutarchanalysesthatcourt,andtheassumptionshebrings,arethemselvesthoroughlyGreek).

PlutarchandhisSources

OneofthereasonsforPlutarchsselectivitymusthavebeenthatforalltheperiodsofGreekhistoryaboutwhichhewrote,includingtheperiodcoveredinthisvolume,therealreadyexistedlarge-scalehistoriestowhichmanyofhisreadershadaccess.Forthefourth-andthird-centuryBCGreekLivescollectedinthisvolumethisincluded,amongmanyothers,theworksofXenophon,Ephorus,TimaeusandHieronymusofCardia.AllofthesehistorianshadbyPlutarchsdayattainedthestatusofclassics,thoughunfortunatelyonlyXenophonsworknowsurvives.Plutarchsaimisnottorepeat

whatthesehistorianssaidortocompetewiththem,buttogiveanew,distinctiveversionofhistory,focusedtightlyontheindividualsubjectandhischaracter.Plutarchmakesexplicithisdesiretoavoiddirectcompetitionwithearlierhistoriansinthe

prologuetoanotherpairofLives,NiciasandCrassus.NiciaswascommanderofAthensill-fatedexpeditiontoSicilyin415BC,andhedied,likemostofhismen,intheslaughterwhichfollowedtheAthenianretreatfromSyracuse.Allthishadbeendealtwithbythegreatfifth-centuryhistorianThucydides,whoseaccounthadbecomeaclassic,aswellasbytheSicilianhistorianPhilistus.Plutarchannouncesinhisprologuethathewillnottrytocompetewitheitherwork.Hecontinues:

Butinordernottoappeartotallycarelessorlazy,IhaverunthroughbrieflyandwithoutunnecessarydetailthosedeedswhichThucydidesandPhilistusdescribed,sinceitisimpossibletopassthemby,containingastheydoindicationsofthemanscharacteranddisposition,whicharerevealedinthemidstofgreatsufferings.Ihavealsotriedtobringtogetherthoseincidentswhichescapethemajorityandwhichhavebeenmentionedinscatteredlocationsbyothers,orhavebeenfoundeitheronvotiveofferingsorinolddecrees.Myaimisnottogatherauselessmassofmaterial,butrathermaterialthatcontributestoanunderstandingofcharacterandtemperament.

(Nicias1)

Thebasicnarrativecoveredbyearlierhistorianswillnot,Plutarchclaims,beignored:afterall,amansdeeds,especiallywhenheisplacedinsituationsofgreatstress,canthrowlightonhischaracter.ButPlutarchwillsupplementthenarrativehefoundinthemajorhistorianswithmaterialfromothersources.Thepurpose,hemaintains,inaclaimwhichismeanttosethimapartfromwritersofstandardhistoriography,isnotmerenarration;gatheringmaterialforitsownsakecouldsoeasilybeuselesserudition.Rather,hisfocuswillbethecharacterandtemperamentofhissubjects,ananalysisofwhich,heimplies,mightbeusefulforhisreaders.Plutarchcertainlydrewonavastrangeofsources,andnamesliterallyhundredsofwriterswhose

workheused.Aswellasthelarge-scalenarrativehistories,hecitesassourcesofinformationcomedies,speechesandletters,andwhererelevanttheworkofLatinhistorians,aswellascollectionsofinscriptions,oraltradition,andoccasionallyhisownknowledgeoftheterrainoritslandmarks.Inmanycases,andespeciallyintheLivescollectedinthisvolume,thesesourcesarenowlost,andPlutarchsowncitationshavebecomeimportantevidenceforthecontentoftheseworks.ButwherePlutarchssourcesdosurvive,itisclearthathehasexercisedaconsiderabledegreeofflexibilityintheusehemadeofthem.Whileheoccasionallysticksclosetothewordingofhissource,hemoreoftenrewritesthematerialentirely,transformingitstoneandtheusetowhichitisput,eitherbycombiningitwithmaterialfromothersourcesorsimplybyadaptingitforhisownpurposesortosuithisownconcerns.Infact,Plutarchusesandcitesearlierwritersnotsimplyassourcesofinformation.HisLivesare

pepperedwithreferencestoandquotationsoftheclassicsofGreekliterature,especiallyHomer,thetragediansandPlato.ManyoftheseallusionshavenodirectrelevancetothesubjectorperiodaboutwhichPlutarchiswriting.SometimestheymerelyaddliterarycolourtoPlutarchsprose.Butinmanycaseswecanseethatreaderswhoknewtheoriginalpassageandcouldcalltominditscontextwouldfindadditionalmeaninginsuchquotationsorallusions.Forexample,whenPlutarchdiscussestheThebangeneralPelopidassimplicityoflifeinPelopidas3,hequotestwolinesofEuripidesSuppliantWomen:LikeCapaneusinEuripidesplay,hepossessedAbundantwealth,butinthatwealthnopride.Thisquotationisnomereornament.InEuripidesplay,theselineswerespokenin

praiseofCapaneus,afterhehadbeenkilledinbattle.Toreaderswhoknowtheoriginalpassage,PlutarchsquotationofitbothreinforcesthesenseofCapaneusnoblecharacterandprovidesahinttothinkforwardtoPelopidasrashdeathinbattle,whichhaditselfjustbeendiscussedatlengthintheprologue(Pelopidas12).Similarly,whenPlutarchhasPyrrhusdeclaretohismen,astheypreparetoassaultArgos(Pyrrhus29),Oneomenisbest,tofightforPyrrhus!,readerswhorecognizethatthisisanadaptationofHector swordsintheIliad,andthatHector sdeathsoonfollowed,willunderstandthatPyrrhustoowilldieintheforthcomingbattle.InsuchcasesweshouldnottalkaboutPlutarchsuseofsourcesbutabouthisuseofintertextualallusion.

ChronologyandStructure

EachLifehasabroadlychronologicalstructure,butPlutarchdoesnotalwaysfollowchronologicalorder;indeed,hisinterestincharacteralmostguaranteesthathewillfromtimetotimeinterrupthisnarrativeandgatherintooneplacematerialwhichillustratesorrevealsparticularcharacter-traits.Suchsectionsusuallyincludeoneormoreself-containedstories,oranecdotes;theseanecdotesmayhavenochronologicalrelationshiptoeachotherortothecontextintowhichtheyareinserted,butareselectedbecauseofthelighttheythrowonthesubjectscharacter.InsuchcasesitwouldbewrongtosaythatPlutarchisimpreciseorunconcernedaboutchronology;heisinfactoftenintheLivesverypreciseaboutchronologicalmatters,givingexactdatesormakingcommentsofthekindButthishappenedlater .ButchronologicalconsiderationsarenottheonlyoneswhichguidePlutarchinhisselectionordeploymentofmaterial:attimesthematicconsiderationsmaytrumpthechronologicalandthelinksbetweenepisodesmaybelogicalratherthanchronological.Itisimportanttokeepthisinmind.Modernreaderstendtoexpectnarrativeandtoassumethattheorderinwhicheventsarementionedmustcorrespondwiththeorderinwhichtheyhappenedortheorderinwhichtheauthorthoughttheyhappened.ButPlutarchmayfollowatrainofthoughtorargumentandgrouptogethervariousincidentswhichhaveabearingonaparticulartheme.Asaresult,unlesshestatesitclearly,weshouldneverassumethattheorderinwhichPlutarchintroduceshismaterialmustnecessarilycorrespondtothechronologicalorderofevents,ortowhatPlutarchbelievedtobethechronologicalorder.ThereisonepartoftheLifewhichisalmostneverchronological:thestart.AveryfewLives,

notablyTimoleonandPyrrhus,beginwithsomegeneralhistoricalbackgroundbeforeintroducingthesubject,possiblybecauseinthesecasesPlutarchwasdealingwithgeographicalareas(Sicily,Epirus)whosehistorywaslessknowntohisreaders.ButtheopeningsofmostLivesincludematerialonafairlyuniformsetofthemes,suchasthesubjectsfamily,appearanceandcharacter.Storiesfromthesubjectschildhoodmaybeincludedhere,but,iftheyare,theyareoftenplacedalongsidestoriesfromlaterinlife.ThusearlysectionsofLivesdonotnecessarilyorexclusivelydealwiththeearlypartofamanslife.ThetruthisthatPlutarchisnotmuchinterestedininvestigatingthechildhoodofhissubjectsinitsownright,andthereisonlyrarelyanynarrativeofchildhood,orsensethatthechildisdevelopingorchanging.Thisisallverydifferentfromhowamodernbiographermightwork.Thelatterwilloftenlooktochildhoodinfluencesorexperiencestoexplainthewayapersondevelopedastheydid.Plutarch,ontheotherhand,usuallyincludesstoriesfromchildhoodmerelytoconfirmorillustrateapointaboutadultcharacterortoprovideearlyindicationsofthatadult

character.Accordingly,hetendstobeginthenarrativeproperwiththesubjectsfirstactionsasanadultonthepublicstage.PlutarchsLivesdonot,then,normallynarratethesubjectslifefrombirth.Nordotheytendto

finishwithhisdeath.ManyLivescontinuethestorytolookbrieflyatthefateofthesubjectsbody,andathisreputationafterdeath:anyposthumoushonours,forexample.Otherslookatthefateofhisdescendantsoropponents,andmanyLivesgivesomesortofsummingupofthemanandhislife.ThusPlutarchsliteraryLifetendsnottobeco-terminouswiththelifeofthesubject.OnefeatureofPlutarchsnarrativetechniquewhichdeservesspecialmentionishisvariationof

narrativespeed.Plutarchwilloftenpassquicklyoverlongperiods,perhapsseveralyearsormore,especiallyifthesubjectdidnothimselfplayamajorroleinthewidereventsofthattime.Ontheotherhand,Plutarchoftenslowsthenarrativedowntocreatedramaticscenes,describedatlengthandingreatdetail,inwhichthesubjectoftheLifeandhisactionsformthefocalpoint.ThisvariationinnarrativespeedgivesPlutarchsLivesanepisodicorevencinematicfeel,asthenarrativefragmentsintoaseriesofself-containedvignettesortableaux.Thispreventsthewritingfrombecomingmonotonous,andalsoservestocreatemeaningbythrowingemphasisontheselargescenesandonthecharacteristicsofthesubjectwhichemergefromthem,andawayfromothereventswhicharebrushedoverquickly.

PlutarchandhisPeriod

PlutarchsParallelLiveswerewrittenattheheightoftheRomanEmpire,somefourtofivecenturiesafterthemenwhoseLivesareincludedinthisvolume.TheyarededicatedtoapowerfulRoman,SosiusSenecio(seeDion1andDemosthenes1and31),butseveralfeaturesmakeitlikelythattheywerewrittenwithamainlyGreekaudienceinmind.First,andmostobviously,theLiveswerewritteninGreek.Secondly,PlutarchseemstoassumethathisreadershaveamuchgreaterbackgroundknowledgeofGreekhistorythanofRoman,asheincludesmuchmorebasichistoricalnarrativeinhisRomanLivesthanhedoesinhisGreekones.Finally,inhisLivesofbothGreekandRomanfigures,PlutarchconstantlyquotesandalludestotheclassicsofGreekliterature,bothproseandverse,butrarelymakesreferencetoLatinliterature,exceptfortheimmediatesourceswhichheisfollowing.ItisimportanttokeepinmindthatPlutarchandhisGreekreaderslivedinaworldfarremoved

fromtheonehewaswritingabout.PeaceandstabilityhadbeenimposedonGreece,withsomeinterruptions,twocenturiesbeforePlutarchsbirth,andRomanpowerwasnowunchallengedacrosstheMediterraneanworld.FortheGreeksofthemainland,theeraofconquestandwarfarewas,forthemoment,over.Sowastheeraofcompetingkings,ofshiftingalliances,ofmercenariesandthesackingofcities.Furthermore,eventhoughinPlutarchstimemanycitiescalledtheirconstitutionsdemocracies,inrealitypowerlayfirmlyinthehandsofthelandedelites,whoseownpowerwasunderwrittenbythemightofRome.ThusPlutarchisinnosenseacontemporarywitnessorsourceoftheeventsorpeoplehedescribes.

Indeed,somefeaturesoftheLives,especiallythewaysinwhichthepoliticsofthepolisareportrayed,reflectPlutarchsownpoliticalandsocialcontext.Forexample,whilePlutarch,likemanywritersofhisday,idealizesClassicalAthensingeneral,itsdemocracy,likethatofSyracuse,isnotpresentedin

aparticularlypositivelight.ThemassesareconsistentlypresentedintheLivesasadangerousforcewhichmustbecarefullymanagedandcontrolled;popularleaders,inPlutarchsprojection,caneasilybecomedemagogues,whostirupthemasses.Similarly,whilePlutarchandhiswealthycontemporariesmaintainedadeep,personalattachmenttotheirownpolis,theywerealsousedtoaworldinwhichthepolishadlongbeensubsumedwithinmuchwiderpoliticalandgeographicentities,andinwhichabroader,over-archingconceptofGreeknesshadmoretractionthanithadintheClassicalperiod.ItwasthusmuchmorenaturalforPlutarchtopresenttheconquestofthestatesofmainlandGreecebyMacedoniaasanatural,perhapsinevitable,developmentandtotakeseriouslyAlexander span-Hellenicpropaganda,justasitwasforhimtoaccepttheincorporationofthemainlandGreekcitiesfirstintotheHellenistickingdomsandthenintotheRomanEmpire.Indeed,thedecisiontopairGreeksubjectswithRomanonesisitself,attheveryleast,arecognitionoftheimportanceofRomanculture,andperhapssuggestsabipartitevisionofhistory,inwhichtheMediterraneanworldismadeupoftwodominantcivilizations,comparableandyetseparate:aLatin-speakingWestandaGreek-speakingEast.ButforallthatweshouldnotoverstatePlutarchsdistancefromtheperiodsaboutwhichhewrites.

RomancontroldidnotmeantheendoftheGreekcity-states,suchasPlutarchsowncityofChaeronea.Governingcouncilsstillmet,magistrateswerestillappointed,inscriptionsputupandfestivalswiththeirathleticcontestsstillheld.PlutarchsownwritingintheMoralia,especiallyhisPoliticaladvice,givesalivelypictureofpoliticallifewithinthesecities,wherethewell-to-docompetedamongthemselvesforpowerandprestige.Thus,althoughRomanpowermeantthatfreedomofactioninforeignpolicywasnowmorelimited,thestructuresandrhythmsofpolislifewerelittlechanged.Furthermore,althoughtheGreeklanguagehadevolvedandchanged,PlutarchstillspokeessentiallythesamelanguageashadbeenspokenintheClassicalperiod,andworshippedthesamegodsatthesameshrines.Healsohadthebenefitofreadinghundredsofancientauthorsnowlost.Soalthoughnotacontemporarysource,Plutarchschoicesandthewayhepresentshismaterialarealwaysworthtakingveryseriously.Thisisthecasenotleastinhisabilitytorecreateforustheatmosphereoftheancientworld,whetherheisdescribingthepalaceofDionysiusIIinSicily,ameetingoftheAthenianassembly,Alexander sbanquetsortheclashoftwoHellenisticarmiesonthegreatplainsofAsia.

PlutarchsLanguage

PlutarchsGreekisdifficult.ThisispartlybecausetheGreeklanguageitselfhadchangedsincetheClassicalperiod,andPlutarchhadopentohimamuchwiderrangeoflinguisticandstylisticchoicesthanwereavailabletoClassicalauthorssuchasThucydidesorDemosthenes.HisstyleismildlyAtticizing,thatis,heutilizesthegrammaticalformsandsyntacticalstructuresoftheClassicalAthenianwriters.Buthissentencesaremorelooselyconstructedandhisvocabulary,drawingonthenewcoinagesoftheHellenisticperiod,widerandmoreabstract.HisGreekprovidessomeparticularproblemsforthetranslator.Somesentencesareverylongand

cannotbereproducedinEnglishwithouttiringthereader.PlutarchalsohasatendencytoputinsubordinateclausesthoseimportantpoliticalormilitaryeventsinwhichthesubjectoftheLifewasnotinvolved,sometimesatlength,reservingthemainclauseforthesubjecthimself.Thishasthe

effectofpresentingsucheventsasbackground,againstwhichtosettheactivityofthesubjectoftheLife.Themoderntranslatormustinmostcasesbreaksuchsentencesdownintosmallerunitsandusemoremainclauses,therebylosingthegrammaticalandthematichierarchizationofPlutarchsprose.AparticularcharacteristicofPlutarchsstyleishisuseofdoublets:thatis,toexpressasingle

conceptoraction,Plutarchwilloftenusepairsofalmost,butnotquite,synonymousnouns,adjectivesorverbs.ThetranslatormaytrytoreproducethesedoubletsinEnglish,wherethiscanbedonenaturally.ButoftenonemusttranslatewithjustasingletermandrisklosingsomeoftherichnessofPlutarchsstyle.Finally,aparticularproblemiscausedtothetranslatorbyPlutarchsassumptionthathisreaders

willbewellversedintheClassicsofGreekliterature.HefrequentlyquotesandalludestoearlierGreekauthors(especiallyPlato,Homerandthetragedians),oftenwithoutmakingitexplicitthatheisdoingso.InordertounderstandfullyPlutarchspoint,thereadermustrecognizeandcalltomindthepassagetowhichhealludes.Themodernreader,whoisdependentonendnotestoexplainsuchallusions,inevitablymissesmuchoftheallusiveorliteraryqualityofPlutarchsprose.

ListofSurvivingLivesbyPlutarch

Livesincludedinthisvolumearemarkedwithanasterisk.

PARALLELLIVES

TheseusandRomulusLycurgusandNumaSolonandPublicolaThemistoclesandCamillusAristidesandCatoMajorCimonandLucullusPericlesandFabiusNiciasandCrassusCoriolanusandAlcibiadesLysanderandSullaAgesilausandPompeyPelopidas*andMarcellusDion*andBrutusAemiliusandTimoleon*Demosthenes*andCiceroPhocion*andCatoMinorAlexander*andCaesarSertoriusandEumenes*Demetrius*andAntonyPyrrhus*andMariusAgis&CleomenesandTiberius&CaiusGracchus(adoublepair)PhilopoemenandFlamininus

STAND-ALONELIVES

Artaxerxes*Aratus

LIVESOFTHECAESARS

GalbaOtho

FurtherReading

RecommendedreadingspecifictoeachLifeisgivenintheendnotes.

Plutarch

AlltheParallelLivesarenowavailableinEnglishtranslationinthisandtheothervolumesofPenguinClassics(seethelistattheendofthisvolume).OxfordUniversityPresshasalsopublishedtwovolumesofselectedLives(GreekLivesandRomanLives),translatedbyR.WaterfieldandwithintroductionandnotesbyP.A.Stadter.BoththePenguinandtheOxfordtranslationsdispensewiththepairedstructureandtreatGreekandRomanLivesseparately,arrangingindividualLivesbyperiod.ToreadtheLivesintheiroriginalpairsonemustuseeithertheratheroldtranslationbyJohnDryden,revisedinthenineteenthcenturybyArthurCloughandstillinprintinnumerouseditions,orB.Perrins11-volumeeditionfortheLoebClassicalLibrary,whichpresentstheGreektextwithafacingEnglishtranslation(PlutarchsLives,Cambridge,Mass.:HarvardUniversityPress,191426).ThestandardGreektextoftheLivesisK.Ziegler sPlutarchiVitaeParallelae,4vols.(Stuttgart

andLeipzig:Teubner,1stedn191439,2ndedn195771,furthereditionsofsomevolumes).AGreektextwithfacingFrenchtranslationisprovidedintheBudedition(R.Flacelireetal.,PlutarqueVies,16vols.(Paris:LesBellesLettres,195783)).AGreektextwithfacingItaliantranslation,andveryusefulintroductionandnotes,isnowavailableformostLives,inaseriespublishedbytheBibliotecaUniversaleRizzoli(Milan,1987);someLiveshavealsobeenpublished,withlongerItaliancommentaries,bytheFondazioneLorenzoValla(Milan,1987).TherearerecentcommentariesinEnglishonAlexander(J.R.Hamilton,1969;2ndedn,1999),

Antony(C.B.R.Pelling,1988),AristidesandCatoMajor(D.Sansone,1989),Pelopidas(A.Georgiadou,1997),Cicero(J.M.Moles,1988),Pericles(P.A.Stadter,1989),Sertorius(C.F.Konrad,1994)andThemistocles(J.L.Marr,1998).ThereareoldercommentariesbyH.A.HoldenonThemistocles,Pericles,Nicias,Timoleon,

Demosthenes,GracchiandSulla(188594);theseareoutofdateonhistoricalmattersbutstillusefulonPlutarchslanguageandstyle.

IntroductionstoPlutarchsLives

Duff,T.E.,PlutarchsLives:ExploringVirtueandVice(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1999).Duff,T.E.(ed.),OxfordReadingsinAncientBiography(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,forthcoming).

Humble,N.(ed.),ParallelisminPlutarchsLives:ParallelismandPurpose(London:Duckworth,andSwansea:ClassicalPressofWales,2010).

Lamberton,R.,Plutarch(NewHavenandLondon:YaleUniversityPress,2001).Mossman,J.M.(ed.),PlutarchandhisIntellectualWorld:EssaysonPlutarch(London:Duckworth,andSwansea:ClassicalPressofWales,1997).

Pelling,C.B.R.,PlutarchandHistory:EighteenStudies(London:Duckworth,andSwansea:ClassicalPressofWales,2002).

Russell,D.A.,Plutarch(London:Duckworth,1973;2ndedn,London:BristolClassicalPress,2001).Scardigli,B.(ed.),EssaysonPlutarchsLives(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1995).Stadter,P.A.(ed.),PlutarchandtheHistoricalTradition(LondonandNewYork:Routledge,1992).

Fourth-andThird-CenturyBCGreekHistory

AncientTexts

TranslationsofmostimportantancienttextsareavailableintheLoebClassicalLibraryseries.Otherusefultranslationsare:Xenophon,Hellenica:translatedasXenophon:AHistoryofmyTimes(PenguinClassics,1966).Xenophon,Anabasis:translatedasXenophon:ThePersianExpedition(PenguinClassics,1972)andXenophon:TheExpeditionofCyrus(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2009).

ThespeechesofDemosthenesandAeschines:aselection(OnthecrownandOnthefalseembassy)istranslatedasDemosthenesandAeschines(PenguinClassics,1975);allthespeechesaretranslatedintheUniversityofTexasPresssOratoryofClassicalGreeceseries(Austin,Tex.,1998).

Diodorus:Books1114.34aretranslatedasDiodorusSiculus:ThePersianWarstotheFallofAthens(Austin,Tex.:UniversityofTexasPress,2010).TheGreektextandEnglishtranslationofallsurvivingbooksarepublishedintheLoebClassicalLibrary(Cambridge,Mass.,andLondon:HarvardUniversityPress,193367).

CorneliusNepos:LatintextandEnglishtranslationpublishedintheLoebClassicalLibrary(Cambridge,Mass.,andLondon:HarvardUniversityPress,1984).

ArriansAnabasis:translatedasTheCampaignofAlexander(PenguinClassics,1971).CurtiusRufus:translatedasCurtiusRufus:TheHistoryofAlexander(PenguinClassics,1984).Justin:translatedasJustin:EpitomeofthePhilippicHistoryofPompeiusTrogus(Atlanta,Ga.:ScholarsPress,1994;Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2001).

CollectionsofAncientSource-Material

Austin,M.M.(ed.),TheHellenisticWorldfromAlexandertotheRomanConquest:ASelectionofAncientSourcesinTranslation(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1981).

Crawford,M.,andWhitehead,D.(eds.),ArchaicandClassicalGreece:ASelectionofAncientSourcesinTranslation(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1983).

Dillon,M.,andGarland,L.(eds.),AncientGreece:socialandhistoricaldocumentsfromArchaictimestothedeathofAlexandertheGreat(3rdedn,London:Routledge,2010).

Harding,P.(ed.),FromtheEndofthePeloponnesianWartotheBattleofIpsus(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1985).

Rhodes,P.J.,andOsborne,R.(eds.),GreekHistoricalInscriptions404323BC(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2003).

ModernIntroductions

Errington,R.M.,AHistoryoftheHellenisticWorld,32330BC(Blackwell:Oxford,2008).Green,P.,AlexandertoActium:TheHellenisticAge(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress;corr.edn,1993).

Habicht,C.,AthensfromAlexandertoAntony(Cambridge,Mass.:HarvardUniversityPress,1997).Hammond,N.G.L.,Griffith,G.T.,andWalbank,F.W.(eds.),HistoryofMacedonia(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,3vols.,197288).

Hansen,M.H.,TheAthenianDemocracyintheAgeofDemosthenes:Structure,PrinciplesandIdeology(Oxford:Blackwell,1991;rev.edn,London:BristolClassicalPress,andNorman,Okla.:UniversityofOklahomaPress,1999).

Heckel,W.,TheMarshalsofAlexandersEmpire(LondonandNewYork:Routledge,1992).Heckel,W.,WhosWhointheAgeofAlexandertheGreat:ProsopographyofAlexandersEmpire(Oxford:Blackwell,2006).

Hornblower,S.,TheGreekWorld479323BC(3rdedn,LondonandNewYork:Routledge,2002).Lewis,D.M.,Hornblower,S.,andOstwald,M.(eds.),TheCambridgeAncientHistory,vol.vi,TheFourthCenturyBC(2ndedn,Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1994).

Moss,C.,AthensinDecline40486BC(London:Routledge,1973).Osborne,R.(ed.),ClassicalGreece500323BC(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2000).Pritchett,W.K.,TheGreekStateatWar,5vols.(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,197491).Rhodes,P.J.,AHistoryoftheClassicalGreekWorld478323BC(Oxford:Blackwell,2006).Roisman,J.,andWorthington,I.(eds.),ACompaniontoAncientMacedonia(Oxford:Wiley-Blackwell,2010).

Shipley,G.,TheGreekWorldAfterAlexander,32330BC(London:Routledge,2000).Tritle,L.A.(ed.),TheGreekWorldintheFourthCentury:FromtheFalloftheAthenianEmpiretotheSuccessorsofAlexander(London:Routledge,1997).

Walbank,F.W.,TheHellenisticWorld(London:FontanaPress,1980;corr.edn1986).Walbank,F.W.,Astin,A.E.,Frederiksen,M.W.,andOgilvie,R.M.(eds.),TheCambridgeAncientHistory,vol.vii,TheHellenisticWorld(2ndedn,Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2vols.,19849).

ARTAXERXES

IntroductiontoArtaxerxes

[died359/8BC]

ArtaxerxesIIwasAchaemenidGreatKingofPersiafrom405BCtohisdeathin359.SoonafterascendingtothethronehewasconfrontedwitharevoltfomentedbyhisyoungerbrotherCyrus,whoin401ledanarmy,whichincludedalargeforceofGreekmercenaries,tooverthrowhim.ThetwomenmetinbattleatCunaxa,some45milesnorthofBabylon,andCyruswasdefeatedandkilled.Sparta,whichhadlenttacitsupporttoCyrus,continuedtoopposePersianinfluenceinAsiaMinor,anditwasnotuntil394thatArtaxerxeswasabletodriveSpartantroopsoutofAsiaandreassertPersiancontrolofAsiaMinor.Thatcontrolwasconfirmedin386byatreatynegotiatedatSusabetweenthekingandtheSpartancommanderAntalcidasandknowntotheGreeksastheKingsPeaceorPeaceofAntalcidas.Thistreaty,towhichtheotherGreekstatesthenatwarwithSpartareluctantlyagreed,gaveArtaxerxesundisputedoverlordshipofAsiaMinorandCyprus,andatthesametimeunderwroteSpartandominanceinGreece.InadditiontotheGreeks,Artaxerxeshadtofacevariousotherthreatstohisempire.Throughout

the380sand370sheattempted,unsuccessfully,toregaincontrolofEgypt,whichhadrevoltedwhenhecametothethrone.Therewerealmostcertainlyotherwarsinthisperiod;weknow,forexample,ofseveralcampaignsagainsttheCadusiiinthenorth.ButtheGreeksources,onwhomwearealmostentirelydependent,havelittletosayoneventsawayfromthewesternfringesoftheEmpire.ThefinalyearsofArtaxerxesreignsawtheso-calledSatrapsRevoltinAsiaMinor(c.366360);itisnotclearwhetherthiswasmerelyasetofpurelylocalsquabblesamongthedynastiesofwesternAsiaMinor,inwhichsomeGreekcitiesinvolvedthemselves,orwhetheritwasamorewidespreadandorganizedrebellion.Atanyrate,Artaxerxesweatheredthatstormanddiedin359.PlutarchsLifeofArtaxerxesisremarkableonvariouslevels.UnliketheotherLivesinthisvolume,

itdidnotformpartofthecollectionofParallelLives,butisratherastand-aloneLife.Secondly,itssubjectisneitherGreeknorRomanbutaPersian.Plutarchthusallowshisreaderstodelveintowhathepresentsasaforeign,exoticworldofpalaceintrigues,concubines,horrifictorturesandstrangecustoms.TherewasalongtraditioninGreekliteratureofinterestintheEast,goingbacktoHerodotusinthelatefifthcentury,whobeganhisaccountofthePersianinvasionsofGreecebytracingthehistoryofPersiaanddescribingitscustoms.Similarly,Xenophonsfourth-century

EducationofCyrusgaveafictionalizedaccountoftheupbringingandtrainingofCyrustheGreat,thefounderofthePersianEmpireandancestorofArtaxerxes.BothHerodotusandXenophon,indifferentways,usedPersiaasameansofreflectingonGreeksociety:whathadledtothePersiansinitialsuccessinmakingthemselvesmastersofsuchahugeempire?WerePersianvirtueslikethoseoftheGreeks?WhywasitthattheGreekshadbeenabletobeatthePersiansinthePersianWarsoftheearlyfifthcentury?Inthesameway,PlutarchinthisLifeperformstworelatedtasks:hegiveshisreadersanexcitingandexotictaleofEasterndespotism;andatthesametime,byanalysingthePersiancourtandthecharacteristicsofitsruler,withthesameconceptualtoolsthatheappliestohisGreekandRomanfigures,heinviteshisreaderstocompareandcontrast.Artaxerxespower-strugglewithhisbrotherCyrusdominatesthefirsthalfoftheLife.By

comparisonwiththerashandimpetuousCyrus,Artaxerxesispresentedascalmandmild;aseriesofanecdotesillustratesthismildness(chs.25).Heisalsobrave:aftersomeinitialwavering,heacquitshimselfcourageouslyinthebattleofCunaxaandmeetsCyrusfacetofaceincombat(chs.710).ButonceCyrusisdefeated,Artaxerxesbecomesvaingloriousandvindictive,punishinghorriblyanywhothreatentodiminishhisownglorybyclaimingtohavehadahandinCyrusdeath.ThemiddlepartoftheLifeisacatalogueofthemethodsofexecutionandtortureusedagainstArtaxerxesvictims.Thefocushereisonthekingshouseholdanditsintrigues,andPlutarchdemonstrateshowArtaxerxesismanipulatedbymembersofthishousehold,especiallyhismother,whoisevenmorebloodthirstythanhim.TheLifeendswithstrifeamongArtaxerxessonsoverwhowouldsucceedhim.ForPlutarchsreaderstheinnerworldofthecourtwillhavestoodinstarkcontrasttothepublicnatureofGreekpolitics,centredontheassemblyandagora.ThedifferenceinsettingandthemurderousintrigueswhichaboundinthisLifemighthavesuggestedtothemanimportanttruth(astheywouldhaveseenit)aboutthewaymonarchies,especiallythePersianone,worked.AsoftenintheLives,PlutarchsnarrativeinArtaxerxes,thoughbroadlychronological,doesnot

alwayssticktochronologicalorder,especiallyinthelaterpartoftheLife.Forexample,theexecutionofTissaphernes,satrapofLydiaandCaria,whichtookplacein395,isplacedimmediatelyafterthepeaceconferenceinSusaof367(chs.223).ThisisfollowedbythefailedattemptofPharnabazusandIphicratestoreconquerEgyptforPersiain374/3,andbyArtaxerxesowncampaignagainsttheCadusii,whichmayhavehappenedinthe380s(chs.245).Plutarchisarranginghismaterialherethematically,dealingfirstwithArtaxerxesrelationshipwiththeGreeks,thenwithhiscampaignselsewhere,beforeturningtothetroubleswithinhisownhouse(ch.26onwards).Plutarchrefersbynametohisthreemostimportantsources,Xenophon,CtesiasandDeinon.For

thesectionsonCyrus,heusedXenophonswork,AnabasisorMarchinland.XenophonwashimselfoneoftheGreekmercenarycommanderswhofoughtwithCyrus.TheearlypartoftheAnabasisdescribesCyruspreparations,themarchinland,thebattleofCunaxa,anditsaftermath,allfromthepointofviewoftheGreekparticipantsonCyrusside;thebulkoftheAnabasisthendescribesthetribulationsoftheseGreeksastheyfoughttheirwaynorthtothecoast.PlutarchmentionsXenophonseveraltimesinArtaxerxes,andinchapter8speaksadmiringlyofhisskillsasavividnarratoranddisavowsanyattempttogooverthesameground.PlutarchavoidsmererepetitionofXenophonsmaterialintwoways.First,heshiftsperspectiveandtellsthestoryoftheconflictbetweenCyrusandArtaxerxesfromthePersianpointofview.Second,hesupplementsXenophonwithadditional

material.Agoodexampleofthissupplementingcanbeseenintheopeningchapter,wherePlutarchechoestheopeningwordsoftheAnabasis(DariusandParysatishadtwosons,ofwhomArtaxerxeswastheelder,andCyrustheyounger ).ButPlutarch,thoughstickingalmostwordforwordtotheXenophonticoriginal,speaksnotoftwobutoffourchildren,andprovidesthemissingnames.HereandelsewherePlutarchmustbedependentonothersources,nowlosttous.Oneofthesewas

thePersicaorPersianaffairsofCtesias.CtesiasclaimedtohavebeenaGreekdoctorpresentatthePersiancourtintheearlypartofArtaxerxesreign;hisworkcoveredPersianhistoryfromearlytimestopartwaythroughthereignofArtaxerxes.Heseemstohavefocusedparticularlyonthescandalsofcourtlifeandtohavehadatendencytothesensational.Hisworkhadareputationinantiquityasunreliableandexaggerated,andthisimpressionisnotdispelledbyexaminationofthequotationsorsummariesofhisworkwhichsurviveinPlutarchandinotherauthorssuchasDiodorus,NicolausofDamascusandtheByzantinewriterPhotius.PlutarchreferstoCtesiasfrequentlyinArtaxerxes,thoughheoftenexpressescautionabouthisreliabilityorevendownrightrejectshisclaims(e.g.,chs.1,6,11,13,18).PlutarchalsodrewonthePersicaofanotherGreekhistorian,Deinon,whomhecitesfrequently.WeknowlessaboutDeinonthanaboutCtesias,buthealsoseemstohavehadatendencytothesensational;hewrotesometimeinthefourthcenturyBCandwasfatherofCleitarchus,oneofthehistoriansofAlexandertheGreat.AsArtaxerxesisnotpartoftheParallelLives,itisnotpairedwithanyotherLife,noristhereany

prologueorconcludingcomparison.TheLifeendswithareferencetoArtaxerxesageandastatementthathehadthereputationofbeingamildandbenevolentrulernotleastbecauseofhissonOchus,whosurpassedallinsavageryandbloodthirstiness(ch.30).ThisneatlyrecallstheopeningwordsoftheLifewhichrefertoArtaxerxesI,thesubjectsgrandfather,whosurpassedallotherPersiankingsinmildnessandmagnanimity.Similarly,thepower-struggleswhichplaguethecourtofArtaxerxesinhisoldage,andleadtothedeathsofallbutthemostwickedandruthlessofhissons(chs.2630),recallthepower-strugglebetweenArtaxerxesandhisbrotherwithwhichtheLifebegan.ThusArtaxerxesissitedwithinaseriesofotherkings,withasuggestionthatviolentpalaceintriguewasendemic,andthattheworstwasyettocome.ForPlutarchsGreekreaders,whoknewthatwithinthirtyyearsofArtaxerxesdeathAlexanderwouldhavesweptawaythePersianroyalfamilyanditspalacepolitics,thiswouldallhavebeenverysuggestive.

LifeofArtaxerxes

1.ThefirstArtaxerxes,1whosurpassedallotherPersiankingsinmildnessandmagnanimity,wasnicknamedMacrochir(long-hand),becausehisrighthandwaslongerthanhisleft.HewasthesonofXerxes.2ThesecondArtaxerxes,thesubjectofthiswork,wasnicknamedMnemon(mindful),andwasthesonofthefirstArtaxerxesdaughter,Parysatis.ForDarius3andParysatishadfoursons,ofwhomArtaxerxeswastheeldest,thenCyrus,andthentheyoungestOstanesandOxathres.4CyruswasnamedaftertheearlierCyrus,anditisreportedthatthelattertookhisnamefromthesun,sincecyrusissaidtobethePersianwordforsun.5ArtaxerxeswasatfirstcalledArsicas.Deinon6givesthenameasOarses,butCtesias7ismoretrustworthyhere,since,eventhoughingeneralhefillshisbookswithamiscellaneousjumbleofwildandincredibletales,itisunlikelythathedidnotknowthenameofthekingatwhosecourthespenthistime,actingasdoctortohim,hiswife,motherandchildren.

2.NowCyruswasintenseandimpetuousfromhisyouth,whileArtaxerxesseemedmilderinallthingsandwasbynaturegentlerinhisimpulses.Artaxerxesmarriedabeautifulandnoblewifeinaccordancewithhisparentsbidding,andkeptheragainsttheirwishes.Forhisfather,theking,hadherbrotherkilledandwantedtodoawaywithhertoo.Butthrowinghimselfonhismother smercyandsupplicatingherwithmanytears,Arsicas(ashewasthencalled)intheendsucceededinpersuadingthemnottokillhiswifenortoinsistonaseparation.ButtheirmotherlovedCyrusmorethanhisbrotherandwantedhimtobeking.Sowhentheir

fatherwasillCyruswasimmediatelysummonedfromthecoastandbeganjourneyinginland,infullexpectationthathismotherhadarrangedforhimtobedeclaredsuccessortothethrone.8Indeedhismotherdidhaveaplausibleargument,thesameonethattheelderXerxeshadusedontheadviceofDemaratus:thatshehadgivenbirthtoArsicaswhenherhusbandwasaprivateindividual,buttoCyruswhenhewasaking.9However,shecouldnotpersuadeDarius,andtheelderofthetwowasproclaimedkingunderthenewnameArtaxerxes,10whileCyruswasproclaimedsatrapofLydiaandcommanderofthecoastalprovinces.11

3.ShortlyafterDariusdeath,thenewkingrodetoPasargadaeinorderthattheinitiationceremonymarkinghisaccessiontothethronemightbecarriedoutbythePersianpriests.Thereisashrinetheretoawarriorgoddess,whomonemightlikentoAthena.12ThecandidatefortheroyalinitiationhastoenterthisshrineandlayasidehisownrobesandputonthosewornbytheelderCyrusbeforehebecameking.Thenheshouldeatacakeoffigs,chewsometerebinthanddrinkacupofsourmilk.13

Whethertheydoanythingelseinadditionisuncleartooutsiders.ArtaxerxeswasonthepointofdoingthesethingswhenTissaphernesarrivedwithoneofthepriests.ThispriesthadsupervisedCyrusboyhoodstudieswhenhewasundergoingthetraditionalPersianeducation14andhadtaughthimthewisdomoftheMagi,15andhadseemedmoredistressedthananyotherPersianwhenCyruswasnotdeclaredking.Asaresulthewasgivenconsiderablecredencewhenhemadeanaccusation

againstCyrus.HeclaimedthatCyruswasintendingtolieinwaitintheshrine;assoonasthekingstartedtakingoffhisclothes,hewouldattackandkillhim.SomepeoplesaythatCyrusarrestfollowedthisdenunciation;others,however,maintainthatCyrushadactuallyenteredtheshrineandhishidingplacewasbetrayedbythepriest.Hewasalmostputtodeath,buthismotherthrewherarmsroundhim,entwinedhimwithherhairandheldhimclose,andwithloudlamentsandentreatiessucceededinavertinghisdeathandhadhimconveyeddowntothecoastagain.ButCyruswasnotcontentwithhiscommandthereandkeptinmindnothisreleasebuthisarrest;heseethedwithrageandhisdeterminationtoobtainthethronegrewallthegreater.

4.SomepeoplesaythatCyrusrevoltedagainstthekingbecausehewasnotsatisfiedwiththerevenuehereceivedforhisdailymeals.16Butthatisridiculous.Forwhateverelsehemighthavelacked,hehadhismother,andshecouldsupplyfreelyfromherownwealthwhateverhewanted.Evidenceofhiswealthisalsoprovidedbythemercenarytroopsthatweremaintainedforhimbyhisfriendsandallies,asXenophonhasreported.17Hedidnotbringthesetogetherintoonebody,ashewasstilltryingtoconcealhispreparations,buthehadagentsscatteredindifferentplacesrecruitingtroopsforhimonavarietyofpretexts.Meanwhileatcourthismotherworkedtoallaythekingssuspicions,andCyrushimselfalwayswrotetoArtaxerxesinanobsequiousmanner,sometimesrequestingfavours,sometimesmakingcounter-accusationsagainstTissaphernes,asthoughhisjealousrivalryweredirectedwhollyagainstthelatter.Artaxerxeswasbynatureratherindecisive,thoughmostpeopletookthisasclemency.Atthe

beginningheseemedeagertoemulatethemildnessofhisnamesake,thefirstArtaxerxes.Hewaspleasanttodealwithandgavegreaterhonoursandfavoursthantheirrecipientsreallydeserved,18

whilefromallpunishmenthetookawaytheelementofhumiliationorsadisticpleasure.Andwhetherhereceivedfavoursorgavethem,heappearedequallygraciousandkindbothtogiversandrecipients.Nogiftwastoosmallforhimtoaccepteagerly.Indeed,whenacertainOmisespresentedhimwithasinglepomegranateofsurpassingsize,hesaid,ByMithras,thismancouldeventransformacityfromsmalltogreat,ifitwereentrustedtohiscare.

5.Once,whenArtaxerxeswasonajourneyandwasbeingpresentedwithavarietyofgifts,apeasantwhohadnothadtimetofindanysuitablegiftrandowntotheriver,scoopedupsomewaterinhishandsandofferedittohim.19Artaxerxeswassodelightedthathesenthimagoldcupand1,000darics.20OnanotheroccasionwhenEucleidasofSpartawasharanguinghimatlengthinanarrogantmanner,Artaxerxestoldhisviziertosaytohim,Youmayhavethepowertosaywhatyoulike,butIhavethepowertobackupmywordswithaction.Onceonahunt,TiribazuspointedoutthatArtaxerxesrobewastorn,andArtaxerxesaskedwhatshouldbedone.Tiribazusreplied,Putanotheroneonandgivethatonetome.Sothekingdidso,saying,Iamgivingthisonetoyou,Tiribazus,butIforbidyoutowearit.ButTiribazustooknonoticenotbecausehewaswicked,butbecausehelackedjudgementandwaspronetoactwithoutthinking.Heatonceputonthekingsrobeanddeckedhimselfoutwithgoldennecklacesofroyalsplendour.Atthis,alltheothersbegantogrowangryasthiswasnotpermitted.21Butthekingsimplylaughedandsaid,Igrantyoutherighttowearthegoldtrinketslikeawomanandtheroyalrobelikeamadman!Andwhereastraditionallynonesharedthekingstableexcepthismotherandhisweddedwife,theformersittinghigherupthanhim,thelatter

lowerdown,ArtaxerxesusedtoinvitehisyoungerbrothersOstanesandOxathrestothesametableashim.ButwhatmostpleasedthePersianswasthesightofhiswifeStateirascarriage,sinceshealwaystravelledwiththecurtainsopen,thusallowingthecommonwomentoapproachandgreether.Forthisreasonthequeenwasheldingreataffectionbythemasses.22

6.However,thosewhowereinclinedtowardsrevolutionandintriguethoughtthataffairswerecryingoutforCyrus,whomtheycreditedwithadazzlingcharacter,exceptionalskillinwarandloyaltytohisfriends.Themagnitudeoftheempire,theyclaimed,requiredaboldandambitiousking.Sowithnolessconfidenceinhisfriendsatcourtthaninthosearoundhim,Cyrusbegantoprosecutethewar.HeevencorrespondedwiththeSpartans,requestingthemtohelphimbysendingoutmentojoinhisexpedition,promisingthathewouldgivehorsestoanyinfantrymenwhocamealongandchariotstoanyhorsemen;iftheyhadfarms,hewouldgivethemvillages,ifvillages,cities.Thosewhomarchedwithhim,heclaimed,wouldhavetheirpayweighedouttothemratherthancounted!Hemademanyextravagantclaimsabouthimself,includingthathehadasturdierheartthanhisbrother,wasmoreofaphilosopher,wasbetterversedinthewisdomoftheMagiandcoulddrinkmoreandholdhiswinebetter.Hisbrother,hedeclared,wassuchacowardandaweaklingthathecouldnotkeephisseatonahorseinahuntoronthethroneintimesofdanger.Accordingly,theSpartanssentoutadispatch-roll23toClearchus24orderinghimtoassistCyrusineverywaypossible.Cyrusbeganmakinghiswayinlandagainstthekingwithahugeforceofbarbariansandnearly

13,000Greekmercenaries.Meanwhile,hekeptupacontinualbarrageofexcusestoexplainhisexpedition.25Buthedidnotmanagetokeepsecrettherealpurposeofhismissionforlong,sinceTissapherneswenttothekinginpersonandreportedit.Thepalacewasfilledwithuproar;Parysatiswasheldmosttoblameforthewarandherfriendswereregardedwithsuspicionanddiscredited.WhatmortifiedParysatismostofallwasStateira,thekingswife,whowasoutragedatthewarandkeptcryingout,Wherearethosepledgesofyoursnow?Whereareyourpleasformercy?Yousavedhimwhenhewasplottingagainsthisbrotherandnowhaveembroiledusinwarandsuffering!AsaresultParysatisbegantohateStateira.ParysatiswasbynaturesullenandbarbarousinherangerandresentmentandsoshenowbeganplottingtokillStateira.Deinonsaysthatherplotwascarriedoutduringthecourseofthewar,butCtesiassaysthatitwaslater;anditisscarcelylikelythatthelatterwasunawareofthechronologysincehewasactuallypresentattheeventsandhadnoreasontowanttoshifttheexecutionofthedeedoutofitspropertimeinhisnarration.(Thatisacommonfailingofhiswork,whichisoftendivertedfromthetruthintothefantasticanddramatic.)AccordinglythiseventatleastwillkeeptheplaceassignedtoitbyCtesias.26

7.AsCyrusadvanced,rumoursandreportskeptonreachinghimthatArtaxerxeshaddecidednottofightatonceandwasinnohurrytorushintocombatwithhim;rather,hehaddecidedtowaitinPersiauntilforcescouldbegatheredtherefromallparts.Andinfacttherewassometruthinthis.ForArtaxerxeshaddugaditch60feetwideand60feetdeepfor45milesacrossthelengthoftheplain,andyetheletCyruspenetratethisandgetwithinashortdistanceofBabylonitself.27AccordingtotraditionitwasTiribazuswhofirstdaredtosuggestthatArtaxerxesshouldnotavoidbattlenorabandonMediaandBabylonandSusaandtakerefugeinPersia;28hehadaforcemanytimesbiggerthanCyrusandinnumerablesatrapsandgenerals,allbetterabletothinkandfightthanCyrus.At

thesewords,ArtaxerxesresolvedtofightitoutwithCyrusasquicklyaspossible.Firsthemadeasuddenappearanceattheheadofanarmyof900,000men,allbrilliantlyarrayed.Theenemy,whointheirconfidenceanddisdainoftheiropponentsweremarchingalongindisorderandwithouttheirweaponsathand,werethrownintosuchconfusionandconsternationthat,whatwiththedeafeningnoiseandtheshouting,Cyruswasscarcelyabletoformthemupforbattle.ThenArtaxerxesledhistroopsforwardslowlyinsilence,causinggreatsurpriseamongtheGreeksattheirdiscipline;for,giventheenemyshugenumbers,theywereexpectinghisrankstobeconfusedandlackingincohesion,withmuchraucousshoutingandprancing.Inaddition,Artaxerxescleverlydrewupthesturdiestofhisscythedchariots29oppositetheGreeksandinfrontofhisownphalanx,withtheaimthatbytheshockoftheirchargetheywouldcutopentheranksoftheGreeksbeforehand-to-handcombatactuallybegan.

8.Thisbattlehasbeenreportedbymanywriters,butXenophonsaccount30issovividthatheallbutmakeshisaudiencesharethepassionanddangerofthosepresent,andfeelnotthattheeventshadtakenplaceinthepastbutthattheyareactuallyhappeningbeforetheireyes.31Inviewofthisthereisnosenseingoingthroughitallagain,exceptforanypointsofinterestwhichmayhaveescapedXenophonsmention.TheplacewherethetwoarmiesdeployediscalledCunaxaandis55milesfromBabylon.Itis

reportedthatClearchusbeggedCyrustostaybehindthelinesandnotexposehimselftodanger,buthereplied,Whatareyoutalkingabout,Clearchus?AreyoutellingmethatthoughIaspiretokingshipIamunworthyofit?ItistruethatCyrusmadeagravemistakeinplungingheadlongintothemidstofthefrayandnottakingaccountofthedanger;butClearchusmadenolessamistake,andperhapsagreaterone,inrefusingtodrawuptheGreeksoppositethekingandinsistingonkeepinghisrightflankincontactwiththerivertopreventanencirclement.Forifsafetyandtheavoidanceofharmwashismainobject,thenheshouldhavestayedathome.Hehadmarchedunderarms1,100milesinlandundernocompulsionbutwiththepurposeofsettingCyrusontheroyalthrone,andhenowstartedlookingaboutforthelocationinwhichtodrawuphistroopswhichwouldenablehimnottoensurethesalvationofhisleaderandemployer,buttofightsafelyandathisease.Thus,throughfearofpresentdanger,hecastoffallrationalconsiderationsforoverallsuccessandabandonedthepurposeoftheexpedition.EventsthemselvesprovedthatnoneofthosedrawnuparoundArtaxerxescouldhavewithstoodanassaultbytheGreeks.Theywouldhavebeendrivenbackandthekingwouldeitherhavefledorfallenonthefield;andCyruswouldthushavetriumphedandwonnotonlyhislifebutthethroneaswell.Forthisreason,ClearchuscautionismoretoblamethanCyrusrashnessforthedestructionofbothCyrusandhiscause.ForifArtaxerxeshimselfwerelookingoutforaplacewherehemightdeploytheGreekssothattheywouldposetheleastthreattohim,hecouldhavefoundnobetterpositionthanthatwhichwasfurthestawayfromhimandhisowntroops.Indeed,Artaxerxeshadnoinklingthathehadbeendefeatedonthatpartofthefield,andCyruswascutdownbeforehecouldmakeanyuseofClearchusvictory.YetCyruswasnotignorantofwhatoughttobedoneandorderedClearchustotakeuphispositioninthecentre.Thelatterrepliedthathewastakingcarethatallwouldturnoutforthebest,butthenwentandruinedeverything.

9.FortheGreekshadnodifficultyinbeatingthebarbarians,andadvancedalongwayintheirpursuit.ButCyrus,mountedonahigh-bredbutunrulyandhigh-spiritedhorsecalled(accordingtoCtesias)Pasacas,wasconfrontedbyArtagerses,theruleroftheCadusii,whorodeuptohimandcriedout,YoudisgracethenameofCyrus,thatmostnobleofnamesamongthePersians.Youarethemostwickedofmenandthestupidest,comingherewithdamnableGreeksonadamnablejourneytoseizethegoodthingsofPersia.Youhopetokillyourownbrotherandmaster,whohascountlessthousandsofslaveswhoarebettermenthanyouasyouwillexperiencethisinstant,foryouwillloseyourownheadherebeforeyouseethekingsface.WiththesewordsArtagerseshurledajavelinathim.CyrusbreastplateresistedtheblowfirmlyandCyrushimselfwasnotwounded,buthereeledundertheheavyblow.ArtagersesturnedhishorseasideandCyrusthrewhisjavelinandhithim,anddrovethepointthroughhisnecknearthecollar-bone.AlmosteveryoneagreesthatArtagerseswaskilledbyCyrus.ButthedeathofCyrushimselfgets

onlyasimpleandbriefmentionbyXenophon,sincehewasnotactuallypresent.Perhaps,then,thereisnothingtostopmerecountingDeinonsversionofit,followedbythatofCtesias.

10.Deinonsaysthat,whenArtagerseshadfallen,Cyruschargedfuriouslyintothetroopsstationedinfrontoftheking,woundedhishorseandknockedArtaxerxestotheground.TiribazusquicklyhelpedArtaxerxesontoanotherhorseandsaid,Myking,rememberthisday;itshouldnotbeforgotten.AgainCyrusspurredhishorseforwardandhurledthekingtotheground.Butonthethirdassaultthekingcouldbearitnolongerand,sayingtothosearoundhimthathewouldratherdiethansitandwait,gallopedforwardtomeetCyrus,whowaschargingrashlyandwithoutcautionintoahailofmissiles.ThekinghimselftookaimatCyruswithajavelin,asdidthosearoundhim,andCyrusfell,accordingtosomehitbytheking,butaccordingtoothers,struckdownbyaCarian.Asaprizeforthisexploitthekinggavethelattertheprivilegeofhenceforthcarryingoncampaignagoldencockonhisspearinfrontoftheline.ForthePersianscalltheCariansthemselvescocksonaccountofthecrestswithwhichtheyadorntheirhelmets.

11.Ctesiasnarrative,ontheotherhand,togiveitinamuchabbreviatedform,goessomethinglikethis.WhenCyrushadkilledArtagerseshebeganridingtowardsArtaxerxeshimselfandArtaxerxestowardshim,bothmeninsilence.CyrusfriendAriaeusmanagedtothrowhisjavelinfirstbutdidnotwoundtheking.ArtaxerxeslaunchedhisspearandmissedCyrusbuthitandkilledSatiphernes,atrustedandnoblefollowerofCyrus.Cyrusthrewhisjavelinandpiercedthekingsbreastplateandwoundedhiminthechest,thejavelinpenetratingtoadepthoftwofingers,andthekingfelloffhishorsewiththeblow.Thekingsguardwerethrownintoconfusionandfled;butArtaxerxesgottohisfeetandwithasmallparty,Ctesiasincluded,madeittoahillnearbyandlaylowthere.Meanwhile,Cyruswasinthethickoftheenemyandwascarriedforwardalongwaybyhishorse,

whosebloodwasup.Asitwasnowdark,theenemydidnotrecognizehimandhisownmenwereunabletofindhim.Butelatedathisvictoryandfullofrageanddaring,herodeonthroughtheenemyshouting,Outoftheway,youscum.HeshoutedthismanytimesinPersianandsomedidgetoutoftheway,prostratingthemselvesbeforehim.ButhistiarafellfromhisheadandayoungPersiancalledMithridates,ignorantofwhohewas,hithimwithajavelinintheforehead,neartheeye.Dizzyandbleedingcopiouslyfromthewound,Cyrusfaintedandfelltotheground.Hishorseescapedand

wanderedabout,andhissaddle-blanket,whichhadslippedoff,wascapturedbytheattendantofthemanwhohadhithim,coveredinbloodasitwas.AsCyrusbeganwithgreatdifficultytocomeroundfromtheblow,afewofhiseunuchs32whohappenedtobepresenttriedtoputhimonanotherhorseandconveyhimtosafety.Buthewantedtowalkonhisownfeet,weakashewas,andsotheysupportedhimandhelpedhimalong,hisheadspinningandhisfeetstumblingashewent.Hewasundertheimpressionthatvictorywashis,sinceheheardtheenemyfugitivesaddressinghimaskingandbeggingtobespared.Meanwhile,someCaunians,pooranddestitutemen,whowereaccompanyingthekingsarmyascamp-followerstodomenialtasks,bychancejoinedCyruscompanythinkingtheywereonthesameside.Butwhenfinallytheymadeoutthatthetunicsovertheirbreastplateswerecrimsonwhereasallthekingssoldiersworewhitetheyrealizedthattheyhadfalleninwiththeenemy.Sooneofthem,unawareatwhomhewasaiming,venturedtothrowajavelinatCyrusfrombehind.Theblowpiercedanarterybehindhiskneeandhefellover,hittinghisalreadywoundedtempleagainstarock,anddied.ThatisCtesiasaccount,inwhichhekillsCyrusoffslowly,asthoughwithabluntdagger.

12.AfterCyrushaddied,Artasyras,theKingsEye,33happenedtopassbyonhorseback.Recognizingtheeunuchswhowerelamenting,heaskedthemosttrustedoftheirnumber,Whoisthis,Parisca,overwhomyousitmourning?Hereplied,Dontyousee,Artasyras?ItisCyrus,dead.Inamazement,Artasyrasencouragedtheeunuchtohavenofearandguardthebody,whilehehimselfrodeoffatagalloptoArtaxerxes,whohadbynowgivenuphiscauseaslostandwasinabadwayphysically,onaccountbothofthirstandofhiswound,andtoldhimwithgreatjoythathehadseenCyrusbody.ArtaxerxesfirstimpulsewastosetoutatoncetoseeforhimselfandhetoldArtasyrastoleadhimtotheplace.ButsincetherewasagooddealoffearfultalkabouttheGreeks,whoweresaidtobecarryingallbeforethemintheirvictoriouspursuit,hedecidedtosendalargerpartytoseethebody.Soagroupofthirtymenwithtorcheswasdispatched.ArtaxerxeshimselfwasalmostdeadwiththirstandSatibarzanestheeunuchbeganrunningaboutlookingforsomethingforhimtodrink,sincetheplacehadnowaterandwasfarfromthecamp.Finally,hecameacrossoneofthedestituteCaunianswhohappenedtohaveinamiserableskinsomefoul,dirtywateramountingtoaboutfourpints,whichhetookandbroughttothekingandgavetohim.WhenArtaxerxeshaddrunkitall,Satibarzanesaskedhimifthewaterdidnotutterlyturnhisstomach.ButArtaxerxessworebythegodsthatneitherwinenorthefreshestandcleanestwaterhadevertastedsopleasant.34So,hedeclared,ifIcannotfindandrepaythemanwhogaveyouthis,Ipraythatthegodswillblesshimandmakehimrich.

13.Meanwhile,thepartyofthirtycameridingupbeamingwithjoyandreportedtoArtaxerxestheunexpectedgoodfortune.Hewasalreadybeginningtotakeheartfromthenumberofmenwhowereflockingtohimandformingup,andhebegantodescendfromthehillamidablazeoftorches.Whenhereachedthecorpse,anditsheadandrighthandhadbeencutoffinaccordancewithPersianlaw,35

heorderedtheheadtobebroughttohimand,graspingitbyitsthickandluxurianthair,hebegantodisplayittothosewhowerestilldoubtfulandinflight.Theywereamazedandstartedprostratingthemselvesbeforehim,andsoon70,000soldiershadralliedtohimandmarchedbackwithhimtothecamp.

AccordingtoCtesias,Artaxerxeshadled400,000menouttobattle,butDeinonandXenophonputthenumberofcombatantsmuchhigher.36CtesiassaysthatthenumberofdeadreportedtoArtaxerxeswas9,000,butthatinhisestimationtheynumberednotlessthan20,000.Thatmatter,then,isopentodispute.ButitiscertainlyaflagrantlieonCtesiaspartwhenhesaysthathehimselfwassenttonegotiatewiththeGreeks,alongwithPhalinusofZacynthusandsomeothers.ForXenophonwaswellawarethatCtesiaswasinattendanceupontheking;afterall,hementionshimandhasclearlyreadthispartofhiswork.SoifCtesiashadreallycomeandactedasinterpreterinsuchmomentousevents,XenophonwouldhardlyhavelefthimnamelessandspecifiedonlyPhalinusofZacynthus.ButCtesias,asitseems,isincrediblyvainofhisownhonour,andnolessbiasedtowardsSpartaandClearchus,andalwaysfindsspaceforhimselfinhisnarratives,andtheretakestheopportunitytotalkofClearchusandtheSpartansatlengthandinthehighestterms.

14.AfterthebattleArtaxerxesdistributedgifts.ThelargestandfinestweresenttothesonofArtagerses,whohadfallenatCyrushand,buthealsohonouredCtesiasandtheothersgenerously.HesearchedouttheCaunianwhohadgivenhimthewater-skinandraisedhimfromobscurityandpovertytohonourandwealth.Healsotookgreatcareoverthepunishmentofthosewhohaddonewrong.Forexample,acertainArbaces,aMedewhohaddesertedtoCyrusduringthebattleandthen,afterCyrusdeath,hadchangedback,waschargedwithcowardiceandweaknessratherthanwithtreacheryorevenill-intent;hispunishmentwastocarryanakedprostitutearoundthemarket-placeonhisshouldersforawholeday.Anothermanwho,besidesdeserting,hadalsodeclaredfalselythathehadfelledtwooftheenemy,wasorderedtohavehistonguepiercedwiththreeneedles.ArtaxerxesthoughtandwishedeveryoneelsetothinkandsaythathehimselfhadkilledCyrus.

SohesentgiftstoMithridates,whohadbeenthefirsttohitCyrus,andtoldthebearerstosayThekinghonoursyouwiththesegiftsbecauseyoufoundCyrussaddle-blanketandbroughtittohim.Furthermore,whentheCarianwhohadstruckCyrusthefatalblowbehindthekneealsostartedaskingforagift,ArtaxerxestoldthosewhogaveittohimtosayThekinggivesthesethingstoyouasasecondprizeforbringinggoodnews.ForArtasyraswasthefirstandyouthesecondtoreportthedeathofCyrus.NowMithridates,despitehisdisappointment,withdrewinsilence.ButthewretchedCarianinhisfollywasovercomebyapassionthatisalltoocommon.Forhewascorrupted,soitseems,bythegoodthingsthatlaybeforehimandconvincedthatheshouldclaimwhatlaybeyondhim,andrefusedtoacceptthegiftsasrewardsforbringinggoodnews.Instead,hebegancryingoutangrilyandprotestingthatheandnootherhadkilledCyrusandthathewasbeingunjustlystrippedofhisglory.Whenthekingheardthishewasincensedandgaveordersthatthemanshouldbebeheaded.Butthekingsmother,whowaspresent,said,DonotridyourselfofthiswretchedCarianlikethat,butlethimreceivefrommethefittingrewardforhisoutrageouswords.ThekinghandedhimoverandParysatisorderedtheexecutionerstostretchthemanontherackfortendaysandthengougehiseyesoutandpourmoltenbronzeintohisearsuntilhedied.

15.AshortwhilelaterMithridatestoometabadendasaresultofthesamefolly.Hewasinvitedtoadinneratwhichsomeeunuchsbelongingtothekingandhismotherwerepresent,andcamedeckedoutintheclothingandgoldjewellerywhichhehadreceivedfromtheking.Whenitcametothetimefordrinking,themostpowerfulofParysatiseunuchssaidtohim,Whatfineattireisthisthatthe

kinghasgivenyou,Mithridates,whatfinenecklacesandbracelets,andwhatavaluabledagger!37

Withoutadoubt,thekinghasmadeyouhappy,theobjectofallmensadmiration!Mithridates,whowasalreadydrunk,said,Sparamizes,whatdoesallthisaddupto?Myservicestothekingonthatdaydeservedgreaterandfinergiftsthanthese!WithasmileSparamizessaid,Noonewouldbegrudgeyouthem,Mithridates.ButsincetheGreekssaythatthereistruthinwine,38tellme,mydearfellow,whatissogreatorgloriousinfindingasaddle-blanketwhichhasslippedoffandbringingittotheking?Sparamizesopenedthislineofconversationnotbecausehewasignorantofwhathadhappened,butbecausehewantedtoexposeMithridatestoallthosepresent.Soheslylyplayeduponthevanityoftheman,seeingthatonaccountofthewinehehadbecometalkativeandwasnotincontrolofhimself.Accordingly,Mithridatesspokeoutwithoutrestraint:Youcantalkasmuchasyoulikeaboutsaddle-blanketsandothersuchrubbish.ButItellyouplainlythatitwasbythishandherethatCyruswasslain.Ididnot,likeArtagerses,wastemythrow,butIhithiminthetemple,justmissingtheeye,andpiercedit,andbroughtthemandown.Hediedasaresultofthatwound.TheguestscouldalreadyseetheendofMithridatesandhisunhappyfate,andbowedtheirfacestotheground.Buttheirhostsaid,Mithridates,myfriend,forthepresenttimeletusdrinkandfeast,anddoobeisancebeforethekingsguardianspirit,39andletusnotconcernourselveswithtalkthatistooweightyforus.

16.AfterwardstheeunuchreportedtoParysatiswhatMithridateshadsaid,andshereportedittotheking.Thekingwasenraged,thinkingthathewasbeingexposedasaliarandwaslosingthefinestandsweetestpartofhisvictory.Forhewantedeveryone,barbarianandGreekalike,tobelievethat,whenhehadchargedatCyrusandengagedhiminhand-to-handcombat,hehadbothgivenandreceivedablow,and,whilehehimselfhadbeenwounded,hehadactuallykilledCyrus.SoheorderedMithridatestodiethedeathofthetroughs.Thedeathofthetroughsisasfollows.Twotroughsaretaken,designedtofitoveroneanotherexactly,andinoneofthemthemantobetorturedismadetolieonhisback.Thentheothertroughisfittedoverthefirstandadjusted,sothatthemanshead,handsandfeetareleftoutsideandtherestofhisbodyiscovered.Theythengivethemanfoodtoeatandifherefusestheyforcehimbyprickinghiseyes.Whenhehaseatentheypouramixtureofmilkandhoneyintohismouthforhimtodrinkandtheyslopitoverhisface.Thentheykeephiseyesconstantlyturnedtowardsthesun,sothatswarmsoffliessettleonhisfaceandhideitcompletely.Sinceinsidethetroughhedoeswhatmenmustdowhentheyhaveeatenanddrunk,wormsandmaggotsswarmupfromthefoulmessofexcrement,consuminghisbodyandburrowingtheirwayinside.Whenatlastthemanisobviouslydead,theuppertroughisremovedandthemansfleshcanbeseentohavebeeneatenawayandathisentrailsareswarmsoftheanimalsIhavementioned,clinginganddevouringhisflesh.ThiswasthemannerinwhichMithridatesfinallydied,afterwastingawayforseventeendays.

17.Parysatishadonetargetremaining:themanwhohadcutofftheheadandhandofCyrus,Masabates,oneofthekingseunuchs.So,asthelatterdidnothimselfprovideanystrangleholdforhertouseagainsthim,Parysatiscontrivedaplotagainsthimalongthefollowinglines.Shewasagiftedwomanandparticularlygoodatdice.Accordingly,beforethewarsheoftenusedtoplaydiceevenwiththeking.Afterthewar,whenshehadbeenreconciledwithhim,shedidnottrytoavoid

demonstrationsofaffection,butactuallyjoinedinhisamusementsandsharedinhislove-affairs,oftenbeingpresentandlendingherassistance.Inshort,shelefthiswifeStateiraonlythesmallestofopportunitiestoseehimorspendtimewithhim,sinceshehatedStateiramorethananyoneandwantedtowieldthemostinfluenceherself.Sooneday,whenParysatisfoundArtaxerxeswithnothingtodoandinastateofagitation,shechallengedhimtoagameofdicefor1,000darics.First,sheallowedhimtowinandpaidoverthegold.Then,pretendingtobeupsetatthelossandeagertowinherself,shechallengedhimtoanothergame,thistimeforaeunuch,andheconsented.Theyagreedonthefollowingrules:thateachshouldputoutofthereckoningtheirfivemosttrustedeunuchs,butthatfromtheresttheloserhadtogivewhicheverthewinnermightchoose.Sotheybegandicingontheseterms.Parysatistookthematterveryseriouslyandthrewherselfinearnestintothegame,andsincethedicethistimeseemedtofavourher,wonthegameandtookpossessionofMasabates,forhewasnotonthelistofthosesetaside.Beforethekingssuspicionwasroused,shedeliveredhimintothehandsoftheexecutionersandorderedthemtoflayhimalive,impalehisbodysidewaysonthreestakesandnailouthisskinseparately.Whenthiswascarriedout,thekingwasfilledwithresentmentandangeragainsther.Butshesaidwithaninnocentlaugh,Mydear,youaresosillytogetupsetatonewickedoldeunuch,whenIhappilyacceptthelossof1,000daricswithoutcomplaining.Sotheking,althoughheregrettedthewayhehadbeendeceived,didnotmakeafuss.ButStateira,whowasclearlyopposedtoParysatisingeneral,tookthisparticularlybadly,asshecouldseethatParysatiswaslawlesslyandwithgreatcrueltydestroyingthekingsfaithfulretainersonaccountofCyrus.

18.WhenClearchusandtheothergeneralshadbeentrickedbyTissaphernes,40andcontrarytoasworntrucehadbeenarrestedandsentupcountryinchains,CtesiassaysthatClearchusaskedhimtosupplyhimwithacomb.41HegotitandattendedtohishairandwassoappreciativeofthegiftthathegaveCtesiashisring;CtesiascouldshowittoClearchusrelativesandfriendsinSpartaasatokenoftheirfriendship.Theengravingontheseal-stonewasofCaryatidsdancing.42CtesiasalsoreportsthattherationsthatweresenttoClearchuswerebeingcontinuallypilferedandconsumedbythesoldierswhowereinprisonwithhim,andwhogaveClearchusonlyaverysmallpart.HesaysthatheremediedthematterbyseeingtoitthatnotonlywereClearchusrationsincreasedbutalsoseparaterationsweregiventothesoldiers,andheaddsthatheperformedthisservicetopleaseParysatisandwithherfullapproval.HesaysalsothatasideofhamwassentineachdaytoClearchustosupplementhisrationsandthatthelatterbeggedhim,andtoldhimthatitwashisduty,tosmuggleinasmallknifeconcealedinthemeatandnottoallowhisendtobedependentonthekingscruelty.ButCtesiassaysthathewasafraidandrefused.HealsosaysthatthekingsmotherimploredArtaxerxesnottokillClearchusandthatheagreedandsworeanoathtothateffect,butlaterwaspersuadedbyStateiraandhadthemallkilled,exceptforMenon.Thiswasthereason,accordingtoCtesias,thatParysatisplottedagainstStateiraandcontrivedtopoisonher.Butthisisnotaveryplausiblestoryandistotallyillogicalasamotive,ifwearetobelievethatParysatiscarriedoutsuchadreadfulcrime,andputherselfinsuchdanger,forthesakeofClearchusdaringtokillthekingslawfullyweddedwifeandthemotherbyhimofchildrenrearedforthethrone.ButitisquiteobviousthatCtesiasaddsthismelodramaticdetailoutofrespectforthememoryofClearchus,sincehealsosaysthataftertheyhadbeenexecuted,thebodiesoftheothergeneralsweretornapartbydogsandbirds,butnotthatof

Clearchus;hiscorpsewasburiedbyasandstorm,whichformedagreatmoundofearthandhidhisbody.Somedateswerescatteredthereandinashorttimeawonderfulgroveoftreesgrewupandcoveredthesitewithitsshade,sothateventhekingwasfilledwithdeepregretforhavingputClearchustodeath,believingthathewasamandeartothegods.

19.NowParysatishadfromthebeginningnurturedasecrethatredforStateiraandlookeduponherasarival.Butwhenshesawthatherowninfluencewasbasedonthekingsrespectandhonour,whereasStateirasinfluencewasbasedonthekingsloveandtrust,andsowasfirmandsolid,shehatchedaplotagainstherandventuredall,shethought,forthehigheststake.ParysatishadatrustedmaidservantcalledGigis,whomshevaluedhighly.ItwasthisGigis,accordingtoDeinon,whoassistedinthepoisoning.ButCtesiassaysthatshewasmerelycomplicitintheplot,andthatagainstherwill.CtesiasgivesthenameofthemanwhoactuallyadministeredthepoisonasBelitaras,DeinonasMelantas.ParysatisandStateirahadputasidetheirearliersuspicionandmadeuptheirdifferencesandhad

beguntofrequentthesameplacesandtaketheirmealstogether.Buttheywerestillafraidandontheirguard,andsowerecarefultopartakeofthesamefoodfromthesamedishes.NowthePersianshavealittlebird,calledtherhyntaces.Itproducesnoexcrementbutispackedfulloffatinside,sothattheythinkthecreatureactuallylivesonwindanddew.CtesiassaysthatParysatiscutoneofthesebirdsinhalfwithasmallknife,ononesideofwhichshehadsmearedthepoison.Shethuswipedthepoisonononehalfofthebirdbutnotontheother.Sheputthesafe,cleanhalfinherownmouthandbegantoeatitandgavethepoisonedparttoStateira.Deinon,however,saysthatitwasnotParysatisbutMelantaswhousedtheknifetocutthebirdinhalfandplacedthemeatbeforeStateira.AsStateiralaydyingingreatpainandwithviolentconvulsions,shebegantorealizewhathadhappened;andthekingtoobecamesuspiciousofhismother,wellawareashewasofhersavageryandimplacability.Soherushedatoncetoinvestigatethematterandarrestedhismother sservantsandwaitersandtorturedthemontherack.ButGigiswasforalongtimekepthiddeninherpalacebyParysatis,andwhenthekingdemandedhersurrender,Parysatisrefused.Later,however,whenGigisaskedtobeallowedtogohomeonenight,thekinggotwordofitandsetanambushforher,seizedherandcondemnedhertodeath.ByPersiancustompoisonersareputtodeathinthefollowingway:theyplacetheheadonacertainflatstoneandthenstrikeandcrushitwithanotherstoneuntiltheheadandfacearebeatentoapulp.SoGigisdiedinthisway.ButArtaxerxestooknoactioneitherinwordorindeedagainstParysatis.Hemerelysentheraway,atherownrequest,toBabylon,declaringthataslongashelivedhewouldneverseteyesonthatcity.Such,then,wasthestateofaffairsinthekingshousehold.

20.ArtaxerxeswasnolesseagertocapturetheGreekswhohadmarchedinlandwithCyrusthanhehadbeentoovercomeCyrusandsecurehisthrone.Buthefailedand,althoughtheyhadlostCyrusandtheirowngenerals,theymanagedtoescape,43asitwere,fromthepalaceitself.TheythusmadeitplainforalltoseethatthePersianempireanditskingaboundedingold,luxuryandwomen,butwasotherwiseanarrogantfaadewithnosubstance.44ThewholeofGreeceaccordinglytookheartandlookedwithdisdainonthebarbarians,andtheSpartansthoughtthatitwouldbeadisgracenottoliberatefromslaverytheGreekslivinginAsiaandtoputanendtotheirhumiliationatthehandsofthePersians.TofightthiswartheyappointedfirstThibron,thenDercyllidas,neitherofwhom

achievedanythingremarkable.ThentheyentrusteditsconducttoAgesilaus,theirking.AssoonashehadmadethecrossingtoAsia,heatoncefelltothetaskwithgreatenergyandbegantobuildupawidereputationforhimself.HebeatTissaphernesinapitchedbattleandproceededtostartwinningovertheGreekcities.45Atthispoint,ArtaxerxesrealizedhowthewarshouldbewagedandsentTimocratesofRhodestoGreecewithalargesumofgoldandorderstouseittobribetheleadingfiguresintheGreekcitiesandsoopenupaGreekfrontagainstSparta.Timocratessetaboutdoingthis,andthelargestcitiesbeganconspiringtogetheragainsttheSpartans,andthePeloponnesedescendedintoturmoil.46TheresultwasthattheauthoritieswereforcedtorecallAgesilaus47fromAsia.Traditionhasitthat,ashewasleaving,AgesilausremarkedtohisfriendsthatthekingwasdrivinghimoutofAsiawith30,000archersforPersiancoinshadanarcherdepictedonthem.

21.ArtaxerxesalsodrovetheSpartansfromtheseabyemployingConontheAthenianashiscomman