Plastic, plastic everywhere

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Plastic, plastic everywhere

Plastic pollution: A threat to marine life and usOur oceans are constantly faced with anthropogenic induced threats; ranging from overexploitation, ocean noise, chemical contamination, dredging, acidification, and the rapidly rising sea-levels as a result of climate change. While not a new phenomenon, one particularly alarming threat is ocean plastic pollution. There is little doubt, that plastic pollution is one of the most significant stressors on the marine and coastal environment, and its manifestation is increasing at a disturbing rate. Plastic debris is not limited to the shores of the Mediterranean nor to the borders of the Atlantic. Plastic pollution contaminates marine environments all over the world, polluting both shorelines and deep-sea habitats. The threat is thus borderless. Plastic pollution has grown exponentially over the past decade and is expected to continue to do so in the decade(s) to come if mitigation measures are not improved and appropriately implemented. Experts approximations indicate, that the world population uses over 300 million tonnes of new plastic every year, of which an estimated 4.8-12.7 million tonnes ends up in the world’s oceans.

Given the persistent nature of plastic and its toxicity, plastic pollution has been identified as a threat to biodiversity, an acknowledgment shared by the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in its 2016 report “Marine Debris: Understanding, Preventing and Mitigating the Significant Adverse Impacts on Marine and Coastal Biodiversity1.”

Dying in plastic – Impacts of plastic on the marine environmentPlastic is part of our everyday life and for many it is inherently difficult to imagine a world without it. Given our current dependency on plastic, the marine environment faces one of its greatest challenges to date. Whether in the form of microplastic or as macroplastic, plastic debris poses a serious threat to marine species. A review of publications put forward by several science-based organisations, including the CBD, indicates that over 800 marine and coastal species are in some way shape of form impacted by plastic debris. It is a risk to the entire marine ecosystem, threatening the very survival of marine animals along all trophic levels, from tiny plankton species to whales.

So how does plastic pollution impact the marine environment and its inhabitants?

Since the late 1990s, researchers have set out to evaluate the impact of plastic debris on the marine environment. Harmful effects include:

■ Entanglement and ghost fishing: Researchers have identified over 250 species impacted by entanglement (e.g., derelict fishing gear or floating plastic packaging), including turtles, whales and dolpins, and seals2. There have been numerous incidents where marine animals trapped in plastic parts have been injured or even killed.

■ Ingestion of floating plastic: In the past, researchers have found that several marine species ingest plastic items (of all shapes) causing injuries and the blockage of the digestive tract, which ultimately led to starvation and satiation3. For instance, in 2013, a 4,5-tonne sperm whale was stranded on the shores of Andalusia, with an autopsy indicating that the whale had ingested over 17 kilogrammes of various plastic items. A subsequent autopsy concluded that the death of the whale was the result of large amounts of ingested plastic, including plastic rope, plastic sheets and flower pots4.

■ Ingestion of microplastics: Originating from the fragmentation of larger plastic items or cosmetics and synthetic fabrics amongst others, trillions of microplastic particles are present in the oceans. Intake of microplastic by marine animals can cause internal injuries or intoxications, when the body absorbs noxious substances from the material. It has also been shown that microplastic particles may accumulate high concentrations of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) like biocides or polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Microplastic particles are ingested by small marine animals which are generally prey for larger animals. Thus, the toxins may enter the entire food chain.

1 Study «Marine DEBRIS: Understanding, Preventing and Mitigating the Significant Adverse Impacts on Marine and Coastal Biodiversity» CBD published 2016 (https://www.cbd.int/doc/publications/cbd-ts-83-en.pdf)2 Study «Environmental implications of plastic debris in marine settings» published 2009 by Murra R. Gregory (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873013/ )3 ibid ((https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2873013/ )4 Study «As main meal for sperm whales : Plastic debris » published April 2013 by Marine Pollution Bulletin (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23465618 )

Primary microplasticSources for primary microplastic are: Industrially manufactured resin pellets destined to be made into plastic end-products (e.g., packaging); cosmetics with microbeads (e.g., peelings); fibres from synthetic textiles; particle abrasion from car tyres.

RiversAbsent or insufficient sewage treatment and filter plants allow wastewater to carry primary microplastic into rivers and oceans.

Fake foodMicroplastic is taken in together with food. This problem affects a wide range of marine animals from plankton to crustaceans, mus-sels, worms, fish, sea turtles, whales, rays, basking sharks, and sea birds.

Persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic substances (PBTs), such as pesticides, heavy metals and PCBs, adhere on microplastic particles (Ø < 5mm).

Even the tiniest plastic particles may have razor-sharp edges able to cause injury.

Zooplankton ingest microplastic. From here it goes all the way through the food web.

PoisoningMicroplastic contains a range of chemical additives, such as plasticisers and flame retardants. These additives, as well as pol-lutants attaching to microplastic may cause tumours, infertility, genetic defects, abnor-mal development of larvae, and weakened immune system.

Internal injuries and reduced fitnessSharp edges of plastic particles may cause injuries to the intestinal tract of small animals like mussels or crustaceans, which result in inflammation and chronic stress. Microplas-tic accumulation in the stomach can also reduced food intake and compromise the animal’s energy.

Keep microplastic out of the water Each of usAvoid cosmetics that contain microbeads / Use microfibre catching bag or laundry ball.InstitutionsBan the use of microplastic in cosmetics / Ensure resin pellet transports do not pollute the environment / Optimise fibre detention in synthetic textiles / Equip washing machines with fibre filters.

Avoid disposable plastic products Each of usMinimise buying and using disposable plas-tic. Use alternatives.InstitutionsSuccessively replace disposable plastic by recyclable synthetics or environmentally sound alternatives.

Proper disposalEach of usDisposal of personal plastic waste appropri-ately / Collect carelessly discarded plastic wasteInstitutionsProfessional waste management / Adequate structures for waste treatment and recycling.

Secondary microplasticImproperly disposed of plastic waste such as bottles and bags is a source of primary microplastic. Gradually, UV radiation, wind and waves break larger plastic waste into ever smaller pieces.

Coasts / BeachesPlastic debris carried into the sea by wind and tides is a source of secondary micro-plastic.

ShipsAbout 20% of plastic debris in the oceans, including fishing lines and nets, originate from ships.

MICROPLASTICTrillions of microplastic particles circulate through the world’s oceans, from the Antarctic to the Arctic, both

close to the surface and in the deep sea.

SOURCES

PATHWAYS

IMPACTS

SOLUTIONS

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Plastic, plastic everywhere

Plastic and its sources Bringing together recent research on the sources of plastic in the marine environment and its origins, the following conclusions can be made:

Sources

■ 80% of the plastic that ends up in the ocean is land-based and enters the oceans via rivers, waste water, floo-dings or directly from the coastline

■ 20% of plastic waste originates from shipping, fisheries and other sea-based activities

Fate5?

Scientific estimates, excluding plastic ingested by marine organisms, on the deposition of plastic debris in the oceans suggest that

■ barely 1% are afloat on the sea surface ■ about 5% accumulate on the world’s beaches ■ about 94% end up on the deep sea floor

Common large plastic debris (i.e. macroplastic) in the oceans

■ Plastic bags ■ Plastic bottles ■ Drinking Straws ■ All forms of plastic packaging ■ Fishing gear

Common microplastics in the oceans

■ Microbeads from cosmetics ■ Plastic fibres from synthetic textiles ■ Resin pellets ■ Abrasion particles from tyres ■ Filaments ■ Fragments from larger plastic items

Common types of plastics and exemplary applications

■ Polyethylene (PE) – plastic bags, bottles, food bags ■ Polyester (PES) - fibres, textiles ■ Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) - (drink bottles,

plastic films) ■ Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) – pipelines, flooring ■ Polypropylene (PP) - bottle caps, drinking straws ■ Polystyrene (PS) – plastic tableware, disposable

cups, food containers

International responses In recent years, ocean plastic pollution has received growing international attention. Given the cross-border and global nature of plastic debris, collective action is not only useful but has become a necessity. And while multilateral cooperation is an indispensable tool in freeing our oceans from plastic debris, nation states build a vital piece of the puzzle.

5 Report «Plastics in the Marine Environment» published June 2016 by Eunomia (http://www.eunomia.co.uk/reports-tools/plastics-in-the-marine-environment/ )

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Plastic, plastic everywhere

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) In its Decision XI/18, the CBD recognized the importance of addressing the growing problem of plastic debris, and called on Parties and relevant organisations to turn their attention to mitigating

its impact on biodiversity. In 2016, the CBD urged its Parties to develop and implement appropriate measures to address the problem, adopting a guide of general approaches to preventing and mitigating the impacts of marine debris in the Annex of Decision XIII/10. As early as 2006 the CBD also understood the necessity of including the private sector in its conservation efforts. In its Decision VIII/17, as well as in its subsequent Decisions in 2010, 2012 and 2014, the CBD en-couraged States to reach out to private sector stakeholders and furthermore underscored the importance of integrating biodiversity considerations into procurement policies.

Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS) The 10th Meeting of the Parties to the CMS likewise recognized the threat-potential of abandoned marine debris, including the adverse effects of plastic debris, and as such requested Parties to help aggregate and submit to the Agreement all relevant information as applies to plastic and their territorial jurisdiction. The

Parties furthermore called on the Scientific Council to pinpoint and close knowledge gaps, identify best practice strategies, as well as develop an approach to assessing the effectiveness of standing awareness campaigns. At its ensuing 11th Meeting in 2014, the CMS underscored the importance of fostering support for initiatives for the removal of debris, including both beach and underwater clean-ups.

Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans in the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Atlantic Area (ACCOBAMS) In its Work Programme for the Triennium 2014-2016, the Parties to ACCOBAMS set out to assess the

impact of ghost nets, plastic bags, microplastics, as well as other plastic materials on cetaceans, placing considerable focus on the ingestion of such materials by the species. With the end of the 2016 working Triennium, ACCOBAMS reiterated its commitment in the Work Programme for 2017-2019. Reaffirming the significance of further research into the impact of plastic material on cetaceans, the Parties complemented their efforts by encouraging cooperation with regional marine litter initiatives, and committed to the implementation of the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD).

Agreement on the Conservation of the Baltic and North Seas (ASCOBANS) The 7th Meeting of the Parties to ASCOBANS, convening in 2012, reminded its Parties to implement relevant provisions adopted by the CMS Resolution 10.4 on marine debris, as well as Resolution 10.30

regarding the management of the latter. The ASCOBANS Work Plan for the period 2017-2020 further mirrors these ambitions and called for a review of the information concerning ingestion, entanglement, microplastics and their adverse impacts on small cetaceans. The ASCOBANS Advisory Committee was also tasked with developing and submitting relevant recommendations to the Parties in the years to come.

United Nations Environment Assembly of the united Nations Environment Programme (UNEA/UNEP) Founded in 1972 as the result of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) coordinates and assists Member States’ efforts in environmental matters. As the main governing body of UNEP, UNEA has noted with great concern

the serious impact of plastic originating from both land-based and sea-based sources, and has encouraged Governments to implement the provisions included within the Honolulu Strategy. More so, Resolution 1/6 Marine Plastic Debris and microplastics calls on governments and the private sector to promote the “…more resource-efficient use and sound management of plastics and microplastics.” At its Second Session Meeting in 2016, UNEA recognized the advances made regarding knowledge gaps, highlighting the prominence of education in shining light on the negative effects of marine plastic debris and importance of reducing its manifestation.

The European Union (EU)With the aim of harmonising environmental legislation across the EU, Member States (MS) adopted the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) in June 2008. As the first of its kind, the MSFD is a binding

legal instrument that aims to achieve Good Environmental Statues (GES) by 2020. Article 3 of the Directive calls on MS to achieve an “…environmental status of marine waters where these provide ecologically diverse and dynamic oceans and seas which are clean, healthy and productive.” In regard to marine litter, achieving GES is dependent on MS ability to create a status where marine habitats are no longer harmed by plastic debris. The EU’s efforts in reducing plastic debris in Europe’s oceans is further complemented by its 2015 adopted Action Plan for the Circular Economy. Aimed at revising current legislation and, if need be, adopting new one, the European Commission (EC) aims at “closing the loop” of product lifecycles and thus reaping benefits for both the environment and the economy.

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Plastic, plastic everywhere

The Group of 7 (G7) In 2015, the G7 countries met in Elmau, Germany to tackle the economic and political challenges of our time. Topics of discussion varied from foreign policy obstacles in the Middle East, to terrorist threats from all over the world. The 2015 Summit furthermore highlighted the protection

of the marine environment as a high priority. The attending nations acknowledged that plastic pollution is not only a global challenge, but that its impact can threaten both marine and human life. As such, the G7 expressed their commitment to combating marine litter, drawing on preventative actions, research and education, as well as clean-up approaches. Honoring their unprecedented commitment to tackling marine litter, the G7 members came together in Rome in 2017 to discuss the implementation of the G7 Action Plan to Combat Marine Litter. The Workshop, held under Italian Presidency, addressed the issue of marine litter, placing specific focus on plastic pollutants.

Actions neededOcean plastic pollution is an ever-growing concern. A concern, that if not addressed properly within both international fora and national parliaments, will continue to have a devastating impact on marine life and on human generations to come. We therefore call and urge states, intergovernmental bodies, industry and business stakeholders, as well as civil society to combine efforts in order to:

Address and recognise the threat posed by plastic pollution within the context of ■ Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs), including CBD, CMS, ACCOBAMS, ASCOBANS, UNEA/UNEP ■ Multilateral environmental organizations ■ National legislative bodies ■ National environmental agencies

Stop ocean plastic pollution ■ Take a precautionary approach in policies aimed at reducing and preventing plastic debris ■ Develop and implement guidelines, policies, best practices and action plans with the focus of preventing plastic

from reaching maritime habitats. These measures should include comprehensive national waste management legislation, adequate structures for waste treatment, and preventive measures

■ Involve the private sector in conservation and biodiversity efforts by calling on such businesses to actively parti-cipate in an interdisciplinary approach to reach a progressive plastic economy that is based on circular principles (e.g. reuse, recycle) and that furthermore includes the phasing-out of disposable plastic waste (e.g. packaging)

■ Engage in roundtable meetings to develop best practices ■ The promotion of a progressive plastic economy and the phase out of disposable plastic waste ■ That plastic waste is classified according to its hazardousness and progressively faced out, while the most toxic

plastics, including polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polystyrene polyurethane and polycarbonate, are immediately banned.

■ Support actions and techniques to retract plastic debris from the ocean and beaches under the constraint that efforts to reduce floating marine litter do not exacerbate harm

■ The ban of microplastics in cosmetic products ■ Research and guidelines to prevent resin pellets contaminating the environment during handling and transport ■ Monitor plastic pollution extents and trends ■ Focus is given to capacity building workshops for disentanglement and marine animals rescue programmes ■ That a professional global animal rescue network is established and marine life saved

Continue to investigate the impacts of plastic pollution ■ Calling on Scientific Committees of respected MEAs to continue closing research gaps ■ Encourage independent research on the impacts of plastic debris on the marine environment and its inhabitants

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More information on plastic please consult: www.oceancare.org/en/plastic

To receive further information about this report, or OceanCare’s work, please contact:

Sigrid Lüber, President, Focal Point for International Processes, slueber@oceancare.orgSilvia Frey, Focal Point for Science and Education, sfrey@oceancare.orgJohannes Müller, Ocean Policy Consultant, jmueller@oceancare.org

OceanCareGerbestrasse 6P.O. Box 372CH-8820 WädenswilSwitzerlandTel: +41 (0) 44 780 66 88Fax: +41 (0) 44 780 68 08Email: info@oceancare.orgWeb: www.oceancare.org

Suggested citation: Plastic, plastic everywhere, OceanCare, Switzerland, 2017