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Research ArticlePlants Used by Bapedi Traditional Healers to Treat Asthma andRelated Symptoms in Limpopo Province, South Africa
Sebua Silas Semenya 1,2 and Alfred Maroyi 1
1Technology Transfer Office, Research Administration and Development Department, University of Limpopo,Private Bag X1106, Sovenga 0727, South Africa2Medicinal Plants and Economic Development (MPED) Research Center, Department of Botany, University of Fort Hare,Private Bag X1314, Alice 5700, South Africa
Correspondence should be addressed to Sebua Silas Semenya; [email protected]
Received 23 January 2018; Accepted 10 April 2018; Published 19 July 2018
Academic Editor: Dolores Garcıa Gimenez
Copyright © 2018 Sebua Silas Semenya and Alfred Maroyi. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative CommonsAttribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work isproperly cited.
To the best of our knowledge there are presently no ethnobotanical surveys focusing on the utilisation of herbal remedies for asthmain South Africa. The present study is therefore an attempt to fill this gap in knowledge. A total of 140 Bapedi traditional healers(THs) practicing in the Capricorn, Sekhukhune, and Waterberg districts of the Limpopo Province (South Africa) were queriedusing semistructured questionnaires, supplemented by field observations during face-to-face interview. A total of 104 medicinalplant species (92 indigenous and 12 exotics) belonging to 92 genera, distributed across 54 botanical families, mostly the Asteraceaeand Fabaceae (18.5%, for each) as well as Malvaceae (12.9%), were used as antiasthmatics and related symptoms by these THs. Mostof the plants were trees and herbs (37.5%, for each), with root (57%), leaf (15.8%), and bark (7.5%), respectively, being the salientlyused parts for preparation of remedies.Clerodendrum ternatum,Cryptocarya transvaalensis, Lasiosiphon caffer, Enicostema axillare,Mimusops obovata, Sclerocarya birrea, and Stylochaeton natalensis were widely used and valued by all THs across the surveyeddistricts. Furthermore, these taxa also scored both the highest use value and fidelity level indexes as asthma therapies. Overall,the larger number of species documented in the present study is recorded for the first time in literature as asthma and/or relatedsymptoms remedies.Our study finding generally contributes towards an establishment of SouthAfrican database of herbal therapiesused traditionally against these conditions.
1. Introduction
Asthma is a chronic lung disease that inflames and narrowsthe airways, affecting people of all ethnic groups world-wide [1]. Its symptoms include amongst others intermittentattacks of wheeze, cough, breathlessness with variable airwayobstruction, chest tightness, and cough that occurs moreat night and or early in the morning [2]. In 2008 at leastthree hundred million people worldwide were diagnosedwith asthma and over 250,000 asthma-related annual deathswere reported [3].
Despite the above statistics, asthma continues to be amajor world problem affecting people in various countriesof the world including Australia [4], India [5], Jamaica [6],and Norway [7]. Health impact of this condition is also
common in Africa, and studies conducted in Algeria [8],Nigeria [2], Uganda [9], and Zambia [10], amongst othercountries, highlighted this. Asthma impact is also prevalentin South Africa. According to the recent report by the GlobalInitiative for Asthma, this country has the world’s fourthhighest asthma death rate amongst people aged five to 34years [11]. Furthermore, of an estimated 3.9 million SouthAfricans diagnosed with asthma, 1.5% die of this conditionannually [12].
Treatment of asthma is focused on ad hoc treatment ofacute exacerbations including lifestyle factors and preventionof exacerbations [13]. There are a number of top medicationssuch as short or long acting beta2 agonist (preferably byinhalation) and inhaled steroid that an asthmatic patient canreceive during exacerbations [3]. Supplementarymedications
HindawiEvidence-Based Complementary and Alternative MedicineVolume 2018, Article ID 2183705, 33 pageshttps://doi.org/10.1155/2018/2183705
2 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Figure 1: Map of Limpopo Province indicating the studied areas (districts and municipalities).
for asthma sufferers include leukotriene receptor antagonistsand theophylline or slow release beta2 agonist tablets [14].However, these therapies are often limited and/or not afford-able to a commonman residing inmost developing countriesparticularly in Africa [15, 16]. Consequently, asthma sufferersin these countries resort to locally available traditional healers(THs) who prescribe affordable herbal remedies.
There are extremely few ethnobotanical surveys reportingon the use ofmedicinal plants by indigenous people includingTHs as treatments of asthma and related symptoms in Africaas a continent. To the best of our knowledge the only studiesthat focused on this subject were conducted inCameroon [17]and Nigeria [18]. However, general ethnobotanical studiescarried out in other African countries, to name a few,Uganda [19], Kenya [20], Lesotho [21], and Botswana [22],highlighted that THs of other cultures do treat asthma andrelated conditions. South Africa is no exclusion and studiesby Hutchings [23], Thring and Weitz [24], De Beer and VanWyk [25], York et al. [26], and Bhat [27] also emphasised this.The present study therefore will be the first in South Africa toexclusively focus on ethnobotanical knowledge and practicesof plants implicated in the treatment of these conditions.
2. Methodology
2.1. Study Area and Population. This study was carried out inthe three districts (Capricorn, Sekhukhune, and Waterberg)of the Limpopo Province and associated municipalities (Fig-ure 1).
A total of five rural villages from each municipalitywere chosen as study sites. In general, all these settlementsare economically and socially marginalized [28]. Therefore,there is inadequate infrastructure, high unemployment, anddependency on natural resources amongst the people tosupport their livelihoods [28]. Furthermore, larger numberof people still rely heavily on traditional methods of healthcare for treatment of various ailments [29]; thusTHs and theirservices play an important role in the wellbeing of people.The Bapedi tribe who speak Sepedi language is the dominantethnic group inhabiting the studied districts, representingmore than 50% of the total population [30].
2.2. Ethnobotanical Survey and Data Collection. A reconnais-sance study was firstly carried out in each selected village to(i) request permission from local tribal leaders to conduct
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 3
this study within their areas of governance and (ii) ask THswho were conveniently (i.e., with the help of local leaders andhealers) selected to participate in the survey. Both traditionalleaders and healers were enlightened about the nature ofthe project including aim and objectives, using their mothertongue of Sepedi. Consequently, THs who agreed to take partin this study were requested to sign a consent form.
Data was collected from May 2017 to October 2017 usinga semistructured interview with 140 THs during face-to-face interviews, supplemented by field trips for participant’sobservation and specimen collections.The questionnaire wasdesigned to capture information on (i) local names of theplants used by Bapedi THs to manage asthma; (ii) plantparts used; (iii) state/s of used plant part; and (iv) mode/sof preparation and administration of remedies. Overall, THswere questioned independently in their consultation roomsusing Sepedi dialect.
Field excursions formedicinal plant species identificationand collection were conducted with the assistance of eachquestioned traditional healer. During these trips THs initiallyidentified the species via vernacular names. Subsequently,voucher specimens were collected, prepared, and depositedat the Larry Leach Herbarium (University of Limpopo),wherein a scientific name of plant species was established bya trained taxonomist.
2.3. Data Analysis
2.3.1. Microsoft Excel and Statistical Package for the SocialSciences (SPSS). The data collected in this study were anal-ysed using Microsoft Excel 2000 and SPSS version 14.0.Descriptive statistics using frequencies and cross-tabulationswere utilised in constructing tables showing the commonlyused plant species by THs, local names of the plants usedfor asthma and related conditions, plant parts used andstate/s of their usage, modes of preparation, and remedyadministration.
2.3.2. Fidelity Level (FL). The FL as described by Al-Quran[31] were used to determine the uniformity of plant utilisationamongst the questioned THs. Analysis of FL of each plantspecies mentioned by Bapedi THs as a treatment of asthmaand related symptom followed the formula displayed below:
FL (%) = 𝑁𝑃𝑁× 100, (1)
where 𝑁𝑝 was the number of THs who claim the use of aparticular plant species to treat asthma or related symptomand 𝑁 was the total number of THs who mentioned the useof species as a medicine to treat any given ailment/s (asthmaor related symptom). Fidelity level expresses the preference aspecies is given over others in themanagement of a particularailment [32].
2.3.3. Use Value (UV). Use values are calculated for anindividual plant, in order to objectively give a quantitativemeasure of its relative importance to the informants [33].Therefore, the extent of utilisation of each species used ther-apeutically by Bapedi THs for asthma and related symptoms
was determined via UV, following Phillips and Gentry [33]index:
UV = ∑ 𝑈𝑁
(2)
From the above formulation, U was the number of curativeapplications of each species, where 𝑁 represented the totalnumber of THs. Generally plant with broad therapeutic usesor those that are highly accepted as cure of a particularailment will score a high UV.
3. Results and Discussions
3.1. Diversity of Used Plant Species. This is the first studyof its kind in South Africa and few of those conductedin other African countries [17, 18] and elsewhere [34] thatfocused on the utilisation of plants to treat asthma andrelated symptoms. A total of 104 medicinal plant species (92indigenous and 12 exotics) belonging to 92 genera, distributedacross 54 botanical families, mostly the Asteraceae andFabaceae (n=10 spp., for each, 18.5%), Malvaceae (n=7 spp.,12.9%), Anacardiaceae, and Euphorbiaceae (n=4 spp., foreach, 7.4%), respectively, were recorded as being used by140 Bapedi THs to treat these conditions. This diversity ofplants is higher compared to 46 noted by Sonibare and Gbile[18] in Nigeria, and 29 by Noumi [17] in Cameron. Theobserved variation might be attributed to extremely largersample size of THs and spatial coverage included in ourstudy compared to these two studies. Some of the above-mentioned botanical families documented in our study arerepeatedly noted as predominant in various ethnobotanicalsurveys focusing on asthma. For instance, the Asteraceae,Euphorbiaceae, and Fabaceae were also represented withhigher number of species in a study conducted in India[34]. In a similar survey carried out amongst THs in SouthWestern Nigeria, Euphorbiaceae was also dominant [18]. Thewidespread and higher utilisation of species from all theaforesaid botanical families is an indication that they arewidely distributed in various countries of the world. Overall,their high preponderance in the present study might be dueto the fact that they contain a relatively higher integer ofantiasthmatic taxa locally known by Bapedi THs comparedto the rest of plant families which had less than four taxa(Table 1).
3.2. Plant Habit. Plants documented in this study weremainly trees and herbs (n=39, for each) as well as shrubs(n=26). This finding, however, is not surprising becausethese growth forms are prevailing components of local floradistributed across the studied districts and municipalities.According to Shankar et al. [35] themore common the growthform is in an area, the greater the probability of its popular useis. Therefore, Bapedi THs might prefer the aforesaid habitsdue to their local availability and familiarity.
3.3. Distribution of Used Plants within the Municipalitiesand Districts. The recorded 104 plant species were notused by all THs who diagnosed asthma and its symptoms
4 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Table1:Plantu
sedto
treatasthmaa
ndrelated
symptom
sintheC
apric
orn,
Sekh
ukhu
neandWaterberg
distric
tsof
Limpo
poProvince,Sou
thAfrica.
Botanicalfam
ilySp
eciesn
ames
Vernacular
name
Habit
Used
plan
tpa
rts
Stateo
fuse
Metho
dsof
herbal
preparationan
dad
minist
ratio
nAlim
ent/s
treated
Frequenc
yof
use;
n=TH
s(140
)FL
UV
UM
%
Acanthaceae
Blepharis
diversisp
ina
(Nees)C.B.Clarke
Setlw
atlwa
Shrub
Root
Dry
Boiledfor3
–5minutes.E
xtractistaken
orally.
Thric
eaday
Fatig
ue6
4.2
100
0.04
Acanthaceae
Blepharis
subvolubilis
C.B.Clarke
Moo
kapitsi
Shrub
Root
Dry
Boiledfor5
–6minutes.E
xtractistaken
orally.
Thric
eaday
Fatig
ue1
0.7
100
0.00
Alliaceae
Tulbaghiaviolacea
Harv.
var.violacea
Moeye-ya-naga
Herb
Bulb
Fresh
Boiledfor5
minutes.Steam
inhaled
(nasally)u
nder
blanket.Th
ricea
day
Nasal
cong
estio
n2
1.4100
0.01
Amaryllid
aceae
∗
Alliu
msativ
umL.
Kho
nofolo
Herb
Bulb
Dry
Poun
dedandtakenorallywith
warm
water.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
10.7
500.01
Labo
ured
breathing
10.7
50
Amaryllid
aceae
Cliviacaulescens
R.A.Dyer
Maime
Herb
Root
Dry
Boiledfor4
–10minutes.E
xtractistaken
orally.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
32.1
100
0.02
Anacardiaceae
Harpephyllum
caffrum
Bernh.ex
Krauss
Motshidi-tshwene
Tree
Root
Dr
Boiledfor5
minutes.E
xtractistakenorally.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
10.7
100
0.00
Anacardiaceae
∗
Mangifer
aindica
LMom
enko
Tree
Root
Fresh
Boiledfor5
minutes.E
xtractistakenorally.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
10.7
100
0.00
Anacardiaceae
∗
Schinu
smolleL.
Thob
a/Mokwepere
Tree
Leaf
Fresh
Boiledfor5
–7minutes.Steam
isinhaled
(nasally)u
nder
blanket.Th
ricea
day
Asth
ma
10.7
14.2
0.05
Fatig
ue4
2.8
57.1
Labo
ured
breathing
21.4
28.5
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 5
Table1:Con
tinued.
Botanicalfam
ilySp
eciesn
ames
Vernacular
name
Habit
Used
plan
tpa
rts
Stateo
fuse
Metho
dsof
herbal
preparationan
dad
minist
ratio
nAlim
ent/s
treated
Frequenc
yof
use;
n=TH
s(140
)FL
UV
UM
%
Anacardiaceae
Sclerocarya
birrea
(A.Rich.)H
ochst.subsp.
caffra(
Sond
.)Morula/Mokano
Tree
Bark
Dry
Poun
dedandwith
mixed
with
dried
powderedrootso
fB.discolor
andS.ita
lica,
anddriedbark
ofP.afric
anum
.Pow
ered
ispo
ured
into
theb
oiledwater
andste
amis
inhaled(nasally)u
nder
blanket.Th
ricea
day
Asth
ma
1
100
100
1
Poun
dedandmixed
with
driedpo
wdered
rootso
fA.erio
loba,X
.caff
raandd
riedbark
ofP.
afric
anum
.Taken
orallywith
warm
water
Asth
ma
1
Poun
dedandtakenorallywith
warm
water.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
1
Fruit
Fresh
Juiceissqu
eezed(raw
),driedandpo
unded.
Powderisp
ouredin
theh
otwater.Steam
isinhaled(nasally)u
nder
blanket.Th
ricea
day
Asth
ma
137
Apiaceae
Alepidea
amatym
bica
Eckl.
&Ze
yh.var.amatym
bica
Lesokw
ane
Herb
Rhizom
eDry
Poun
dedandtakenorallywith
warm
water.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
117.8
100
0.07
Apocyn
aceae
Schizoglo
ssum
nitid
umSchltr
Phenyokga
Herb
Root
Dry
Boiled(untilwater
gain
colour)a
ndextract
istakenorally.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
21.4
66.6
0.02
Nasal
cong
estio
n1
0.7
33.3
Apocyn
aceae
Strophanthus
speciosus
(Ward&Harv.)
Reber
Morarwane
Shrub
Root
Dry
Boiledfor6
–12minutes.E
xtractistaken
orally.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
1510.7
100
0.10
Araceae
∗
Stylochaeton
natalen
sisScho
ttMokun
ya/
Mokushete
Herb
Root
Dry
Boiledfor5
minutes.E
xtractistakenorally.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
140
100
100
1
Araceae
Zantedeshiaaethiopica
(L.)
Spreng
.Mothebe
Herb
Root
Dry
Boiledfor5
–6minutes.E
xtractistaken
orally.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
75
100
0.05
6 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Table1:Con
tinued.
Botanicalfam
ilySp
eciesn
ames
Vernacular
name
Habit
Used
plan
tpa
rts
Stateo
fuse
Metho
dsof
herbal
preparationan
dad
minist
ratio
nAlim
ent/s
treated
Frequenc
yof
use;
n=TH
s(140
)FL
UV
UM
%
Aspho
delaceae
Aloe
spp.
Thogo/Marob
adibogale
Shrub
Leaf
Fresh
Mixed
with
driedpo
undedleafof
D.senecio
ides.B
oiledfor2
minutes.E
xtractis
takenorally.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
32.1
37.5
0.02
Macerated
inwarm
for3
–24h
rs.D
ecoctio
nistakenorally.
Thric
eaday
Fatig
ue5
3.5
62.5
0.03
Aspho
deloideae
Aloe
falca
taBa
ker
Sekgop
haSh
rub
Leaf
Fresh
Macerated
inwarm
water
2–5hrs.
Decoctio
nistakenorally.
Thric
eaday
Fatig
ue1
0.7
100
0.00
Aste
raceae
Artemisiaafra
Jacq.ex
Willd.var.afra
Legana/M
oilansi
Herb
Leaf
Dry
Boiledfor3
–7minutes.E
xtractistaken
orally.
Thric
eaday
Wheezing
223.5
6
0.23
Mixed
with
fresh
leafof
C.sativ
a.Bo
iledfor
5minutes.E
xtractistakenorally.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
8
17.8
75.7
Poun
dedandmixed
with
driedpo
wered
bark
ofP.afric
anum
.Taken
orallywith
Syrup�
.Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
1
Boiledfor4
–5minutes.Steam
isinhaled
(nasally)u
nder
blanket.Th
ricea
day
Asth
ma
16Nasal
cong
estio
n6
4.2
18.1
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 7
Table1:Con
tinued.
Botanicalfam
ilySp
eciesn
ames
Vernacular
name
Habit
Used
plan
tpa
rts
Stateo
fuse
Metho
dsof
herbal
preparationan
dad
minist
ratio
nAlim
ent/s
treated
Frequenc
yof
use;
n=TH
s(140
)FL
UV
UM
%
Aste
raceae
Callilep
islaureolaDC.
Phela/Hlonya/
Makuru/Pedipekanto
Herb
Root
Dry
Boiledfor4
–6minutes.E
xtractistaken
orally.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
10
9.2
86.6
0.10
Poun
dedandmixed
with
driedpo
wdered
root
ofZ.
capense.Takenorallywith
warm
water.Th
ricea
day
Asth
ma
1
Mixed
with
fresh
leafof
C.edulis.
Boiledfor
5minutes.E
xtractistakenorally.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
1
Poun
dedandmixed
with
driedpo
wered
root
ofL.javanica.B
oiledfor4
minutes.
Steam
isinhaled(nasally)u
nder
blanket.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
1
Boiledfor7
–9minutes.E
xtractistaken
orally.
Thric
eaday
Fatig
ue1
1.413.3
Poun
dedandmixed
with
driedpo
wered
who
leplantsof
H.caespititiu
m,leaveso
fL.
javanica
andT.dioica,and
root
ofO.
lanceolata.Taken
orallywith
warm
water.
Thric
eaday
Fatig
ue1
Aste
raceae
Dico
maanom
alasubsp.
gerrardii
Phelana/
Makuswaneng
Herb
Root
Dry
Boiledfor5
–8minutes.E
xtractistaken
orally.
Thric
eaday
Or
Poun
dedandtakenorallywith
warm
water.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
32.1
100
0.02
Aste
raceae
Helichrysum
caespititium
(DC.)H
arv.
Bokgatha
Herb
Who
leplant
Dry
Poun
dedandmixed
with
driedpo
wdered
rootso
fC.laureolaandO.
lanceolata,leaves
ofL.javanicaandT.dioica.Taken
orally
with
warm
water.Th
ricea
day
Fatig
ue1
0.7
100
0.00
8 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Table1:Con
tinued.
Botanicalfam
ilySp
eciesn
ames
Vernacular
name
Habit
Used
plan
tpa
rts
Stateo
fuse
Metho
dsof
herbal
preparationan
dad
minist
ratio
nAlim
ent/s
treated
Frequenc
yof
use;
n=TH
s(140
)FL
UV
UM
%
Aste
raceae
Helichrysum
gymnocomum
DC.
Mpeph
oHerb
Who
leplant
Dry
Poun
dedandtakenorallywith
warm
water.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
21.4
100
0.01
Aste
raceae
∗
Pseudognaphaliu
mluteo-
album
(L.)Hilliard
&B.L.Bu
rtt
Unk
nown
Herb
Leaf
Dry
Boiledfor5
minutes.E
xtractistakenorally.
Thric
eaday
Fatig
ue2
1.4100
0.01
Aste
raceae
Psiadiapunctulata
(DC.)
Vatke
Lesotlane/
Mon
otletsa
ne/le
sodi
Shrub
Root
Dry
Poun
dedandtakenorallywith
warm
water.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
75
53.8
0.05
Boiledfor5
–7minutes.Steam
isinhaled
under(nasally)b
lank
et.Th
ricea
day
Nasal
cong
estio
n6
4.2
46.1
0.04
Aste
raceae
∗
Schkuh
riapinn
ata(Lam
.)Ku
ntze
exTh
ell.
Sathum
e/Mosasane/Seralane
Herb
Who
leplant
Fresh
Poun
dedandmixed
with
driedpo
wdered
root
ofP.grandiflora.Pow
derisp
ouredin
theb
oiledwater.Steam
inhaled(nasally)
underb
lank
et.Th
ricea
day
Asth
ma
10.7
100
0.00
Aste
raceae
Senecio
serratuloidesD
C.Legatuludi
Shrub
Leaf
Dry
Boiledfor5
minutes.Steam
isinhaled
(nasally)u
nder
blanket.Th
ricea
day
Asth
ma
42.8
33.3
0.18
Poun
dedandtakenorallywith
warm
water.
Thric
eaday
Fatig
ue4
2.8
33.3
Wheezing
42.8
33.3
Aste
raceae
Vernonianatalen
sisSch.Bip.ex
Walp.
Mosuh
laHerb
Leaf
Leaf
Poun
dedandtakenorallywith
warm
water.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
1419.2
51.8
0.19
Boiledfor3
–8minutes
andste
amisinhaled
(nasally)u
nder
blanket.Th
ricea
day
Nasal
cong
estio
n12
9.2
48.1
Boiledfor5
–13minutes.E
xtractistaken
orally.
Thric
eaday
Nasal
cong
estio
n1
Cactaceae
∗
Opuntiaficus-in
dica
(L.)
Mill.
Motloro
Tree
Root
Dry
Poun
dedandtakenorallywith
warm
water.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
10.7
100
0.00
Canellaceae
Warburgiasalutaris
(G.Bertol.)
Chiov.
Molaka
Tree
Bark
Dry
Boiledfor4
–11m
inutes.E
xtractistaken
orally.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
42.8
36.3
0.07
Wheezing
75
63.6
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 9
Table1:Con
tinued.
Botanicalfam
ilySp
eciesn
ames
Vernacular
name
Habit
Used
plan
tpa
rts
Stateo
fuse
Metho
dsof
herbal
preparationan
dad
minist
ratio
nAlim
ent/s
treated
Frequenc
yof
use;
n=TH
s(140
)FL
UV
UM
%
Cann
abaceae
Cann
abissativaL.var.
indica
(Lam
.)Wehmer
Lebake/Patse
Herb
Leaf
Fresh
Mixed
with
driedleafof
A.afra.B
oiledfor5
minutes.E
xtractistakenorally.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
85.7
42.1
0.13
Dry
Poun
dedandtakenorallywith
warm
water.
Thric
eaday
Tight
chest
117.8
57.8
Capp
araceae
Maeruajuncea
Paxsubsp.
crustata(W
ild)W
ildDira
gadibo
nwe
Shrub
Root
Dry
Boiledfor5
minutes.E
xtractistakenorally.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
32.1
500.02
Mixed
with
fresh
bulbof
D.elata,drie
dbark
ofC.
abbreviata.B
oiledfor6
minutes.
Extractistaken
orally.
Thric
eaday
Fatig
ue1
2.1
500.02
Poun
dedandtakenorallywith
warm
water.
Thric
eaday
Fatig
ue2
Cela
straceae
Cathaedulis(Vahl)Fo
rssk.
exEn
dl.
Lehlatse/Lew
ang/
Molom
omon
ate
Tree
Root
Dry
Boiledfor5
minutes.E
xtractistakenorally.
Thric
eaday
Fatig
ue1
0.7
100
0.00
Con
volvulaceae
Ipom
oeaalbivenia(Lindl.)
Sweet
Mosop
eSh
rub
Root
Dry
Boiledfor4
–5minutes.E
xtractistaken
orally.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
10.7
100
0.00
Crassulaceae
Kalanchoeb
rachyloba
Welw
.exBritten
Moethi/
Mosim
anew
anaga/
Moritsikana
Shrub
Leaf
Fresh
Rubb
ed(raw
)betweenhand
sand
vapo
uris
inhaled(nasally).Th
ricea
day
Nasal
cong
estio
n13
9.2
100
0.09
10 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Table1:Con
tinued.
Botanicalfam
ilySp
eciesn
ames
Vernacular
name
Habit
Used
plan
tpa
rts
Stateo
fuse
Metho
dsof
herbal
preparationan
dad
minist
ratio
nAlim
ent/s
treated
Frequenc
yof
use;
n=TH
s(140
)FL
UV
UM
%
Cucurbita
ceae
Cucumismetuliferus
E.Mey.exNaudin
Tshitsh
iHerb
Root
Dry
Poun
dedandtakenorallywith
warm
water.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
42.8
100
0.02
Cyperaceae
Cyperussexangularis
Nees
Moh
lahla
Herb
Root
Dry
Poun
dedandtakenorallywith
warm
water.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
75
10.7
0.46
Fatig
ue58
41.4
89.2
Dioscoreaceae
Dioscorea
sylva
ticaEckl.
var.brevipes
(BurttDavy)
Burkill
Kgato
Herb
Tuber
Dry
Poun
dedandtakenorallywith
warm
water.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
107.1
100
0.07
Euph
orbiaceae
Croton
gratissim
usBu
rch.
var.gratissim
usMoo
lologa/Selo
gane
Tree
Root
Dry
Boiledfor6
–10minutes.E
xtractistaken
orally.
Thric
eaday
Or
Poun
dedandtakenorallywith
warm
water.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
128.5
48
0.17
Wheezing
85.7
32
Boiledfor9
minutes.Steam
isinhaled
(nasally)u
nder
blanket.Th
ricea
day
Nasal
cong
estio
n5
3.5
20
Euph
orbiaceae
EuphorbiaschinziiPax
Ngaka-dianya
Herb
Root
Dry
Boiledfor5
–8minutes.Steam
isinhaled
(nasally)u
nder
blanket.Th
ricea
day
Asth
ma
1913.5
100
0.13
Euph
orbiaceae
Jatro
phazeyheriSon
d.Seph
apabadiya
Herb
Root
Dry
Boiledfor5
minutes.E
xtractistakenorally.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
10.7
100
0.00
Euph
orbiaceae
Tragiadioica
Sond
.Bo
gopa/
Mabatsane
Herb
Leaf
Dry
Poun
dedandmixed
with
driedpo
wered
who
leplanto
fH.caespititiu
m,leafo
fL.
javanica
androotso
fO.lan
ceolataandC.
laureola.Taken
orallywith
warm
water.
Thric
eaday
Fatig
ue1
0.7
100
0.00
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 11
Table1:Con
tinued.
Botanicalfam
ilySp
eciesn
ames
Vernacular
name
Habit
Used
plan
tpa
rts
Stateo
fuse
Metho
dsof
herbal
preparationan
dad
minist
ratio
nAlim
ent/s
treated
Frequenc
yof
use;
n=TH
s(140
)FL
UV
UM
%
Fabaceae
Acaciaerioloba
E.Mey.
Mogoh
lo/
Mosu
Tree
Root
Dry
Poun
dedandmixed
with
driedpo
wdered
bark
ofP.afric
anum
andS.birrea,and
root
ofX.
caffra.Takenorallywith
warm
water.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
10.7
100
0.00
Fabaceae
Acaciasieberia
naDC.
var.
woo
dii(Bu
rttD
avy)
Keay
&Brenan
Mosu
Tree
Root
Dry
Poun
dedandtakenorallywith
warm
water.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
10.7
100
0.00
Fabaceae
Acaciasenegal(L.)W
illd.
var.rostr
ataB
renan
Mokgarip
eTree
Root
Dry
Boiledfor6
–11m
inutes.E
xtractistaken
orally.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
21.4
100
0.01
Fabaceae
Albiziaadianthifolia
(Schum
ach.)W
.Wight
var.
adianthifolia
Mafahla-nare
Tree
Root
Dry
Boiledfor5
–12minutes.E
xtractistaken
orally.
Thric
eaday
Or
Poun
dedandtakenorallywith
warm
water.
Thric
eaday
Fatig
ue3
2.1
100
0.02
Fabaceae
Cassiaabbreviata
Oliv.
subsp.beareana
(Holmes)
Brenan
Mon
epenepe
Tree
Bark
Dry
Boiledfor5
–9minutes.E
xtractistaken
orally.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
32.1
100
0.02
Fabaceae
Elephantorrhizaburkei
Benth.
Mosisa
ne/
Batsw
etsi
Shrub
Root
Dry
Poun
dedandmixed
with
driedpo
wdered
stem
ofA.
spinosaandroot
ofP.afric
anum
.Takenorallywith
warm
water.Th
ricea
day
Fatig
ue1
2.1
500.04
Boiledfor5
–8minutes.E
xtractistaken
orally.
Thric
eaday
Fatig
ue2
Asth
ma
32.1
50
Fabaceae
Elephantorrhizagoetzei
(Harms)Harmssub
sp.
goetzei
Mositsane
Shrub
Root
Dry
Mixed
with
fresh
bulbof
E.autumna
lis.
Boiledfor6
minutes.E
xtractistakenorally.
Thric
eaday
Fatig
ue1
0.7
100
0.00
12 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Table1:Con
tinued.
Botanicalfam
ilySp
eciesn
ames
Vernacular
name
Habit
Used
plan
tpa
rts
Stateo
fuse
Metho
dsof
herbal
preparationan
dad
minist
ratio
nAlim
ent/s
treated
Frequenc
yof
use;
n=TH
s(140
)FL
UV
UM
%
Fabaceae
Erythrinalys
istem
onHutch.
Sebalo/
Mmale
Tree
Bark
Dry
Boiledfor5
–8minutes.E
xtractistaken
orally.
Thric
eaday
Wheezing
107.1
100
0.07
Fabaceae
Peltophorum
afric
anum
Sond
.Mosehla
Tree
Bark
Dry
Poun
dedandmixed
with
driedpo
wered
leafof
A.afra.Taken
orallywith
Syrup�
.Th
ricea
day
Asth
ma
1
2.1
21.4
0.1
Poun
dedandmixed
with
adrie
dpo
wdered
root
ofB.
discolor
andS.ita
lica,anddried
bark
ofS.birrea.Pow
ered
ispo
ured
into
theb
oiledwater
andste
amisinhaled
(nasally)u
nder
blanket.Th
ricea
day
Asth
ma
1
Poun
dedandmixed
with
driedpo
wdered
rootso
fA.erio
loba,X
.caff
raanddriedbark
ofS.birrea.Taken
orallywith
warm
water.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
1
Boiledfor5
–11m
inutes.E
xtractstaken
orally.
Thric
eaday
Fatig
ue10
7.878
.5Ro
otPo
undedandmixed
with
driedpo
wdered
stem
ofA.
spinosaandar
ooto
fE.burkei.
Takenorallywith
warm
water.Th
ricea
day
Fatig
ue1
Fabaceae
Senn
aita
licaMill.sub
sp.
aracho
ides
(Burch.)Lo
ckMoroteladitsho
siHerb
Root
Dry
Poun
dedandmixed
with
adrie
dpo
wdered
rootso
fB.discolor,drie
dbark
ofS.birrea
andP.afric
anum
.Po
wered
ispo
ured
into
theb
oiledwater
andste
amisinhaled
(nasally)u
nder
blanket.Th
ricea
day
Asth
ma
16.4
100
0.06
Boiledfor4
–8minutes.E
xtractistaken
orally.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
8
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 13
Table1:Con
tinued.
Botanicalfam
ilySp
eciesn
ames
Vernacular
name
Habit
Used
plan
tpa
rts
Stateo
fuse
Metho
dsof
herbal
preparationan
dad
minist
ratio
nAlim
ent/s
treated
Frequenc
yof
use;
n=TH
s(140
)FL
UV
UM
%
Gentia
naceae
Enico
stemaaxillare(Lam.)
A.Raynalsub
sp.A
xillare
Makgono
tsohle/
Mph
edu-ya-th
aba
Herb
Who
leplant
Dry
Boiledfor5
–14minutes.E
xtractistaken
orally.
Thric
eaday
Or
Poun
dedandtakenorallywith
warm
water.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
140
100
100
1
Hyacinthaceae
Drim
iaela
taJacq.
Sekanama
Herb
Bulb
Fresh
Mixed
with
driedroot
ofM.jun
cea,dried
bark
ofC.
abbreviata.B
oiledfor6
minutes.
Extractistaken
orally.
Thric
eaday
Fatig
ue1
0.7
8.3
0.08
Boiledfor6
minutes.E
xtractistakenorally.
Thric
eaday
Fatig
ue3
2.1
25Wheezing
42.8
33.3
Boiledfor5
minutes.Steam
isinhaled
(nasally)u
nder
blanket.Th
ricea
day
Asth
ma
42.8
33.3
Hyacinthaceae
Eucomisautumna
lis(M
ill.)
Chitt.
Mathu
badifala
Herb
Bulb
Fresh
Boiledfor5
minutes.E
xtractistakenorally.
Thric
eaday
Nasal
cong
estio
n8
5.7
88.8
0.05
Mixed
with
driedroot
driedof
E.goetzei.
Boiledfor6
minutes.E
xtractistakenorally.
Thric
eaday
Fatig
ue1
0.7
11.1
0.00
Hyacinthaceae
Eucomispallidiflora
Baker
subsp.po
le-evansii
(N.E.Br.)
Reyn
ekee
xJ.C
.Manning
Mathu
badifala
Herb
Bulb
Fresh
Boiledfor5
–8minutes.Steam
isinhaled
(nasally)u
nder
blanket.Th
ricea
day
Nasal
cong
estio
n11
7.852.2
0.15
Boiledfor5
–10minutes.E
xtractistaken
orally.
Thric
eaday
Fatig
ue9
6.4
42.8
Wheezing
10.7
4.7
Hypoxidaceae
Hypoxishemerocallid
eaFisch.,C
.A.M
ey.&
Ave-
Lall
Hlaku
dibo
ya/Titikw
ane/
Sekgekolwana
Herb
Tuber
Fresh
Mixed
with
fresh
bulbof
S.aethiopicus.
Boiledfor5
minutes.E
xtractistakenorally.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
110
77.7
0.12
Boiledfor5
–12minutes.E
xtractistaken
orally.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
13Fatig
ue4
2.8
22.2
14 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Table1:Con
tinued.
Botanicalfam
ilySp
eciesn
ames
Vernacular
name
Habit
Used
plan
tpa
rts
Stateo
fuse
Metho
dsof
herbal
preparationan
dad
minist
ratio
nAlim
ent/s
treated
Frequenc
yof
use;
n=TH
s(140
)FL
UV
UM
%
Hypoxidaceae
Hypoxisobtusa
Burch.ex
KerG
awl.
Mon
namaledu
Herb
Tuber
Fresh
Boiledfor4
–7minutes.E
xtractistaken
orally.
Thric
eaday
Fatig
ue2
1.4100
0.01
Icacinaceae
Cassinopsisilicifolia
(Hochst.)
Kuntze
Moh
ufi/M
ohufe
Tree
Root
Dry
Boiledfor5
–7minutes.E
xtractistaken
orally.
Thric
eaday
Fatig
ue2
1.4100
0.01
Icacinaceae
Pyrena
cantha
grandiflora
Baill.
Bjere
Shrub
Root
Dry
Poun
dedandmixed
with
driedpo
wdered
entirep
lant
ofS.pinn
ata.Po
wderisp
oured
intheb
oiledwater.Steam
inhaled(nasally)
underb
lank
et.Th
ricea
day
Asth
ma
10.7
100
0.01
Kirkiaceae
Kirkiawilm
siiEn
gl.
Mod
umela/
mogaba
Tree
Bark
Fresh
Boiledform
inutes.Steam
isinhaled
(nasally)u
nder
blanket.Th
ricea
day
Asth
ma
21.4
66.6
0.02
Nasal
cong
estio
n1
0.7
33.3
Lamiaceae
Clerodendrum
glabrum
E.Mey.var.ang
ustifolium
E.Mey.
Moh
lokohloko
Tree
Leaf
Fresh
Boiledfor5
–8minutes.E
xtractistaken
orally.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
42.8
100
0.02
Lamiaceae
Clerodendrum
ternatum
Schinz
Sebo
kane
Herb
Who
leplant
Dry
Poun
dedandtakenorallywith
warm
water.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
140
100
100
1
Lamiaceae
Leonotisleo
nurus(L.)
R.Br.
Lebake
Shrub
Root
orleaf
Dry
Poun
dedandtakenorallywith
warm
water.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
1410
100
0.1
Lauraceae
Cryptocaryatra
nsvaalensis
BurttD
avy
Kgosup
saTree
Bark
Dry
Boiledfor5
–9minutes.E
xtractistaken
orally.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
140
100
100
1
Malvaceae
AbutilongalpiniiA.M
eeuse
Mmotsa
Shrub
Root
Dry
Boiledfor5
–8minutes.E
xtractistaken
orally.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
53.5
100
0.03
Malvaceae
Adan
soniadigitata
Mogoo
Tree
Root
Dry
Boiledfor6
–10minutes.E
xtractistaken
orally.
Thric
eaday
Fatig
ue68
48.5
100
0.48
Malvaceae
Dom
beya
rotund
ifolia
(Hochst.)
Planch.var.
rotund
ifolia
Mokgoba
Tree
Root
Dry
Poun
dedandextractistaken
orallywith
warm
water.Th
ricea
day
Fatig
ue3
2.1
100
0.02
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 15
Table1:Con
tinued.
Botanicalfam
ilySp
eciesn
ames
Vernacular
name
Habit
Used
plan
tpa
rts
Stateo
fuse
Metho
dsof
herbal
preparationan
dad
minist
ratio
nAlim
ent/s
treated
Frequenc
yof
use;
n=TH
s(140
)FL
UV
UM
%
Malvaceae
Gossypium
herbaceum
L.subsp.afric
anum
(Watt)
Vollesen
Katlu
ni/Leoko
di/
Moh
lare-w
a-maw
isiSh
rub
Root
Dry
Poun
dedandextractistaken
orallywith
warm
water.Th
ricea
day
Asth
ma
7050
100
0.5
Malvaceae
Grew
iahispidaHarv.
Mog
wete/
Mogolori/L
efielo
Shrub
Root
Dry
Poun
dedandextractistaken
orally.
Thric
ead
ayNasal
cong
estio
n2
1,4100
0.01
Malvaceae
Grew
iasulca
taMast.var.
sulcata
Mog
wete/Mogoto
Tree
Root
Dry
Poun
dedandtakenorallywith
warm
water.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
21.4
100
0.01
Malvaceae
Sida
cordifolia
L.Moh
utasela
Shrub
Root
Dry
Poun
dedandtakenorallywith
warm
water.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
32.1
100
0.02
Mesem
bryanthemaceae
Carpobrotusedu
lis(L.)
L.Bo
lussub
sp.edu
lisMoshipse
Herb
Leaf
Fresh
Chew
ed(orally)a
sraw
andjuiceis
swallowed.Th
ricea
day
Asth
ma
32.8
100
0.02
Mixed
with
driedroot
ofC.
laureola.B
oiled
for5
minutes.E
xtractistakenorally.
Thric
ead
ayAsth
ma
1
Moringaceae
∗
Moringa
oleiferasensu
Exell&
Mendo
nMoringka
Tree
Leaf
Dry
Poun
dedandtakenorallywith
warm
water.
Thric
eaday
Fatig
ue17
12.1
100
0.12
Myrtaceae
∗
Eucalyptus
camaldu
lensis
Dehnh
Mop
ilikomo
Tree
Bark
Dry
Boiledfor5
minutes.Steam
isinhaled
(nasally)u
nder
blanket.Th
ricea
day
Asth
ma
10.7
100
0.00
16 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Table1:Con
tinued.
Botanicalfam
ilySp
eciesn
ames
Vernacular
name
Habit
Used
plan
tpa
rts
Stateo
fuse
Metho
dsof
herbal
preparationan
dad
minist
ratio
nAlim
ent/s
treated
Frequenc
yof
use;
n=TH
s(140
)FL
UV
UM
%
Olacaceae
XimeniacaffraSond
.var.
natalen
sisSond
.Motshidi-k
gomo
Tree
Root
Dry
Poun
dedandmixed
with
driedpo
wdered
rootso
fA.A
.erio
loba,drie
dbark
ofP.
afric
anum
andS.birrea.Taken
orallywith
warm
water.Th
ricea
day
Asth
ma
15.7
100
0.05
Poun
dedandtakenorallywith
warm
water.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
7
Oleaceae
Olea
europaea
L.subsp.
afric
ana(
Mill.)P.S
.Green
Moh
lware/Mo-olive
Tree
Root
Dry
Poun
dedandtakenorallywith
warm
water.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
43.5
100
0.03
Boiledfor8
minutes
andextractistaken
orally.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
1
Punicaceae
∗
Panica
granatum
L.Mokgarenate
Tree
Fruit
scale
Fresh
Chew
asraw(orally).Th
ricea
day
Asthm
a1
0.7
100
0.00
Passifloraceae
Adeniafru
ticosaBu
rttD
avy
subsp.fruticosa
Mop
owane
Shrub
Root
Dry
Boiledfor5
–13minutes.E
xtractistaken
orally.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
99.2
69.2
0.09
Boiledfor6
minutes.E
xtractisused
topically
asbath.Th
ricea
day
Fatig
ue4
2.8
30.7
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 17
Table1:Con
tinued.
Botanicalfam
ilySp
eciesn
ames
Vernacular
name
Habit
Used
plan
tpa
rts
Stateo
fuse
Metho
dsof
herbal
preparationan
dad
minist
ratio
nAlim
ent/s
treated
Frequenc
yof
use;
n=TH
s(140
)FL
UV
UM
%
Passifloraceae
AdeniaspinosaBu
rttD
avy
Mon
na-apare/
Pisayabatsu
mi/
Mothema
Shrub
Stem
Dry
Poun
dedandtakenorallywith
warm
water.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
2517.8
30.4
0.58
Fatig
ue56
40.7
69.5
Poun
dedandmixed
with
driedpo
wdered
rootso
fE.burkeiand
P.afric
anum
.Taken
orallywith
warm
water.Th
ricea
day
Fatig
ue1
Pedaliaceae
Dice
rocaryum
senecio
ides
(Klotzsch)
Abels
Mom
phati
Herb
Leaf
Dry
Poun
dedandmixed
with
fresh
leafof
Aloe
spp.B
oiledfor2
minutes.E
xtractistaken
orally.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
32.1
100
0.02
Plum
baginaceae
Plum
bago
zeylanica
L.Masim
abe/
Masegom
abe
Shrub
Root
Dry
Boiledfor6
–13minutes.E
xtractistaken
orally.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
42.8
800.03
Nasal
cong
estio
n1
0.7
20
Poaceae
Sorghu
mbicolor(L.)
Moenchsubsp.
arun
dinaceum
(Desv.)
deWet&Harlan
Mabele-thoro
Herb
Seed
Dry
Poun
dedandtakenorallywith
Mageu�
drinkor
softpo
rridge.Th
ricea
day
Fatig
ue6
4.2
100
0.04
Poaceae
∗
Zeamayssub
sp.m
aysL
.Mabele
Herb
Root
Dry
Poun
dedandtakenorallywith
warm
water.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
10.7
100
0.00
Polygalaceae
Securid
aca
longepedun
culata
Fresen.
var.longepedun
culata
Mph
esu/
Mpitlamarago
Tree
Root
Dry
Boiledfor5
–10minutes.Steam
isinhaled
(nasally)u
nder
blanket.Th
ricea
day
Asth
ma
21.4
100
0.01
Proteaceae
Protea
caffraMeisn.
subsp.caffra
Mod
umela
Tree
Root
Dry
Poun
dedandtakenorallywith
warm
water.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
85.7
88.8
0.06
Fatig
ue1
0.7
11.1
Ptaeroxylaceae
Ptaeroxylonobliquu
m(Th
unb.)R
adlk.
Mogabaletsw
ana
Tree
Root
Dry
Poun
dedandtakenorallywith
warm
water.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
2517.8
100
0.17
Rham
naceae
Berchemiadiscolor
(Klotzsch)
Hem
sl.Mon
eyee/
Mogokgoma
Tree
Root
Dry
Poun
dedandmixed
with
powdereddried
bark
ofS.birrea
andP.afric
anum
,and
dried
root
ofS.ita
lica.Po
wderisp
ouredin
boiled
water
andste
amisinhaled(nasally)u
nder
blanket.Th
ricea
day
Asth
ma
10.7
100
0.00
18 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Table1:Con
tinued.
Botanicalfam
ilySp
eciesn
ames
Vernacular
name
Habit
Used
plan
tpa
rts
Stateo
fuse
Metho
dsof
herbal
preparationan
dad
minist
ratio
nAlim
ent/s
treated
Frequenc
yof
use;
n=TH
s(140
)FL
UV
UM
%
Rham
naceae
Zizip
husm
ucronata
Willd.
subsp.mucronata
Mokgalo
Tree
Root
Dry
Poun
dedandtakenorallywith
warm
water.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
10.7
100
0.00
Rutaceae
∗
Citru
slim
on(L.)Bu
rm.f.
Moswiri
Tree
Fruit
Fresh
Boiledfor4
–5minutes.E
xtractistaken
orally.
Thric
eaday
Tight
chest
21.4
100
0.01
Rutaceae
Veprisreflexa
I.Verd.
Pharagob
eTree
Root
Dry
Poun
dedandtakenorallywith
warm
water.
Thric
eaday
Fatig
ue2
1.4100
0.01
Rutaceae
Zanthoxylum
capense
(Thun
b.)H
arv.
Mon
okwane/Moregakgaka
Tree
Root
Dry
Poun
dedandtakenorallywith
warm
water.
Thric
eaday
Wheezing
75
53.8
0.09
Asth
ma
53.5
46.1
Poun
dedandmixed
with
driedpo
wdered
root
ofC.
laureola.Taken
orallyiswith
warm
water.Th
ricea
day
Asth
ma
10.7
Santalaceae
Osyris
lanceolata
Hochst.
&Steud.
Mph
era
Tree
Root
Dry
Poun
dedandtakenorallywith
warm
water.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
1411.4
87.5
0.11
Poun
dedandmixed
with
driedpo
wdered
root
ofW.som
nifer
a.Takenorallywith
warm
water.Th
ricea
day
Labo
ured
breathing
10.7
6.2
Poun
dedandmixed
with
driedpo
wdered
root
ofC.
laureolaandO.
lanceolata,w
hole
planto
fH.caespititiu
mandleaves
ofL.
javanica
andT.dioica.Taken
orallywith
warm
water.Th
ricea
day
Fatig
ue1
0.7
6.2
Sapind
aceae
DodonaeaviscosaJacq.
var.angustifolia
(L.f.)
Benth.
Mofentsh
eTree
Root
Dry
Poun
dedandtakenorallywith
warm
water.
Thric
eaday
Labo
ured
breathing
10.7
100
0.00
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 19
Table1:Con
tinued.
Botanicalfam
ilySp
eciesn
ames
Vernacular
name
Habit
Used
plan
tpa
rts
Stateo
fuse
Metho
dsof
herbal
preparationan
dad
minist
ratio
nAlim
ent/s
treated
Frequenc
yof
use;
n=TH
s(140
)FL
UV
UM
%
Sapo
taceae
Engle
rophytum
magalism
ontanu
m(Son
d.)
T.D.Penn.
Moh
latsh
wa
Tree
Root
Dry
Boiledfor5
minutes.Steam
isinhaled
(nasally)u
nder
blanket.Th
ricea
day
Asth
ma
32.1
100
0.02
Sapo
taceae
Mim
usopso
bovata
Nees
exSond
.Mmup
udu
Tree
Root
Dry
Mixed
with
(spider’s
web).Po
undedand
takenorallywith
warm
water.Th
ricea
day
Asth
ma
140
100
100
1
Scroph
ulariaceae
Budd
lejasalvifolia
(L.)Lam
Moketla
Shrub
Root
Dry
Boiledfor5
–10minutes.Steam
isinhaled
(nasally)u
nder
blanket.Th
ricea
day
Asth
ma
32.1
100
0.02
Solanaceae
Solanu
mcatombelen
sePeyr.
Motho
la-o-
mom
okhw
ibidu
Herb
Who
leplant
Dry
Poun
dedandtakenorallywith
warm
water.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
21.4
100
0.01
Solanaceae
Solanu
mpand
uriform
eE.Mey.
Motho
la-o-
moserolwane
Herb
Root
Dry
Poun
dedandtakenorallywith
warm
water.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
32.1
100
0.02
Solanaceae
With
aniasomnifer
a(L.)
Dun
alMosalasup
eng
Shrub
Root
Dry
Poun
dedandtakenorallywith
warm
water.
Thric
eaday
Fatig
ue6
4.2
85.7
0.04
Poun
dedandmixed
with
driedpo
wdered
root
ofO.
lanceolata.Taken
orallywith
warm
water.Th
ricea
day
Labo
ured
breathing
10.7
14.2
0.00
Thym
elaeacea
Lasio
siphoncafferM
eisn.
Nkekologe
Shrub
Root
Dry
Poun
dedandtakenorallywith
warm
water.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
140
100
100
1.12
Tight
chest
1712.1
10.8
Vello
ziaceae
Xerophytaretin
ervisB
aker
Thuse
Herb
Root
Dry
Poun
dedandtakenorallywith
warm
water.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
42.8
100
0.02
Verbenaceae
Lantanarugosa
Thun
b.Bo
kokotane/
mokokotane
Shrub
Leaf
Fresh
Boiledfor5
–10minutes.Steam
isinhaled
(nasally)u
nder
blanket.Th
ricea
day
Asth
ma
53.5
100
0.03
20 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Table1:Con
tinued.
Botanicalfam
ilySp
eciesn
ames
Vernacular
name
Habit
Used
plan
tpa
rts
Stateo
fuse
Metho
dsof
herbal
preparationan
dad
minist
ratio
nAlim
ent/s
treated
Frequenc
yof
use;
n=TH
s(140
)FL
UV
UM
%
Verbenaceae
Lippiajavanica
(Burm.f.)
Spreng
Mosun
kwane/
motlaba-dipoo
Shrub
Leaf
Fresh
Poun
dedandmixed
with
driedpo
wdered
root
ofC.
laureola.B
oiledfor4
minutes
and
steam
isinhaled(nasally)u
nder
blanket.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
17.1
55.5
0.12
Boiledfor5
–13minutes.Steam
isinhaled
(nasally)u
nder
blanket.Th
ricea
day
Asth
ma
9
Dry
Poun
dedandmixed
with
driedpo
wdered
rootso
fC.laureolaandO.
lanceolata,w
hole
planto
fH.caespititiu
m,and
leafof
T.dioica.
Takenorallywith
warm
water.Th
ricea
day
Fatig
ue1
0.7
5.5
Fresh
Boiledfor5
–14minutes.E
xtractistaken
orally.
Thric
eaday
Labo
ured
breathing
21.4
11.1
Boiledfor5
–10minutes.Steam
isinhaled
(nasally)u
nder
blanket.Th
ricea
day
Nasal
cong
estio
n1
0.7
5.5
Boiledfor5
minutes.Steam
isinhaled
(nasally)u
nder
blanket,bu
twhileeyes
open.Th
ricea
day
Wheezing
42.8
22.2
Vitaceae
Rhoicissustom
entosa
(Lam
.)Wild
&R.B.Drumm.
Terebe-ya-
nageng
Herb
Root
Dry
Poun
dedandtakenorallywith
warm
water.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
42.8
100
0.02
Zing
iberaceae
Siphonochilusa
ethiopicu
s(Schweinf.)B.L.Bu
rtt
Serokolo
Herb
Bulb
Fresh
Mixed
with
fresh
bulbof
H.hem
erocallid
ea.
Boiledfor5
minutes.E
xtractistakenorally.
Thric
eaday
Asth
ma
10.7
100
0.00
Key:Ex
oticplantspecies:aste
risk(∗),fid
elity
level;FL
,use
mentio
n;UM
andusev
alue;U
V.
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 21
across the studied municipalities and districts. Overall themost widely distributed medicinal plant species (6.7%, n=7)used in all these geographical areas were Clerodendrumternatum,Cryptocarya transvaalensis, Lasiosiphon caffer, Eni-costema axillare, Mimusops obovata, Sclerocarya birrea, andStylochaeton natalensis. The widespread utilisation of thesespecies shows that they are popular, safe, and well-known asasthma therapies in Bapedi traditional healing sectors.
An overwhelming majority (40%, n=42) of species com-prising Abutilon galpinii, Acacia erioloba, Acacia senegal,Acacia sieberiana, Albizia adianthifolia, Allium sativum, Aloefalcata, Berchemia discolor, Blepharis diversispina, Blepharissubvolubilis, Buddleja salviifolia, Cassinopsis ilicifolia, Cathaedulis, Clivia caulescens, Dicerocaryum senecioides, Dicomaanomala, Dodonaea viscosa, Dombeya rotundifolia, Elephan-torrhiza goetzei, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Grewia hispida,Grewia sulcata, Harpephyllum caffrum, Helichrysum cae-spititium, Helichrysum gymnocomum, Hypoxis obtusa, Ipo-moea albivenia, Jatropha zeyheri, Mangifera indica, Opun-tia ficus-indica, Panica granatum, Pyrenacantha grandiflora,Rhoicissus tomentosa, Schkuhria pinnata, Sida cordifolia,Siphonochilus aethiopicus, Sorghum bicolor, Tragia dioica,Tulbaghia violacea, Zantedeschia aethiopica, Zea mays, andZiziphus mucronata were used in a single municipalitylocated within one of the three studied districts (Table 2).This finding might be attributed to the natural distributionof these taxa in the studied districts or variation with respectto THs’ indigenous knowledge related to their applications asantiasthmatic medicines.
The above can also be said for 19.3% (n=20) of plants,namely,Adansonia digitata, Adenia fruticosa, Aloe spp., Citruslimon, Clerodendrum glabrum, Cucumis metuliferus, Englero-phytum magalismontanum, Erythrina lysistemon, Eucomisautumnalis, Euphorbia schinzii, Lantana rugosa, Leonotisleonurus, Maerua juncea, Olea europaea, Pseudognaphaliumluteo-album, Solanum catombelense, Solanum panduriforme,Vepris reflexa, Warburgia salutaris, and Xerophyta retinervis,which were utilised by THs in particular municipalitieslocated in one district. The remainder (33.7%, n=35) ofthe plant species recorded in the present study were alsodistributed in certain municipalities but in more than onedistrict (Table 2).
3.4. Species Utilisation and Literature Comparison. Amongstthe 104 plants recorded in the current study, vast majority(50.9%, n=53) were used by THs to exclusively manageasthma, and 25.9% (n=27) for both asthma and the followingsymptoms: fatigue, nasal congestion, tight chest, wheeze,laboured breathing, nasal congestion and wheezing, fatigueand wheezing, and fatigue and laboured breathing, as wellas fatigue, laboured breathing, nasal congestion, and wheeze.The remaining 24.0% (n=25) of the taxa were used exclusivelyto heal some of these symptoms (Table 1). Overall all taxarecorded in this study are known medicinal plants in SouthAfrica and thus form part of local traditional ethnophar-macopoeia of various cultures in this country. However, thepractice of Bapedi traditional healers to select various plantspecies to exclusively treat asthma might be attributed to anumber of factors including the availability of some plants
during certain season of the year and in selected geographicalareas. Furthermore, it is perhaps a means to allow themto select more effective asthma remedy or it is traditionalpractice they learned from their mentors.
3.4.1. AsthmaTherapies. Of the 53 (50.9%) asthmatic species,six (11.3%) comprising C. ternatum, C. transvaalensis, E. axil-lare, M. obovata, S. birrea, and S. natalensis were appreciatedby all THs (n=140) who treated asthma across the study sites.To the best of our knowledge, with the exclusion of S. birreawhich were previously highlighted by Ojewole [36] as beingused for asthma in unspecified Southern Africa countries,all the aforesaid taxa are recorded for the first time in ourstudy as remedy for this ailment. However, such species arewell-known and widely used as traditional cure for otherhuman diseases across Africa. Hossan et al. [37] observed thatmedicinal plants that are both highly and widely used for aparticular ailment are inmost case new sources ofmedicationof such affliction. Taking into account this, we hypothesizethat the wide use of the above-listed six taxa in the treatmentof asthma by Bapedi THs is due to their effectiveness andthus must be investigated for their potential as new source ofasthma medication. In fact utilisation of E. axillare by theseTHs is already supported by scientific studies. For instance, itsextract exhibited both anti-inflammatory and antiasthmaticactivities [38]. Ethanol extracts of Clerodendrum serratumLinn roots showed good antiasthmatic activity in experi-mental animal [39], thus suggesting that a closely relatedspeciesC. ternatum (used by Bapedi)might also possess sameactivity.
Most (50%, n=26) of the remaining plants, A. galpinii,A. erioloba, A. senegal, A. sieberiana, B. discolor, B. salvi-ifolia, C. edulis, C. glabrum, C. caulescens, C. metuliferus,D. senecioides, Dioscorea sylvatica, E. magalismontanum, E.schinzii, G. sulcata, H. caffrum, I. albivenia, J. zeyheri, L.rugosa, P. grandiflora, R. tomentosa, S. pinnata, Senna italica,S. catombelense, S. panduriforme, and Strophanthus speciosus,used in this study to exclusively treat asthma were alsodocumented for the first time in this study as remedies forthis condition. These species are also traditionally utilised asmedicine to treat different human diseases in South Africaand other African countries. Therefore, their use in thisstudy for asthma is an indication that they might be safefor consumption as remedies. From conservation point ofview restricted knowledge of the above-mentioned speciesto Bapedi THs as therapies for asthma to some extent hasadvantage, as it decreases the impact of being extensivelyand recurrently harvested across the countries tomanage thischronic disorder.
The utilisation of the rest (38.5%, n=20) of the species,namely, Alepidea amatymbica, Cassia abbreviata, Carpo-brotus edulis, D. anomala, E. camaldulensis, Gossypiumherbaceum, H. gymnocomum, L. leonurus, M. indica, O.europaea, O. ficus-indica, P. granatum, S. cordifolia, S.aethiopicus, Securidaca longepedunculata, Ximenia caffra, X.retinervis, Z. aethiopica, Z. mucronata, and Z. mays, usedfor asthma by Bapedi THs was previously culturally vali-dated either in South Africa, in other African countries, orelsewhere. Nonjinge and Tarr [40] who worked with Zulu
22 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Table2:Use
ofspeciestotre
atasthma(
AS)
andrelated
symptom
swith
inthed
istric
tsandmun
icipalities.
Speciesn
ame
Dist
rictsa
ndmun
icipalities
Sum
of
overall
ailm
ent
treated
per
species
Capricorn
Sekh
ukhu
neWaterberg
Agana
ngBlou
berg
Lepelle
-
Nku
mpi
Molem
ole
Polokw
ane
Sum
of
ailm
ent
(FC)
Elias
Motsoaledi
Ephrim
e
Mog
ale
Fetakg
omo
Mak
hudu
matha
maga
Tubatse
Sum
of
ailm
ent
(FC)
Bela-
Bela
Leph
alale
Mod
imolle
Mog
alakwe
naMoo
kgop
hong
Thab
azim
bi
Sum
of
ailm
ent
(FC)
Abutilongalpinii
--
--
-0
--
-AS:5
-5
--
--
--
05
Acaciaerioloba
AS:1”
--
--
1-
--
--
0-
--
--
-0
1
Acaciasenegal
--
--
-0
--
--
-0
-AS:2
--
--
22
Acaciasieberia
naAS:1
--
--
1-
--
--
0-
--
--
-0
1
Alliu
msativ
umAS:1
--
--
1-
--
--
0-
--
--
-0
1
LB:1
--
--
1-
--
--
0-
--
--
-0
1
Adan
soniadigitata
FA:14
FA:15
FA:13
FA:11
FA:15
68-
--
--
0-
--
--
-0
68
Adeniafru
ticosa
-AS:2
AS:6
-AS:1
9-
--
-0
--
--
--
09
--
FA:4
--
4-
--
--
0-
--
--
-0
4
Adeniaspinosa
AS:1
--
AS:13
-14
--
--
AS:4
4-
AS:1
--
-AS:6
725
-FA
:1”:8
FA:1
--
10FA
:13FA
:10FA
:6FA
:6FA
:439
--
-FA
:8-
-8
57
Albiziaadianthifolia
FA:3
--
--
3-
--
--
0-
--
--
-0
3
Alepidea
amatym
bica
AS:1
AS:1
-AS:3
-5
--
--
-0
--
--
-AS:6
611
Aloe
spp.
--
--
-0
--
--
-0
--
--
AS:3”
-3
3
--
--
-0
--
--
-0
-FA
:5-
--
-5
5
Aloe
falca
ta-
--
--
0-
--
--
0-
--
--
FA:1
11
Artemisiaafra
AS:4”
AS:3”
AS:1”
-AS:7
15-
-AS:1”
AS:6
-7
AS:3
--
--
-3
25
--
NC:6
--
6-
--
--
0-
--
--
-0
6
WH:2
--
--
2-
--
--
0-
--
--
-0
2
Berchemiadiscolor
--
--
-0
-AS:1”
--
1-
--
--
-0
1
Blepharis
diversisp
ina
--
--
-0
FA:6
--
--
6-
--
--
-0
6
Blepharis
subvolubilis
--
--
FA:1
1-
--
--
0-
--
--
-0
1
Budd
lejasalvifolia
--
--
AS:3
3-
--
--
0-
--
--
-0
3
Callilep
islaureola
AS:1
--
-AS:1”
2-
AS:1”
--
AS:2
3AS:2
AS:1
--
AS:1”:4
-8
13
FA:1
--
--
1-
FA:1”
--
-1
--
--
--
02
Cann
abissativa
AS:4”
AS:3”
--
-7
--
AS:1”
--
1-
--
--
-0
8
--
TC:11
--
11-
--
--
0-
--
--
-0
11
Carpobrotusedu
lis-
-AS:1
-AS:2
3-
AS:1”
--
-1
--
--
--
04
Cassiaabbreviata
-AS:3
--
-3
--
--
-0
--
--
--
03
FA:1”:2
--
--
3-
--
--
0-
--
--
-0
3
Cassinopsisilicifolia
--
--
-0
-FA
:2-
--
2-
--
--
-0
2
Cathaedulis
FA:1
--
--
1-
--
--
0-
--
--
-0
1
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 23
Table2:Con
tinued.
Speciesn
ame
Dist
rictsa
ndmun
icipalities
Sum
of
overall
ailm
ent
treated
per
species
Capricorn
Sekh
ukhu
neWaterberg
Agana
ngBlou
berg
Lepelle
-
Nku
mpi
Molem
ole
Polokw
ane
Sum
of
ailm
ent
(FC)
Elias
Motsoaledi
Ephrim
e
Mog
ale
Fetakg
omo
Mak
hudu
matha
maga
Tubatse
Sum
of
ailm
ent
(FC)
Bela-
Bela
Leph
alale
Mod
imolle
Mog
alakwe
naMoo
kgop
hong
Thab
azim
bi
Sum
of
ailm
ent
(FC)
Citru
slim
on-
-TC
:1-
TC:1
2-
--
--
0-
--
--
-0
2
Clerodendrum
glabrum
--
--
-0
-AS:3
-AS:1
-4
--
--
--
04
Clerodendrum
ternatum
AS:14
AS:15
AS:13
AS:11
AS:15
68AS:13
AS:10
AS:6
AS:6
AS:4
39AS:7
AS:5
-AS:8
AS:7
AS:6
33140
Cliviacaulescens
--
-AS:3
-3
--
--
-0
--
--
--
03
Croton
gratissim
us
-AS:3
-AS:4
AS:5
12-
--
--
0-
--
--
-0
12
--
--
-0
-NC:1
NC:1
NC:2
NC:1
5-
--
--
-0
5
--
--
-0
--
--
-0
WH:1
--
WH:3
WH:4
-8
8
Cryptocarya
transvaalensis
AS:14
AS:15
AS:13
AS:11
AS:15
68AS:13
AS:10
AS:6
AS:6
AS:4
39AS:7
AS:5
-AS:8
AS:7
AS:6
33140
Cucumismetuliferus
--
--
-0
AS:1
--
AS:2
AS:1
4-
--
--
-0
4
Cyperussexangularis
--
--
-0
AS:1
-AS:6
--
7-
--
--
-0
7
FA:4
FA:7
--
FA:1
12FA
:13FA
:10FA
:6FA
:6FA
:439
FA:1
-FA
:3-
FA:3
-7
58
Eucalyptus
camaldu
lensis
--
--
-0
--
--
-0
--
--
AS:1
-1
1
Dice
rocaryum
senecio
ides
--
--
-0
--
--
-0
--
--
AS:3”
-3
3
Dico
maanom
ala
--
--
-0
--
--
-0
-AS:3
--
--
33
Dioscorea
sylva
tica
--
AS:2
--
2AS:1
--
AS:2
AS:1
4-
AS:1
--
-AS:3
410
Dodonaeaviscosa
LB:1
--
--
1-
--
--
0-
--
--
-0
1
Dom
beya
rotund
ifolia
--
--
FA:3
3-
--
-0
--
--
--
03
Drim
iaela
ta
--
--
-0
AS:4
--
--
4-
--
--
-0
4
FA:1”
--
-FA
:12
FA:2
--
--
2-
--
--
-0
4
-WH:4
--
-4
--
--
-0
--
--
--
04
Elephantorrhiza
burkei
--
--
-0
--
--
-0
AS:3
--
--
-3
3
-FA
:1”:1
--
FA:1
3-
--
--
0-
--
--
-0
3
Elephantorrhiza
goetzei
FA:1”
--
--
1-
--
--
0-
--
--
-0
1
Engle
rophytum
magalism
ontanu
m-
--
--
0-
--
--
0AS:1
--
AS:1
-AS:1
33
Enico
stemaaxillare
AS:14
AS:15
AS:13
AS:11
AS:15
68AS:13
AS:10
AS:6
AS:6
AS:4
39AS:7
AS:5
-AS:8
AS:7
AS:6
33140
Erythrinalys
istem
onWH:2
WH:3
WH:5
--
10-
--
--
0-
--
--
-0
10
Eucomisautumna
lisFA
:1”-
--
-1
--
--
-0
--
--
--
01
--
NC:8
--
8-
--
--
0-
--
--
-0
8
Eucomispallidiflora
--
-FA
:9-
9-
--
--
0-
--
--
-0
9
--
NC:
8-
-8
--
--
-0
NC :2
-NC:1
--
-3
11
24 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Table2:Con
tinued.
Speciesn
ame
Dist
rictsa
ndmun
icipalities
Sum
of
overall
ailm
ent
treated
per
species
Capricorn
Sekh
ukhu
neWaterberg
Agana
ngBlou
berg
Lepelle
-
Nku
mpi
Molem
ole
Polokw
ane
Sum
of
ailm
ent
(FC)
Elias
Motsoaledi
Ephrim
e
Mog
ale
Fetakg
omo
Mak
hudu
matha
maga
Tubatse
Sum
of
ailm
ent
(FC)
Bela-
Bela
Leph
alale
Mod
imolle
Mog
alakwe
naMoo
kgop
hong
Thab
azim
bi
Sum
of
ailm
ent
(FC)
--
--
-0
--
-WH:1
-1
--
--
--
01
Euphorbiaschinzii
--
--
-0
AS:13
--
AS:6
-19
--
--
--
019
Gossypium
herbaceum
-AS:8
AS:7
AS:11
AS:13
39-
AS:4
AS:6
--
10-
--
AS:8
AS:7
AS:6
2170
Grew
iahispida
--
NC:2
--
2-
--
--
0-
--
--
-0
2
Grew
iasulca
ta-
--
--
0-
--
-AS:2
2-
--
--
-0
2
Harpephyllum
caffrum
--
--
-0
--
-AS:1
-1
--
--
--
01
Helichrysum
caespititium
--
--
-0
-FA
:1”-
--
1-
--
--
-0
1
Helichrysum
gymnocomum
--
AS:2
--
2-
--
--
0-
--
--
-0
2
Hypoxis
hemerocallid
ea
--
-AS:1
AS:12
13-
AS:1”
--
-1
--
--
014
--
--
-0
-FA
:4-
--
4-
--
--
-0
4
Hypoxisobtusa
FA:2
--
--
2-
--
--
0-
--
--
-0
2
Ipom
oeaalbivenia
--
--
-0
--
--
AS:1
1-
--
--
-0
1
Jatro
phazeyheri
AS:1
--
--
1-
--
--
0-
--
--
-0
1
Kalanchoeb
rachyloba
--
NC:8
--
8-
NC:1
NC:1
NC:2
NC:1
5-
--
--
-0
13
Kirkiawilm
sii-
--
--
0-
--
--
0-
--
AS:2
--
22
--
NC:1
--
1-
--
--
0-
--
--
-0
1
Lantanarugosa
--
--
-0
--
--
-0
--
-AS:3
AS:1
AS:1
55
Lasio
siphoncaffer
AS:14
AS:15
AS:13
AS:11
AS:15
68AS:13
AS:10
AS:6
AS:6
AS:4
39AS:7
AS:5
-AS:8
AS:7
AS:6
33140
TC:5
TC:12
--
-17
--
--
-0
--
--
--
017
Leonotisleo
nurus
--
--
-0
AS:3
AS:2
AS:2
AS:6
AS:1
14-
--
--
-0
14
Lippiajavanica
--
--
-0
--
--
-0
--
--
AS:1”:3
AS:6
1010
--
--
-0
-FA
:1”-
--
1-
--
--
-0
1
LB:2
--
--
2-
--
--
0-
--
--
-0
2
--
NC:1
--
1-
--
--
0-
--
--
-0
1
--
--
-0
--
--
-0
WH:1
--
WH:3
--
44
Maeruajuncea
--
AS:3
--
3-
--
--
0-
--
--
-0
3
FA:1”
FA:2
--
-3
--
--
-0
--
--
--
03
Mangifer
aindica
--
--
-0
--
--
-0
-AS:1
--
--
11
Mim
usopso
bovata
AS:14
AS:15
AS:13
AS:11
AS:15
68AS:13
AS:10
AS:6
AS:6
AS:4
39AS:7
AS:5
-AS:8
AS:7
AS:6
33140
Moringa
oleifera
FA:1
FA:7
FA:1
--
9-
FA:3
FA:1
-FA
:48
--
--
--
017
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 25
Table2:Con
tinued.
Speciesn
ame
Dist
rictsa
ndmun
icipalities
Sum
of
overall
ailm
ent
treated
per
species
Capricorn
Sekh
ukhu
neWaterberg
Agana
ngBlou
berg
Lepelle
-
Nku
mpi
Molem
ole
Polokw
ane
Sum
of
ailm
ent
(FC)
Elias
Motsoaledi
Ephrim
e
Mog
ale
Fetakg
omo
Mak
hudu
matha
maga
Tubatse
Sum
of
ailm
ent
(FC)
Bela-
Bela
Leph
alale
Mod
imolle
Mog
alakwe
naMoo
kgop
hong
Thab
azim
bi
Sum
of
ailm
ent
(FC)
Olea
europaea
--
--
-0
--
AS:1
-AS:4
5-
--
--
05
Opuntiaficus-in
dica
-AS:1
--
-1
--
--
-0
--
--
--
01
Osyris
lanceolata
--
AS:4
AS:6
-10
--
--
AS:4
4-
--
014
--
--
-0
-FA
:1”-
--
1-
--
--
-0
1
LB:1”
--
--
1-
--
--
0-
--
--
-0
1
Panica
granatum
--
--
-0
--
AS:1
--
1-
--
--
--
1
Peltophorum
afric
anum
AS:1”
-AS:1”
--
2-
AS:1”
--
-1
--
--
--
03
-FA
:1”-
FA:3
FA:1
5-
--
FA:6
-6
--
--
--
011
Plum
bago
zeylanica
--
--
-0
--
--
-0
AS:4
--
--
-4
4
--
--
-0
NC:1
--
--
1-
--
--
-0
1
Protea
caffra
--
AS:1
-AS:3
4-
--
--
0AS:1
--
-AS:3
-4
8
--
--
-0
FA:1
--
--
1-
--
--
-0
1
Pseudognaphaliu
m
luteo-album
--
--
-0
FA:1
--
-FA
:12
--
--
--
02
Psiadiapunctulata
--
AS:3
--
3-
--
--
0AS:1
--
AS:3
--
47
--
NC:6
--
6-
--
--
0-
--
--
-0
6
Ptaeroxylonobliquu
m-
--
-AS:15
15-
AS:10
--
-10
--
--
--
025
Pyrena
cantha
grandiflora
--
--
-0
AS:1”
--
--
1-
--
--
-0
1
Rhoicissustom
entosa
--
--
-0
--
-AS:4
4-
--
--
-0
4
Schinu
smolle
--
AS:1
--
1-
--
--
0-
--
--
-0
1
--
--
-0
FA:3
--
-FA
:14
--
--
--
04
--
LB:1
1-
--
--
0-
LB:1
--
--
12
Schizoglo
ssum
nitid
um-
--
--
0-
AS:2
--
-2
--
--
--
02
--
NC:1
--
1-
--
--
0-
--
--
-0
1
Schkuh
riapinn
ata
--
--
-0
AS:1”
--
--
1-
--
--
-0
1
Sclerocarya
birrea
AS:1”:13
AS:15
AS:13
AS:11
AS:15
68AS:13
AS:1”:9
AS:6
AS:6
AS:4
39AS:7
AS:5
-AS:8
AS:7
AS:6
33140
26 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Table2:Con
tinued.
Speciesn
ame
Dist
rictsa
ndmun
icipalities
Sum
of
overall
ailm
ent
treated
per
species
Capricorn
Sekh
ukhu
neWaterberg
Agana
ngBlou
berg
Lepelle
-
Nku
mpi
Molem
ole
Polokw
ane
Sum
of
ailm
ent
(FC)
Elias
Motsoaledi
Ephrim
e
Mog
ale
Fetakg
omo
Mak
hudu
matha
maga
Tubatse
Sum
of
ailm
ent
(FC)
Bela-
Bela
Leph
alale
Mod
imolle
Mog
alakwe
naMoo
kgop
hong
Thab
azim
bi
Sum
of
ailm
ent
(FC)
Securid
aca
longepedun
culata
--
--
-0
--
--
-0
AS:1
-AS:1
--
-2
2
Senecio
serratuloides
--
AS:4
--
4-
--
--
0-
--
--
-0
4
--
--
-0
-FA
:1-
-FA
:34
--
--
--
04
--
--
-0
-WH:4
--
-4
--
--
--
04
Senn
aita
lica
-AS:1
--
-1
-AS:1”
--
-1
AS:7
--
--
-7
9
Sida
cordifolia
--
--
AS:3
3-
--
--
0-
--
--
-0
3
Siphonochilus
aethiopicus
--
--
-0
-AS:1”
--
-1
--
--
--
01
Solanu
mcatombelen
se-
--
--
0-
--
--
0AS:1
AS:1
--
--
22
Solanu
m
pand
uriform
e-
--
--
0AS:1
-AS:2
3-
--
--
-0
3
Sorghu
mbicolor
--
--
-0
--
-FA
:6-
6-
--
--
-0
6
Strophanthus
speciosus
AS:10
--
-AS:1
11AS:2
--
--
2AS:2
--
--
-2
15
Stylochaeton
natalen
sisAS:14
AS:15
AS:13
AS:11
AS:15
68AS:13
AS:10
AS:6
AS:6
AS:4
39AS:7
AS:5
-AS:8
AS:7
AS:6
33140
Tragiadioica
--
--
-0
-FA
:1”-
--
1-
--
--
-0
1
Tulbaghiaviolacea
--
--
-0
-NC:2
--
-2
--
--
--
02
Veprisreflexa
--
--
-0
FA:1
FA:1
--
-2
--
--
--
02
Vernonianatalen
sis-
AS:3
--
AS:11
14-
--
--
0-
--
--
-0
14
--
NC:8
--
8-
NC:1
NC:1
NC:2
NC:1
5-
--
--
-0
13
Warburgiasalutaris
--
--
-0
--
--
-0
--
--
AS:4
-4
4
--
--
-0
--
--
-0
WH:7
--
--
-7
7
With
aniasomnifer
a-
--
--
0-
--
FA:6
-6
--
--
--
06
LB:1”
--
--
1-
--
--
0-
--
--
-0
1
Xerophytaretin
ervis
--
--
-0
--
AS:3
AS:1
-4
--
--
--
04
Ximeniacaffra
AS:1”
-AS:6
--
7-
AS:1
--
-1
--
--
--
08
Zantedeshiaaethiopica
--
AS:7
--
7-
--
--
0-
--
--
-0
7
Zanthoxylum
capense
--
--
AS:1”
1-
--
-0
AS:1
--
-AS:4
-5
6
--
WH:1
--
1-
--
WH:6
-6
--
--
--
07
Zeamays
--
--
-0
--
--
-0
--
--
AS:1
-1
1
Zizip
husm
ucronata
AS:1
--
--
1-
--
--
0-
--
--
-0
1
Key:Fatig
ue:FA,labou
redbreathing:LB
,nasalcong
estio
n:NC,
wheezing:WH.P
lain
numericindicatenu
mbero
fhealer/sw
houseaspeciestotre
atan
ailm
entswhilst
numericwith
aqu
otationmarkindicate
numbero
fhealer/sw
housea
speciesincombinatio
nto
treatan
ailm
ent/s
.
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 27
THs of KwaZulu-Natal Province noted A. amatymbica as avalued medicine for asthma. In other studies conducted inZimbabwe [41, 42], this species was amongst the ten mostused asthma remedies. However, in the present study, A.amatymbicawas only used by 7.8% (n=11) of all 58.3% (n=140)THswho treated asthma, whichmight be attributed to its rarestatus across the country [43]. In view of this and the factthat asthma is a chronic disorder requiring a readily availablemedicine for its management, most THs in this study mighthave less preferred and considered A. amatymbica therapiesas unsustainable.
The knowledge of D. anomala use by Bapedi THs totreat asthma is supported by finding of Van der Merwe [44]who worked with Zulu THs. In fact most of the previouslyethnobotanically validated asthmatic species used in thecurrent study corroborate with those used by Zulu, comparedto with other cultures.
Use of L. leonurus as recorded in this study was previouslynoted by Hutchings et al. [23] who questioned Zulu THsand Nzue [45] who worked with Rastafarians of WesternCape Province of South Africa. Similar finding was reportedamongst Swati THs residing in Swaziland [46]. The observedsimilarities regarding the application of L. leonurus amongstSouth African and Swazi healers might be due to a cross-border transfer/exchange of knowledge.This posit is ascribedto the fact that most of Swaziland is locked within SouthAfrica, which might had allowed easy transfers of knowledgeamongst THs across geographical borders.
Similarly to Bapedi THs, Zulu also use S. aethiopicus asasthma medicine [23]. Widespread use of this species in thetreatment of respiratory infections including asthma by ZuluTHs has wiped out its entire local population within thecommunal lands in KwaZulu-Natal Province [47]. However,in the present study extent of use of S. aethiopicus specificallyfor asthma might currently not have profound impact onreduction of its natural population based on the fact thatit is only used by 0.7% (n=1) and also in combination withother species, which both put less harvesting pressure on thepopulation.
The utilisation of X. retinervis [48] and Z.mucronata [49]by Bapedi THs in the treatment of asthma was previouslyhighlighted by the mentioned authors amongst the unspeci-fied SouthAfrican ethnic groups. Extracts ofX. retinervis [50]and Z. mucronata [51] were active against pathogens causingrespiratory infections, which may possibly indicate that theymight be helpful in the management of asthma or relatedsymptoms.
With the exclusion of Z. aethiopica which is also used asmedicine for asthma by the Xhosa people of South Africa[52], the remaining species, namely, E. camaldulensis, M.indica, O. ficus-indica, P. granatum, S. longepedunculata, X.caffra, and Z. mays, used exclusively by Bapedi for thiscondition, are recorded for the first time in South Africa asasthma therapies. However, their use in the treatment andmanagement of this condition is common in other Africancountries or elsewhere. For instance, Nigerian THs also useE. camaldulensis [53],M. indica [54], and S. longepedunculata[55] to treat asthma. Comparably to our findings, Naoumi[17] reported the use of M. indica and Z. mays as medicines
for this ailment by THs in Cameroon. Utilisation of X. caffraas asthma therapy is also common in Swaziland [56]. Thesefindings support the general notion that Africans share thesame indigenous knowledge [57].
To the best of our knowledge ethnobotanical recordsregarding uses of G. herbaceum, O. europaea, O. ficus-indica, and P. granatum in the management of asthma arenonexistent in Africa, thus noted in this study for the firsttime. However, the taxa G. herbaceum [58], O. europaea [59],O. ficus-indica [60], and P. granatum [61] are all used inother continents of the world comparably to Bapedi THs,subsequently, indicating that these speciesmight be helpful asasthma remedies. Some of the aforementioned taxa, notablyE. camaldulensis,M. indica, O. ficus-indica, P. granatum, andZ. mays, are exotic in South Africa, thus suggesting twothings: (i) that the original knowledge of their applicationfor asthma by Bapedi was obtained via interactions withoutside THs and/or (ii) was given by ancestors via dreams.The last posit is based on the fact that most of interviewedTHs claimed that their ancestors show them new uses ofmedicinal plants via dreams while asleep. In general, fruitsof M. indica, O. europaea, O. ficus-indica, P. granatum, X.caffra, andZ.mayswere stated by THs as also being harvestedfor household consumption. Therefore an investigation intothe potential of fruits from these species as asthma therapieswill be interesting, and if effective it should be manufacturedas beverages that assist in the asthma management. Ethanolextracts (100mg/kg, p.o.) of P. granatum [61] and aqueousextract ofO. europaea [62] fruits have already demonstrated asignificant antiasthmatic activity at experimental model [61].
3.4.2. Asthma and Related Symptoms Therapies. As notedearlier, 25.9% (n=27) of species were multiused by THs totreat asthma and the following symptoms: fatigue, nasalcongestion, tight chest, wheeze, laboured breathing, nasalcongestion and wheezing, fatigue and wheezing, and fatigueand laboured breathing, as well as fatigue, laboured breath-ing, nasal congestion, and wheeze (Table 1). Amongst theseplants, 37% (n=10) comprising Aloe spp., A. fruticosa, Adeniaspinosa, Callilepis laureola, Cyperus sexangularis, Elephantor-rhiza burkei,Hypoxis hemerocallidea,M. juncea, Peltophorumafricanum, and Protea caffra were stated by THs as cure forasthma and fatigue. Of these taxa only use of H. hemerocal-lidea for asthma [63] and fatigue [64], as well as P. africanumfor the latter condition [65], was previously reported inethnobotanical literature. Use of H. hemerocallidea to curefatigue by Bapedi THs was expected mainly due to itspopularity as effective energy-booster. For instance, in almostevery pharmaceutical chemist in LimpopoProvince, there arevarious scientifically authenticated herbal formulations (e.g.,Hypo-Plus�) made from H. hemerocallidea [66], which arebeing advertised on local radios and newspapers as effectiveenergy and immune boosters. Thus, Bapedi THs might havehad a talk about this and decided to includeH. hemerocallideaas part of their fatigue treatment in asthma sufferers. On theother hand, use of this species as antiasthma by Bapedi THsmight be due to its efficacy in the management of asthmaand related conditions, attributed to its antiinflammatoryactivity [67]. The use A. fruticosa, A. spinosa, C. laureola,
28 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
C. abbreviata, C. sexangularis, E. burkei, M. juncea, P. caffra(asthma and fatigue), and P. africanum (asthma) as therapiesfor the mentioned aliments as disclosed by Bapedi THs wasnot found in literature, thus reported in the present study forthe first time.
Species used asmedicine for asthma and nasal congestionmade up 18.5% (n=5) and included K. wilmsii, P. punctulata,P. zeylanica, S. nitidum, and V. natalensis. Amongst thesespecies only P. zeylanica [68] and P. punctulata [69] werepreviously recorded in literature as asthma treatment butno records of its applications for nasal congestion exist.Restricted uses of K. wilmsii to Bapedi THs as medicine forthese illnesses might be due to the fact that it is localised inthe Capricorn and Sekhukhune districts (Limpopo Province)both mainly inhabited by the Bapedi culture. This might betrue since the known general medicinal usage of K. wilmsii ispresently restricted to this culture.
Only 7.4% (n=2) of species C. sativa and L. caffer wereused to heal asthma and tight chest in this study. Utilisationof C. sativa as asthma medication was previously noted byVan Wyk and Gericke [70] amongst the unspecified SouthAfrican ethnic groups. Its use for tight chest is recordedin our study for the first time in African ethnobotanicalliterature. However, C. sativa is commonly used for thiscondition by THs in Pakistan [71]. Its restricted uses fortight chest to Bapedi THs across Africa might somewhat beattributed to the fact that it is a legally declared drug; thusany person who is found in its possession without a permit isprosecuted. In fear of this most THsmight retaliate to divulgeits uses to researchers. No ethnobotanical record of L. cafferas treatment of asthma and tight chest was found in literature.However, this species was used by all interviewed Bapedi THs(n=140) as cure for asthma, which might be a reflection of itsbioactivity against this condition.
Asthma and wheeze were also treated with two (7.4%)species, namely, W. salutaris and Z. capense. Amongst thesetrees only use of W. salutaris as antiasthma was previouslyreported in literature [23, 71]. The remainder of documenteduses of both the aforesaid trees is reported for the first timein this study. However, lack of literature based informationregarding their use for wheeze is understandable, based onthe fact that this condition is one of the key symptoms ofasthma. Consequently, THs of other cultures might haverealised that a successful asthma treatment or managementwith W. salutaris and Z. capense automatically addresses allsymptoms. It is also possible that use of these species byBapedi for wheeze has specific impact on reducing constric-tion in the airways, and thus contributing towards reductionof wheeze sound.
Species used in the present study for asthma and labouredbreathing were only (3.7%, n=1) A. sativum. The stated usesof this species are recorded in our study for the first timein South Africa but are common in other countries. Forinstance, its use as asthma medicine was previously reportedin Egypt [72] and Nigeria [73]. However, as far as ourliterature search went, application of A. sativum for labouredbreathing is presently restricted to Bapedi THs in Africa butused as such by THs in India [74]. Limited use of this speciesamongst indigenous people of South Africa might be due to
the fact that it is mostly found in the markets. Thus in viewof chronic nature of asthma and lack of income to frequentlypurchase its material, native people might have opted for analternative species available in free access communal lands.Few (n=2) of Bapedi THs who use A. sativum in the presentstudy harvest it from home gardens.
Asthma, nasal congestion, and wheezing were treatedwith two (7.4%, n=2) aromatic species A. afra and C. gratis-simus. Utilisation of both species for wheezing is currentlyrestricted to the Bapedi THs. However, our finding regardinguse ofA. afra in the treatment of asthma and nasal congestioncoincides with that reported byMukinda [75] amongst XhosaTHs of the Western Cape Province (South Africa). Similarly,application of C. gratissimus for asthma as noted in thepresent studywas previously highlighted byMorobe et al. [76]in South Africa. No previous record of C. gratissimus as nasalcongestion remedy was found in literature; thus it is reportedfor the first time in the present survey.
A total of two (7.4%) species D. elata and S. serratuloideswere multiused by Bapedi THs to cure asthma, fatigue, andwheezing. Only use of D. elata as medicine for the first con-ditionwas previously highlighted in ethnobotanical literature[77]. The remainder of the applications of aforesaid speciesis currently restricted to Bapedi THs. Anti-inflammatoryproperties of S. serratuloides were reported by Fawole et al.[78], therefore suggesting that its use for asthma and relatedcondition in the present study might be effective.
Another 7.4% (n=2) of species (Schinus molle and O.lanceolata)weremultiused byBapedi THs for asthma, fatigue,and laboured breathing.With the exclusion of using an exoticS. molle as asthma medication which was culturally validatedin Peru [79], application of the rest of species is reported forthe first time in this study across South Africa and Africa as acontinent.
Overall an aromatic herb L. javanica was the only (3.7%,n=1) species widely used by Bapedi THs. For instance, itwas multiused as medicine to heal asthma, fatigue, labouredbreathing, nasal congestion, andwheeze. Use of L. javanica totreat asthma [80], fatigue, and nasal congestion [26] as wellas laboured breathing [81] is common amongst other SouthAfrican cultures. However, its use for wheeze is presentlyrestricted to the Bapedi THs. In general, wide usage of L.javanica for asthma and perceived related symptoms by theseTHs might be ascribed to its wide local abundance acrossthe Limpopo Province, and its popularity as treatment ofrespiratory infections [51].
3.4.3. Therapies for Asthma Symptoms. The rest (24.0%,n=25) of the species recorded in this study as part ofasthma management were exclusively used by THs to treatvarious conditions they perceived as being associated withthis inflammatory condition (Table 1). Amongst these plants88% (n=22) were used to treat a single ailment, namely,fatigue (A. digitata,A. adianthifolia,A. falcata,B. diversispina,B. subvolubilis,C. edulis,C. ilicifolia,D. rotundifolia,E. goetzei,H. caespititium, H. obtusa, M. oleifera, P. luteo-album, S.bicolor, T. dioica, and V. reflexa), laboured breathing (D.viscosa), nasal congestion (G. hispida, K. brachyloba, and T.
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 29
violacea), tight chest (C. limon), and wheezing (E. lysiste-mon). The remainder (12%, n=3) of the species, namely, E.autumnalis (fatigue, nasal congestion), E. pallidiflora (fatigue,nasal congestion, andwheeze), andW. somnifera (fatigue andlaboured breathing) were multiused. Overall, applications ofan overwhelming majority of the above-listed species by THsare recorded for the first time in this study. For instance,with the exclusion of A. digitata [82], C. edulis [83], M.oleifera [84], and W. somnifera [85, 86], which their utilisa-tion as mentioned by Bapedi was previously highlighted inAfrican literature, use/s of the remaining species are currentlyrestricted to Bapedi THs. Overall, a larger number of theabove-mentioned new medicinal use of commonly knownspecies by Bapedi THs would let one believe that they are stillexperimenting or further exploring other potential uses oflocal flora with the hope of discovering new effective plantsthat could contribute towards the wellbeing of asthmaticpatients.
3.5. Fidelity Level (FL) and Use Value (UV). Fidelity lev-els of the recorded plant species differed widely for spe-cific disease/s. The maximum fidelity level of 100% wasreported for 71.1% (n=74) of species, with themajority havingextremely lower use-mention (UM) against a particular ail-ment (Table 1). Indeed Ong and Kim [87], stated that high FLcan only imply that a particular plant ismost preferred if thereis considerable number of use-mentions from participants.Therefore, we have correlated FL andUM in order to establishthe accurate FL of each species. In this regard, species with100% FL coupled with use mentioned of less than 15 timeswere not considered. Accordingly, S. birrea (UM= 140 and FL= 100; asthma), S. natalensis (UM= 140 andFL= 100; asthma),E. axillare (UM = 140 and FL = 100; asthma), C. ternatum(UM = 140 and FL = 100; asthma), C. transvaalensis (UM =140 and FL = 100; asthma), M. obovata (UM = 140 and FL= 100; asthma), L. caffer (UM = 140 and FL = 100; asthma,and UM = 17 and FL = 10.8; tight chest), C. sexangularis (UM= 58 and FL = 89.2; fatigue), A. digitata (UM = 68 and FL=100; fatigue), G. herbaceum (UM = 70 and FL= 100; asthma),A. afra (UM = 25 and FL = 75.7%; asthma), A. spinosa (UM= 25 and FL = 30.4; asthma and UM = 57 and FLl = 69.5;fatigue), P. obliquum (UM = 25 and FL = 100), E. schinzii(UM = 19 and FL = 100; asthma), M. oleifera (UM = 17and FL = 100; fatigue), and S. speciosus (UM = 15 and FL =100; asthma), respectively, scored the highest FL amongst theplants used by Bapedi THs for asthma and related symptoms,thus suggesting their potential as therapies against the notedcorresponding specific conditions. Adenia spinosa and L.caffer which were used to treat two conditions could be ofgreat importance in the management of various ailments.
Relatively high UVs was observed for L. caffer (UV =1.2; asthma and tight chest), M. obovata (UV = 1; asthma),C. ternatum (UV = 1; asthma), C. transvaalensis (UV = 1;asthma), E. axillare (UV = 1; asthma), S. natalensis (UV =1; asthma), and S. birrea (UV = 1; asthma). As noted earlierall these species exhibited maximum (100%) FL as antiasth-matics therapies; thus their highest UV for similar treatmentfurther accentuates their prospective in the management ofasthma.
3.6. Plant Parts Used, Mode of Preparations, Dosages, andAdministrations. The majority of the herbal medicines usedby Bapedi THs as asthma and related symptoms therapieswere mainly prepared from root (57%, n=61), leaf (15.8%,n=17), bark (7.5%, n=8), bulb and whole plant (5.6%, n=6,for each), fruit and tuber (2.8%, n=3 for each), seed, stem,and rhizome (0.9%, n=1, for each), respectively.Three species,L. leonurus (root and leaf), S. birrea (bark and fruit), andP. africanum (bark and root), were harvested for their twodifferent parts. Contrary to the results of the present study,Sonibare andGbile [18] found that THs inNigeria prefer stembark to make asthma remedies. Extensive use of root in thisstudywas based on the perception that it carriesmore healingpower as opposed to other plant parts, a finding whichwas previously reported by Semenya [88], who worked withBapedi THs. Indeed it has been scientifically demonstratedthat plant root contains many bioactive principles [88].However, extensive exploitation of roots by these THs shouldproceedwith caution as itmight endanger the species. Higherusage of leaves by Bapedi THs might be linked to their easeof collection and transportation, both compared with otherparts.
The above-mentioned plant parts (n=107) used for herbalpreparation were mostly processed by Bapedi THs in theirdried states (78.5%, n=84) than when they are fresh (21.4%,n=23). This finding might be attributed to the fact that theseTHs preserve most of their medicine in dried form for futureuses. Sclerocarya birreawas processed in both dried and freshstates. Overall, a total of 153 recipes were used by Bapedi THsto treat asthma. Of these formulae, monotherapies (75.1%, no= 115) based on a single plant preparation were dominant.A similar finding was noted by Noumi [17] in Cameroon.On the contrary Sonibare and Gbile [18] found that more ofherbal medicine prescribed by THs in Nigeria are made frommore than one species (multitherapies) in Nigeria. High useof monotherapies by Bapedi THs is perhaps an indication ofthe effectiveness of used plant species.This is attributed to thefact that these healers are known to combine species for theincreased efficacy [88]. Use of single therapies by Bapedi THsmight also be due to simplifying the preparation and becauseof the nature of asthma. For instance asthma attack is in mostcases sudden and thus requires immediate medical attention.In light of this an overwhelmingmajority of THs in this studymight prefer preparingmedicine from a single species (whichis both straightforward and less time consuming) in case ofexigency. Only 24.8% (n=38) of the herbal preparations usedby interviewed Bapedi THs were multitherapies (Table 1).Healers who utilised this recipe disclosed that it enhances theeffectiveness of medicine, which could be due to synergisticeffects of several plant compounds that are active singly.However, this postulation warrants further investigations.
Remedies were prepared via boiling, macerating, pound-ing, squeezing, and rubbing and raw (prescribed as har-vested). Harvested parts from certain plant were preparedusing more than one method or a same technique was useddifferently amid THs (Table 1). Boiling (48.3%, n=74), pound-ing (45%, n=69), pounding and boiling (2.6%, n=4), chewingand macerating (1.3%, n=2, for each), rubbing (0.6%, n=1),and squeezing and pounding (0.6%, n=1), respectively, were
30 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
the principal methods of herbal preparation in the presentstudy. Most of these methods are consistently reported invarious ethnobotanical surveys conducted in Africa [17, 18]and elsewhere [89] focusing on asthma. High usage of boilingplant parts by Bapedi THs might be due to the simplicity ofpreparation. Bapedi THs prefer pounded remedies becausethey have a far longer shelf life for the preparation [90].Depending on an individual healer’s preference, a minimumof two to a maximum of 14 minutes was used to boil variousplant parts. Plant parts were pounded with grinding stonesand metal equipment. Preparation times of these parts viamaceration technique by Bapedi THs took from three to24 hours (depending on an individual healer), which couldexplain its limited preference in this study. On the other hand,limited utilisation of squeezing and rubbing (n=1, for each)amongst Bapedi THs might be attributed to the seasonalavailability of fresh fruits and leaves, respectively (Table 1).
The present study further assessed the different modesof application of the prepared remedies. Accordingly, of the153 recorded recipes used for asthma and related symptoms,80.9% (n=123) were administered orally, 19% (n=29) nasally,and 0.6% (n=1) topically. Naoumi [17] also found that mostof the asthma medicines in his study are administered orallywith very fewwhichwere taken topically. Distinct preferencesof oral as route of herbal administration by Bapedi THsmight be attributed to its convenience, for instance, it isstraightforward and thus requires no special training. Inaddition its dosages can easily be premeasured.
Dosage strength of herbal remedy recorded in this studywas also determined (Table 1). Overall there was a highconsistency with regard to the boiled medicines taken orally.For example, a metal cup (500ml) full of liquid preparationswas prescribed by all THs three times a day (morning, mid-day, and evening). However, dosage inconsistency amongstinterviewed Bapedi THs was noted for some preparations.This included boiled medicines administered nasally undera blanket, the dosage strength of which depended on anindividual healer. Similarly, depending on individual healertwo to five table spoons of pounded plant parts were mainlyprescribed with a metal cup (500ml) full of warm water.Some THs prescribed pounded plant parts with this cupbut full of Mageu� drink or soft porridge. Lack of precisionand standardization in the measurement of herbal medicineamongst Bapedi THs is one weakness of their traditionalhealthcare system.
4. Conclusions
The present study is the first to explore plants used tra-ditionally to treat asthma and related conditions in SouthAfrica. Overall the most widely distributed and highly usedmedicinal plants by all interviewed Bapedi THs (n=140) whotreated asthma were C. ternatum, C. transvaalensis, L. caffer,E. axillare,M. obovata, S. birrea, and S. natalensis. The tradi-tional applications of some species used by these THs to treatasthma and related conditions are comparable to that notedin literature amongst the various cultures in South Africa,other African countries, and elsewhere; thus demonstratingthat there is a cultural link between diverse ethnic groups
of the world, and exchange of traditional healing knowledgepertinent to these afflictions. Our study also recorded a largernumber of new records of known medicinal plants used intraditional healing by various cultures across South Africaand Africa at large, a finding which contributes towardsestablishments of an African database of antiasthma plantsand a new solid lead towards search for bioactive compoundsagainst asthma.
Data Availability
The data used to support the findings of this study areavailable from the corresponding author upon request.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interestregarding the publication of this paper.
Acknowledgments
This work was financially supported by the South AfricanNational Research Foundation (NRF), and Govan MbekiResearch and Development Centre (GMRDC), University ofFort.The authors are grateful to Bapedi THs practicing in theCapricorn, Sekhukhune, andWaterberg districts, who sharedtheir knowledge on plants used for respiratory infections andrelated symptoms.
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