PLANNING PROCESS: NEED AN OVERVIEW · 2000-06-13 · When managing your land for wildlife, the planning process should involve five steps: (1) ... Do your woods, for example, merge

Careful Planning Equals Success

People value land for many dif-ferent reasons. The housing devel-oper and the farmer have a differentperspective on what a certain proper-ty can or cannot do for them. A fam-ily who plans to build a house ontheir land but who also want toattract wildlife may have a differentpoint of view. No matter how youintend to use your land, you shouldalways have some kind of plan or

strategy. When the family is ready tobuild that house, for example, theywould not have a builder order mate-rials without first deciding what kindof house they want to build. Anaccurate plan helps the builder knowwhat kind of materials and how muchof each are needed. It also helps todetermine the cost of materials andlabor. Through careful planning, youwill have a good idea if your projectwill succeed even before you begin.

When managing your land forwildlife, the planning process shouldinvolve five steps: (1) evaluating theland, (2) setting goals, (3) consider-ing alternatives, (4) writing a man-agement plan, (5) implementing theplan and monitoring the results. Thischapter introduces the overallprocess to you, and the chapters inthis section will explain in greaterdetail how to accomplish the process,step by step.

Key TermsBefore the planning process

begins, you should be familiar with afew key terms that will aid in under-standing your land and its potentialfor wildlife. These terms are brieflyexplained here as an overview of thefactors involved in providing habitat.

Habitat ComponentsThere are four basic habitat compo-nents needed for a species to sur-vive. These are food, water, cover,and space. Even though all speciesneed these components, the amountand type of each differs by individual

species. Knowing the specific needsof each species will allow you to pro-vide the correct habitat components. For more information on specificspecies refer to the section onSpecies Management.

Limiting FactorsWhen one or more habitat compo-nents is lacking and insufficient, thiscomponent is considered a limit tothe amount of wildlife that can existthere, or a limiting factor. Eachspecies has specific habitat compo-nent requirements, and therefore willhave different possible limiting fac-tors. Being aware of the limiting fac-tors present on your land may help inproviding better quality habitat.

Carrying CapacityAll habitats have a maximum carryingcapacity; that is, they will only sup-port or carry a certain number of awildlife species within a particulararea. Usually, a limited supply of onecomponent will control how manyanimal species the habitat will sup-port. Thus, when there are no longerhabitat components that a speciescan use, the land has reached its car-rying capacity. Land managers, byproviding or removing key habitatcomponents, can affect carryingcapacity thus increasing or reducingwildlife populations.

Trade-offsIt is important to understand that

you may not be able to manage forall of the goals that you may have inmind. When managing for specificspecies, there will always be other

PLANNING PROCESS:NEED AN OVERVIEW

PART II: Habitat Planning

Planning Process

- key terms- evaluating the land- setting goals- considering alternatives- writing the plan- implementing the plan- working with neighbors

species that habitat is not providedfor. Therefore, when managing forcertain species you will eliminateother species from your land.However, when planned properly,managing for a group of species,instead of one particular species, willmost likely provide the least amountof trade-offs. Managing for a diversi-ty of species, however, will reducethe number of any one species.

Planning Steps1. Evaluating the Land

Before you manage your land forwildlife, it is important to learn asmuch as possible about the animalsthat live on your property, and theirspecialized habitat needs. It is alsoimportant to determine the kinds andamount of habitat on yours and sur-rounding properties. The best way toobtain this information is to becomefamiliar with your property by study-ing it during different seasons andmaking separate inventories of theplants and animals you are able toidentify. Also, look for physicalchanges that may vary by season.For example, where is it sunny orshaded; are there seasonally wetareas, what happens after a majorrainfall or snowstorm? Additionalinformation that may help in manag-ing your land is available from manysources, including chapters in thisguide, local libraries, videos and tele-

vision programs, adult educationcourses, and individual experts.Some of these experts may be neigh-bors, former owners of your proper-ty, or local people such as biologyteachers or naturalists who have spe-cialized knowledge. Further, considerconsulting with a professional landmanager, such as a wildlife biologist.

In addition, think about how yourproperty fits into the local landscape.Do your woods, for example, mergewith your neighbors'? Do fencerowsconnect your land to other proper-ties? What land-use practices areoccurring on land around yours, andwhat impacts do they appear to haveon local wildlife? Finding answers tothese questions will help you todecide what you'd like to do withyour property and whether or notyour expectations are realistic. Formore information, see the chapter onEvaluating the Land. You mayalso find the following chapters, with-in this Habitat Planning section, to behe lpfu l :Presett lement/PastVegetation Types; Edges andFragments; and Knowing YourSoils.

2. Setting and Prioritizing GoalsSetting management goals is an

exciting part of the planning processbecause you are now thinking aboutwhat measurable differences you canmake for wildlife. Problems willoccur, though, when landowners donot think the process through to alogical conclusion. For example, thedesire to attract pheasants, whichare grassland birds, is not realistic ifthe land you wish to manage is a 40-acre woodlot. You should becomefamiliar with the habitat needs of thedesired species, and be realistic inyour appraisal of whether you canmeet those needs. Think, too, aboutthe values you ascribe to your land.Do you want it to produce income,

provide hunting or other recreation,or are you more interested in aes-thetic returns such as creating natur-al beauty, providing wildlife habitatfor viewing pleasure, or protectingrare species?

To accomplish a goal, it is oftenuseful to break it into smaller sub-goals or objectives, and then identifyactions to be completed. While agoal is generally broad in scope,objectives are more specific measur-able outcomes and actions are verytask-oriented. Your goal, for exam-ple, might be to attract bluebirds toyour property. A review of your prop-erty suggests nesting structures andforaging habitat are lacking. Oneobjective might be to have enoughnest structures to attract three nest-ing pairs within three years. Theaction needed to achieve that objec-tive may include constructing andplacing six nest boxes in suitablelocations within the next two years.A second objective might be to pro-

Setting goals involves breakingyour ideas into goals, objectives,and actions. Below is a flow chartoutlining how to accomplish yourgoals.

Ideas

Goal

Objective 1

Action 1

Action 2

Action 3

Objective 2

Action 1

Action 2

Action 3

vide two acres of high quality forag-ing habitat within three years.Specific actions, such as mowing aportion of an old field, might be usedto achieve the objective.

By thinking about goals in abroad sense, and then movingthrough objectives and actions, youcan focus your efforts into smaller,timely pieces that fit well together.Too often you may want to takeaction without thinking adequatelyabout an overall goal or the "big pic-ture." The result is often a set ofmismatched pieces that have to beredone or eliminated. On the otherhand, you may be overwhelmed bythe "big picture" and do not knowwhere to begin. Moving from broadgoals to specific actions is a goodway to avoid wasted time, effort, andfinancial resources.

Once your goals are set, priori-tize their importance and determinewhether they can be realisticallyachieved. Prioritizing your goals is away to view the "big picture" in small,organized pieces. This will help youto plan accordingly and complete themost important goals first. For moreinformation on this and the followingstep refer to the chapter onSetting Goals and ConsideringAlternatives in this section.

3. Considering Alternatives toMeet the Goal

There is usually more than oneway to achieve a goal, and wildlifemanagers in particular often have tosort through many options to find thebest method. Every decision madewill affect wildlife and wildlife habitatin some way, but some impacts maybe beneficial to your goal while oth-ers are harmful. The successful man-ager is one who tries to anticipatehow each decision will make a differ-ence and which decision is the bestone to meet the goal.

There may be many alterna-tives to choose from. Once youhave determined an array of alter-natives that would meet your goal,you must decide which one is thebest for your situation. You mustconsider cost, time involved, andimpacts on neighbors and on otherforms of wildlife before choosingan alternative. In other words,choosing the alternatives with theleast amount of trade-offs is usual-ly the best option. Consider howmuch time and money you have tospend, what kind of equipmentmight be needed, and the impactsyour decisions will make on yourneighbors, the local landscape, andother kinds of wildlife besides thetypes you wish to attract.

4. Writing a Management PlanOnce you have decided on your

goals and examined all possible alter-natives, it is time to write a manage-ment plan. The purpose of this planis to outline the steps that will betaken in order to reach your goals.These steps include creating a pro-ject map (that will highlight types ofhabitat and management projects),determining management actions,and creating a timeline to implementthese actions. For more informationon this and the following step refer tothe chapter on Writing aManagement Plan.

5. Implementing the Decision,Monitoring the Result

Once you have finished writingthe management plan, you willimplement the decisions you out-lined. Monitoring the results of thosedecisions, is a way to determine ifyour goals have been met, or if themanagement project needs to bealtered. Do not expect the results tooccur instantly; be patient as some-times it takes two or more years forresults to become apparent.

However, conditions maychange, and it may be necessary torevise a goal. For example, in theplanning process, a landownerdecides to establish a 40-acre field ofwarm season grasses, beginning inthree years. When it comes time tostart, seed prices have risen and thelandowner can only afford to prepareand seed 20 acres. Twenty acres ofwarm season grasses are planted,and the other 20 acres revert to anold field. This decision allowed thelandowner to stay within the set bud-get, but did not provide the amountof grassland cover for pheasants thatwas originally planned. However, thelandowner was pleased with thenumber of rabbits that used the 20-acre old field.

Working withNeighbors

Working in partnership withother landowners is often an excitingalternative to doing everything your-self. As Michigan wildlife habitatsbecome more fragmented due to theselling and dividing of land, smallproperty owners sometimes findthemselves wondering what they canreasonably expect to do with their

PLANNING PROCESS: NEED AN OVERVIEW

backyard, part of a former pasture,or sliver of woods. The answers maylie in providing one component ofwildlife habitat and letting yourneighbor provide another compo-nent. For example, the wetland on aneighbor’s property and the uplandfield on your land can be co-man-aged for the benefit of birds andmammals that rely on these habitats.The chapter on Working withNeighbors offers more informationand examples.

In summary, the planningprocess for land management beginswith an evaluation of the propertyand a personal appraisal of what youwould like to do with it. Establishingrealistic goals will help you to choosespecific objectives for meeting thegoals. Along the way, a constantevaluation of the progress made andthe alternatives that appear willassure that the goals remain realistic,even though they may havechanged. Once the goals areachieved, you must decide whetherto maintain the project, alter it insome way, or start a new cycle ofmanagement. Although this entireplanning concept may appear compli-cated, it is in reality a logical, step-by-step way to assure that your landlives up to the expectations you havefor it.

Private Land Partnerships: This partnership was formed between both pri-vate and public organizations in order to address private lands wildlife issues.Individuals share resources, information, and expertise. This landowner’s guide hasbeen a combined effort between these groups working towards one goal: NaturalResources Education. We hope this guide provides you with the knowledge and themotivation to make positive changes for our environment.

FOR ADDITIONALCHAPTERS CONTACT:Michigan UnitedConservation ClubsPO Box 30235Lansing, MI 48909517/371-1041

FOR ADDITIONAL ASSISTANCE: CONTACT YOUR LOCAL CONSERVATION DISTRICT

PLANNING PROCESS: NEED AN OVERVIEW

The first step in the planningprocess is to evaluate the cur-rent types of habitat, wildlife

residents, and plant life on your prop-erty. Finding out what plants and ani-mals live on your land will help youunderstand their habitat needs andhow you can better manage for thoseneeds. Also, it is important to look atyour surrounding landscapes anddetermine how your land fits into thebigger picture. Your inventory willyield clues as to what degree of suc-cess you can expect to achieve, andit will provide information that is use-ful in working with your neighbors.Finally, the information you compilein this inventory will be useful in writ-ing your overall management plan.Keeping a journal of informationthroughout the planning process willsimplify your efforts.

Before you begin, you may havebroad ideas of what you want to dowith your land. Evaluating your land

enables you to make these ideasmore concrete, or even find that theyare not feasible. After this evalua-tion, you should be able to set goalsthat are appropriate for your land.For more information refer to thechapter on Setting Goals andConsidering Alternatives.

By taking such a broad initialview of your land and surroundinglandscapes, you can begin to get aperspective of its suitability forattracting wildlife. It is also impor-tant to gain a historical perspective ofthe land's past uses. Do you haveagricultural fields that have beentiled? Do you have forests that havebeen logged in recent memory? Wasyour grassland pastured some timeago, can you find out how long ago?Did farming practices over the yearschange the soil's pH? The moreinformation you find about yourproperty, the more you will learn ofits wildlife-producing history, suitabil-ity and potential. Ask these ques-tions of longtime neighbors and for-mer owners. Search the local libraryfor historical information about farm-ing practices, flooding incidents orarea fires that might have involvedyour property. It is also helpfulto obtain a pre-settlementmap that will give youclues as to what habitattypes were present beforeEuropean settlement. Seethe chapter onPresettlement/ PastVegetation Types formore information.

Make a HabitatInventory

Many of the chapters in thismanual will help you understand thedifferent types of habitat and whatspecies of wildlife use them. Try toassess the condition of the propertyand how it is being used. As youlearn about your land's attractivenessto wildlife, begin to classify the typesof habitat found there. What followsare the five broad kinds of Michiganhabitats. The questions below maybe useful in an initial evaluation ofyour land.

•Is your property largely farm-land, grassland, woodland, wet-land, brushland, or a combina-tion of two or more types?

•What habitat surrounds yourproperty?

•What type of soils do you have?Are they sand, clay, or muck?Wet or dry?

•Are there exotic species pre-sent? If so, what species?

Woodland•What type of forest exists? Is ityoung, mature, or mixed? Howlarge is it?

•Is it fragmented by trails oropenings?

•Is the understory open or isthere a lot of growth such asbrush and shrubs?

EVALUATING THE LAND


Evaluating the Land

- habitat, plant, andanimal inventories

- soils- base map

•Are there dead or decayingtrees? How many? Where arethey located? Are there stumps?

•Has the forest been logged orpastured, and, if so, how longago?

•Is the stand even- or uneven-aged?

Wetlands•What type of wetland is pre-sent?

•Is there a stream present? If so,what is the stream's origin?

•Is the wetland permanent ortemporary (seasonal)?

•Is the wetland isolated or partof a larger complex?

•Is there open water present?

•How large or small is the wet-land?

•Has the wetland been altered bydraining, grazing, or mowing?

•Do trees, brush/shrubs, cattails,grass, or sedges dominate thewetland?

•Are adjacent uplands being fer-tilized?

Grassland•Is your grassland an old field,pasture, hayfield, or forest open-ing?

•Are there any remnant nativeplant species present?

•How much invasion is occurringfrom shrubs, trees, or otherwoody plants?

•Has your grassland been hayed,mowed, or used for pasture?How long ago? •Do you mow the roadside ditch-es? If so, how often?

Farmland•What is the recent crop history?

•What kinds of herbicides, insec-ticides, or other chemicals wererecently applied?

•Are there livestock present?How many?

•What type of farming operation(if any) is occurring? Is it smallgrain, row crop, dairy, or otherlivestock?

•Is it flat or rolling farmland?

•Is the farmland being cultivatedright up to the fences?

•What type of irrigation practicesare being used? Are the fieldsditched or tiled?

•Are there areas of cropland thatwill not grow, or muddy placeswhere equipment gets stuck?These areas may be former wet-lands.

Brushland or Shrubland•Are shrubs large or small, inclumps or individuals?

•Are they fruit producing?

•Can you determine the stage ofsuccession (is it closer to the for-est or grassland stage)?

•Do the plants growing therefavor a wet or dry environment?

•What types of habitat surroundthe brushland?

•Are there fencerows or hedge-rows present?

Make an AnimalInventory

Knowing what animals currentlylive on or around your property is astarting point for your animal inven-tory. If you are already familiar withyour property, take time now to writedown as many kinds of wildlife as youcan recall. Separate them into cate-gories such as mammals, birds, rep-tiles, and amphibians--even fish andinsects if appropriate. Indicatewhere and when you have seenthem. If you do not know thenames, simply describe them, orsketch them if you can.

If you're not familiar with yourproperty, take walking tours as oftenas possible. Armed with a notebookand a good field guide, look and lis-ten for animals. Try to sharpen yourevidence-gathering skills. For exam-ple, a small, chipmunk-sized burrowor a large woodchuck den in the sideof a hill are clues as to what livesthere. Hoof or paw prints in the mudor snow are evidence of the presenceof wildlife. Brambles whose branch-es have been nipped could be thework of a rabbit or deer. The persis-tant smell of a skunk may let youknow of this animal's presence. Youmay be surprised at all the wildlifethat exist on your property, even ifyou never actually see them.

Become a wildlife detective andsee how many of the following ani-

mal signs you can find. Add them toyour animal inventory as you discov-er them.

•Young trees with bark rubbedoff in autumn by a buck deer pol-ishing his antlers. •A large stick nest high in an oaktree, which may be home to ared-tailed hawk or great-hornedowl. Similarly, a large leafy nestmay indicate the presence of foxor gray squirrels.•Holes in dead trees may be ahome for a woodpecker or black-capped chickadee.•Furry pellets, or hairballs,regurgitated by an owl. •Runways through a field ofgrass made by small rodents. •Black walnuts cracked in half byfox or gray squirrels. •Pine cone "cobs" left behind byred squirrels. •Porcupine droppings (they areorange) at the base of a tree. •Hickory nuts nibbled on theedges by deer mice. •A mud nest under a house orbarn eave made by cliff swallowsor barn swallows. •Last year's bird nests. •Dusting bowls made by pheas-ants used for delousing.•Scattered feathers or fur from apredator's meal.

•Spider webs, or other suchinsect signs. •An ant mound. •A butterfly chrysalis or mothcocoon. •The call of sandhill cranes,loons, or Canada geese in thedistance. •The trill of courting toads. •Tracks or droppings created bymammals and birds.

Because not every animal will bevisible on any given walking tour, besure to periodically walk your proper-ty during different seasons and timesof day. Keep notes on what youobserve and when. Try to determineif the wildlife are feeding, seekingshelter, building nests, or using yourproperty for some other purpose.Your journal will help you to accu-rately describe your land and willbecome the basis for writing awildlife management plan. The moreyou walk your land, the better you'llget to know it and its inhabitants.

Make a Plant InventoryWhat grows on your property

determines what wildlife will livethere. While walking your land, beginto develop a list of existing plantsalong the way. Again, field guides totrees, shrubs, flowers, and grasses

will be a big help. Sketch, describe,or photograph plants that you areunfamiliar with. As you read, checksources and ask questions, yourexperience and confidence will grow.

Management recommendationsare often based on the predominantplant species in an area. Therefore,make observations about the pre-dominant species that are present ineach habitat type on your land. Forexample, is your forest predominant-ly Beech/ Maple, or Oak/Hickory?Note if the species present are nativeor exotic. This helps you to deter-mine the condition of your land. Forexample, if your grassland possessesspecies such as big bluestem, littlebluestem, and switchgrass, it may bea remnant of a native prairie. Noteany species that you think may berare. In addition to this, identify nui-sance weeds such as purple looses-trife, glossy buckthorn, autumn olive,honeysuckle, and others, and planfor their elimination.

SoilsLearning about the soils on your

property will help you to know whatmay and may not grow there.Sandy, light soils, for example, allowwater to drain readily. Therefore,they are usually low in nutrients andtend to be more acidic than othertypes. Heavy, clay soils consist ofsmall, tightly packed soil particles.Rich in nutrients, they have a highcapacity to hold water. Loamy soilsare intermediate between clay andsand. Composed of many differentsized soil particles, they combinefertility and moisture-holding capac-ity with good drainage. Each soiltype grows its own particular kindsof plants. For more information,including how to sample your prop-erty's soils, see the Knowing YourSoils chapter.

In addition to the soils, learneverything you can about the hydrol-

Example worksheet:Area (Habitat Type): Grassland

Animal species Plant species Invasive plant species Practices present

(logged, drained,

tiled, etc.)

Quail Orchard grass Quack Grass None

Goldfinch Timothy grass Sweet Clover

Sparrow Smooth brome

Meadowlark

Rabbit

Pheasant

Red-winged blackbird

Deer Mouse

EVALUATING THE LAND

ogy, or water resources, of your land.For example, swamps, marshes, andstreams are obvious wetlands. Butspring seeps, potholes, or wet mead-ows dry out during part of the yearand are not easily identified as wet-lands. Clues are waterlogged soil,peat, or muck. Willows, cotton-woods, green ash, buttonbush,sedges, cattails and smartweed aretypical of plants that grow in wetplaces. For more information, seethe introductory chapter onWetland Management. If you findevidence of wetlands, either currentor former, your property may havethe potential for attracting manytypes of wildlife.

Creating a Base MapA base map is a layout of your

property that shows each type of

habitat and any special features thatneed to be taken into consideration.It includes such components asforests, grasslands, wetlands,streams, lakes or ponds, shelter-belts, hills, drainage ditches,buildings, fencerows, loggingroads, cultivated fields, and road-ways. Also, highlight those fea-tures of special importance towildlife: ground dens, deadtrees, living trees with large cavi-ties, bird feeders, nest boxes,mature nut trees, major travellanes, and more. The base mapprovides the basis for your man-agement projects, and will laterbe used in writing the manage-ment plan. Make sketches ofyour property as you increaseyour knowledge about it. It maybe helpful in creating a base map

to obtain aerial photos and topo-graphic maps of your property.Aerial photos are available atyour local USDA agency office.The more you learn, the easier it willbe to focus on specific areas for habi-tat improvement.

Put Your InventoryInto Context

Keep in mind that everything isconnected. The plants on your prop-erty, for example, can act as seedsources for your neighbor's land andvice versa. Animals using your sitedo not know the meaning of a prop-erty boundary. So, it is important toremember that the landscape aroundyou determines what you can realis-tically expect to do on your property.And the reverse is also true: whatmanagement decisions you make onyour land will affect the landscapearound it. The chapter Workingwith Neighbors gives more infor-mation.

In summary, it will help tremen-dously if you understand what plantsand animals you can reasonablyexpect to flourish on your propertybefore you set goals, write a plan, orbegin to make management deci-sions. Working within the context ofyour land and surrounding land-scapes will help you to create a suc-cessful wildlife management plan.

Private Land Partnerships: This partnership was formed between both privateand public organizations in order to address private lands wildlife issues. Individuals shareresources, information, and expertise. This landowner’s guide has been a combined effortbetween these groups working towards one goal: Natural Resources Education. We hope thismanual provides you with the knowledge and the motivation to make positive changes for ourenvironment.


EVALUATING THE LAND


Existing features

Habitat projectscropfield

RW

wetland

old field

pond

wetland

conifer stand

RW

Road

House and YardRiver

Riparian

Wetland

grassland

(To be decided on

Project Map)

After land evaluation, create a map outlining the major

habitat types presently found on your property. Once land

is mapped, separate into areas, and record characteristics

(see Example Worksheet).

After land evaluation, create a base map featuring the habitats present onyour property. Outline any special features such as den sites, bird feeders,travel lanes, fencerows, etc. This map will serve as the base to the projectmap created later in the planning process.

40 Acres

Some landowners have veryclear ideas about what theywant to do with their land.

Most, however, have vague goals orno goals at all. In some caseslandowners are not aware of therange of opportunities available tothem. Once they become aware, theymay begin to change their plans.The process of decision makingincludes understanding what trade-offs will occur, what constraints cer-tain actions may place on the land,what is realistically possible on theland, and what commitments of timeand cost are involved. The moreknowledgeable a landownerbecomes, the more realistic thelandowner's goals often become.Therefore, clear, well-defined goals,are necessary for a successful plan.

A goal is essentially what youwant to do with your land, a wish tobe fulfilled. Although setting goalsmay seem like a simple process, it isoften complex and constantly chang-

ing. Planning and goal setting is acontinual process in which the resultsof your first decisions influence allmanagement options. Your goals willoften overlap, and do not necessarilyneed to be seen as mutually exclu-sive. In other words, it is possible foryour property to be managed toenhance conservation, provide recre-ational enjoyment, and produceincome at the same time. This chap-ter will focus on how to set goals,how to accomplish these goals, andwhat to consider when creating afeasible management plan.

Setting GoalsTo create management goals for

your land, begin by making a list ofwhat you value about your propertyand how it may be valuable to others.These values will reflect what youexpect from your land, and essential-ly your prospective goals. Try to pri-oritize the goals from what you thinkis most important to least important.Arranging your goals by priority, andreviewing them periodically, will helpyou to plan the step-by-step processtoward achieving them. Don't worryif you don't know. Simply listing yourviews may help you to think aboutwhat you know and don't know aboutyour property and what it can--orcannot do--to satisfy your interests.

The land's capabilities define thelimits of management possibilities.Thus, the goals that you set willdepend on your property and the sur-rounding landscape. You will alsoneed to know the habitat require-ments and life history of the wildlife

SETTING GOALS

& CONSIDERING

ALTERNATIVES


GOALS TO CONSIDER

Conservation Goals• Stop erosion• Restore wetlands, grasslands, or forestlands

• Create windbreaks• Promote habitat diversity• Manage for the greatest variety ofwildlife species or for rare species

• Increase the health of the landscape

Recreation Goals• Increase one or more species for hunt-ing

• Increase wildlife viewing opportunities• Enhance aesthetic value • Create nature trails for hiking

Economic Goals• Timber and firewood harvesting,which may improve habitat for squir-rels

• Farm and graze, which may enhancegrassland birds

• Allow access to others such as huntersor tourists

• Create conservation easements tosave tax dollars

• Enroll in state and federal conserva-tion programs

Social Goals• Leave something behind forfamily/society

• Leaving land "better" than you foundit

• Improve environment for others• Make the land aesthetically pleasing

Goals

- setting goals- objectives- actions- alternatives

you intend to manage. Once youdetermine what you will need to sup-port the species you desire to attract,you must determine if the habitat isthere, if it can be created there, andif you could sustain it there. Forexample, it is not possible to managefor species that require hardwoodforests if you have no hardwoods onyour property. In addition to this, youmust also determine what limitingfactors are there, the carrying capac-ities of your land, and what trade-offsare involved. For such informationon the specific needs of wildlife, seethe chapters in the SpeciesManagement section.

Considering your neighbors isanother important aspect of deter-mining goals. It is possible to man-age for larger areas if you and yourneighbors have similar goals and cancombine management efforts. Forexample, if both you and your neigh-bor want to attract a large diversityof woodland birds, you could create amanagement plan that incorporatesboth properties.

Because other activities con-ducted on your land will also affectwildlife, you should try to anticipatethose effects when making yourmanagement goals. When improv-ing habitat for wildlife, you can usu-ally combine wildlife managementwith timber management and agri-cultural practices. However, for bestresults, you may need to modifythese practices to benefit wildlife. Inmost cases, timber and farmingactivities help some wildlife speciesbut may harm others. You will needsome understanding of these effectsif your management goals are to berealistic. As a general rule, forexample, timber harvest benefitsdeer, rabbits, grouse, and certainsongbirds such as towhees and indi-go buntings, that get food and coverfrom low-growing plants. On theother hand, some forms of timberharvest can harm forest wildlifespecies like barred owls or wood-peckers that use den cavities, orsquirrels and turkeys that rely onmast-producing hardwoods. Thedegree of management practiced

and any tradeoffs in timber, agricul-ture, or wildlife values will be yourdecision.

Try to be realistic about the timeinvolved in carrying out your plans.Consider low-cost, low-maintenanceprojects and think in terms of themany shorter steps required toachieve a long-range goal.

ObjectivesA landowner who has evaluated

the land, identified their goals, anddetermined which goal is the mostfeasible and important, can thendetermine what objectives arerequired to achieve this goal. Writingobjectives is a way of turning yourideas, or goals, into tangible strate-gies. One way of determining yourobjectives is to decide what impor-tant elements are missing from theland. In other words, ask what fea-tures can be enhanced, and alwaysconsider what is feasible on the land.For example, during evaluation of theland, you sighted several grasslandbirds. It was determined, from infor-mation gained on the habitat compo-nents needed by grassland birds, thatyour land only provides winter cover,and not nesting habitat or a reliablefood source. Because having grass-land birds was an important goal inthis instance, an objective to achievethis goal would be to consider thecreation of year-round habitat. Inother words, in finding what yourobjectives are, you must determinewhat is needed to fulfill your goal.

ActionsOnce the objectives required to

achieve the goal are determined, theactions needed to fulfill the objec-tives must be decided. Actions arewhat are needed to obtain yourobjectives. For example, an action tohelp fulfill the objective mentioned

LIMITATIONS TO CONSIDER1. What possibilities of attracting wildlife does my land have?2. To what degree could I manipulate my land to attract more wildlife?3. What possibilities do the adjoining properties have for attracting wildlife?4. Will my goals enhance or detract from those possibilities?5. What trade-off associated with my management goals may occur?6. Do I have the time and the financial resources to carry out the goals I have set?

BEFORE SETTING YOUR GOALS, THINKABOUT THE FOLLOWING . . .

1. Does wildlife use your property to connect other habitat nearby? 2. Do your woods, for example, stand-alone or do they form the core of a large

forested area owned by your neighbors? 3. Is restoring a wetland going to flood your neighbor's land? 4. How is your neighbor managing his/her land?5. Would your neighbor(s) be interested in managing their land cooperatively with

you?6. Have significant alterations been made to the land surrounding your property?7. Would these changes affect your ability to suceed with your goals?

above (to maintain year-round habi-tat for grassland birds) would be toplant vegetation that would providenesting cover and a food source.This action would take care of anobjective that was needed to fulfillyour goal. Once you are at this level,fulfilling one action at a time willbreak up a seemingly overwhelmingtask into smaller, manageable pieces.

Creating AlternativesLooking at alternatives to meet

your goals, and perhaps even redi-recting your goals may become nec-essary as you continually evaluatewhat you have in relation to what youwant. There are two different timesto look at alternatives. The first isbefore you set your managementplan into action, and the second isafter your plan has been implement-ed.

Before Implementation: DifferentOptions

Before you implement any plan,it is wise to consider different optionsto achieving your goal. Sometimesthese alternatives can save money,work, and time. You should not jumpat the first option made available, asit may not be the best for your situa-tion. It is best to weigh severaloptions and choose the one that isthe least expensive and takes lesstime, but achieves the same goal.

After Implementation: How GoalsChange Over Time

Landowners whose land haschanged, or who have run out oftime, money, or patience may needto consider alternative goals for theirManagement Plan. In some cases,when property is sold or subdivided,or natural disasters such as fire orflooding occur, the plan may need amajor overhaul or be completelyrewritten. Furthermore, the habitatsyou are trying to protect or improve

for wildlife change with the seasonsand the years. Expect your goals tochange over time as surroundinglandscapes change. When yourplans finally become reality, you maynotice that you have created partialhabitat for wildlife species you mayor may not have wanted to attract.Encouraging or discouraging the newwildlife, or getting rid of non-nativenuisance plants, may mean anadjustment in your goals. Land-own-ers who become confused or frus-trated when their goals suddenly

seem unreachable can still make apositive difference for wildlife if theylearn to be flexible. Keep in mindthat your road map, the manage-ment plan must be flexible in order tobe successful. Even wildlife man-agers can not always predict whatwill happen when they begin tomanipulate habitats.

In summary, managementoptions are always based on thegoal, but deciding what to do can bedifficult at times as there are manythings to consider. If you break downthe process into goals, objectives,and actions, it makes it easier todetermine what you are looking at inyour plan, and what you need to doto get there. Some practices aremore expensive and take more timethan others. Considering alternativesis always wise as it may preventproblems that you might have over-looked. Remember, the managementplan is never static, and your goalsmay need to be changed as your landor circumstances change, but thereare usually many ways of obtainingyour goals.

RE-EVALUATE YOURORIGINAL GOALS

The following 10 factors will assist youin evaluating your original goals, andshould be asked before you implementyour plan. Evaluating these considera-tions from time to time will also helpyou to consider alternatives that areavailable and to redirect goals as nec-essary.

1. Do I have the necessary funds tocomplete my management plan?

2. How much time do I have to do thework involved?

3. What kind of equipment is neededand where do I get it?

4. Can I provide the maintenancerequired once the goal isachieved?

5. What impacts to wildlife would myplan create?

6. How long will it take to achievethe results I want? Are there alter-natives that are faster, less expen-sive and less time-consuming?

7. What impacts will my decisionshave on my neighbors?

8. How have my neighbors' manage-ment practices affected me?

9. Will any legal implications occurras the result of my management?

10. Are there any future ramifications Ican reasonably expect?

SETTING GOALS & CONSIDERING ALTERNATIVES



SETTING GOALS & CONSIDERING ALTERNATIVES


The Management Plan is a doc-ument that describes what you want to do for wildlife on

your property, and how it will beaccomplished. It is a step-by-stepformula for what you want to do onyour land, and when, where, andhow you will accomplish the plan.The plan provides a timeline, whichcan project future phases ofimprovement, management, ormaintenance. Further, it can be arecord of what you have alreadydone. As you write down the dif-ferences your efforts have made,you will most likely also realizeimpacts you probably could nothave predicted. Such realizationswill help you to consider changes inyour plan, new goals and objec-tives, and alternatives for achievingthem.

Although some people dreadactually writing the plan, it doesnot have to be difficult. For small-er projects it can be as simple as a

quick sketch and a few notes.Larger projects may be more com-plex with maps, photos, drawings,references, and detailed outlines ofhabitat improvement projects astime and energy allow. As youmight expect, the managementplan is a clear reference that willguide you to accomplishing yourgoals. This chapter will show youhow to write a management planthat is focused, realistic for yourexpectations, and --most impor-tantly-- doable.

Creating a Project MapThe other chapters in this sec-

tion on Habitat Planning explain themany considerations that you mustponder before writing the plan.Now that you've decided on one ormore specific projects, you canwrite your management plan. Agood way to visualize your plan,before actually writing it out, is tocreate a project map. The projectmap will help you to see whereyou've been and where you want togo next. This map is dependent onthe Base Map created in the firststep of the planning process,Evaluating the Land, whichshows how to make inventories ofhabitat types, plants, and animalsthat already exist on your property.The Base Map includes the majorexisting habitats and land features.This information helps you deter-mine what you could reasonablyexpect to do within the context ofthe surrounding landscape.

To create a Project Map, usethe Base Map as the foundation,and for each habitat, or site, writein the habitat projects that will beimplemented. This entails eitherleaving existing features thatalready benefit wildlife, enhancingthem, or replacing non-beneficialexisting features with the manage-ment action you decided on in theprevious planning steps. Number-ing each site on the base mapbefore creating the Project Map willhelp in writing the managementplan as it will organize the areasinto workable units. The examplemaps shown on the next page illus-trate this process.

Writing Out the PlanThe next step to writing a man-

agement plan is to actually writeout the final draft of the plan. Thisincludes listing your goals alongwith the objectives and actions thatwill take place at each site. A goodway to organize your final draft isto write out your habitat projectsby site. Under each site, list indetail the objectives that will be ful-filled, the actions that are required,and when they will be implement-ed. Be as specific as possible as thisis the write-up that you will refer tofor details. Please see the accom-panying example of a written man-agement plan on the last page ofthis chapter.

Since maintenance is also a keypart of any management plan, con-sider adding a maintenance sched-ule to your plan. For example, your

WRITING A

MANAGEMENT PLAN


Management Plan

- project map- writing the plan- timeline-implementation-monitor results

field of switchgrass for winter covermay require mowing or burningevery three years, or perhaps youhave adopted a rotational mainte-nance schedule where you treatone third of the field each year.Writing down maintenance sched-ules will help you to plan your time,and is also the best way to remem-ber the important things that needto be done. Ignoring the necessarymaintenance will prevent you fromenjoying the full benefit of yourhabitat plan.

This is also a good time toreview your plan to determinewhich goals are short-term andwhich are long-term. In otherwords, it is important to knowwhich projects may produce imme-diate results, and which may notshow results for years. Becauselong-term projects may take yearsto implement, you may also wantto plan some activities that will pro

duce immediate results, such asbuilding nest boxes for certain birdspecies. Remember to be patient,most management plans requireseveral years before tangibleresults can be seen. Wait for veg-etation to become established.After that, wildlife should move intothe habitat you have created.

Creating a TimelineA supplemental tool to your

management plan is a timeline thatconsists of your management activ-ities. This year-by-year list ofactions will help you to stay orga-nized, and to keep track of whataction must occur when. A timelineis another way of writing out yourplan as it allows you to view theactions chronologically, rather thansite-by-site. While keeping track ofthe overall big picture, a timelinehelps you focus on the step-by-stepprocess one task at a time. Notonly will this give you a sense of

accomplishment along the way, butit will also make the overall planless overwhelming. Please see theexample timeline.

Implementation andMonitoring yourResults

Once you have written yourplan, it is time to implement it.Implementation means turningyour plan into reality as you beginto accomplish your goals. Duringimplementation, follow your planand timeline carefully, but realizethat changes can always be made ifproblems arise. Flexibility is impor-tant in a good management plan.

After you have implementedyour plans, it is important to moni-tor your results and determine ifyou have accomplished what youwanted. Sometimes, unexpectedresults occur, such as changes in

Once you have decided on what projects will be completed,

create a project map from the base map. This map will

show where the projects will take place and Is used as a

visual reference to the written management plan.

Existing features

Habitat projects

LB

RoadHouse and YardStream

Lowland Brush

CSG Cool Season

GrassesW & F Warm Season

Grasses and Forbs

SwitchgrassS

Shrub plantings

Nest boxes

cropfield

wetland

old field

pond

wetland

grassland

Base map created duting evaluation of the land. Sites are

numbered for organizat ional purposes.

LB

oak

foresthayfield

old field

12

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

no-t ill cropfield

wetland

pond

wetland

LB

oak

foresthayfield

CSG

CSG

S

S

S

1

92

3

5

6

7

8

4

Base map created during evaluationof the land. Sites are numbered fororganizational purposes

Once you have decided on what projects will be com-pleted, create a project map from the base. This mapwill show where the projects will take place and isused as a visual reference to the written managementplan.

40 Acres

the land or attraction of unwantedspecies, and additional actions willneed to be planned. Not every pro-ject will be successful, of course,and if the changes are unwantedyou may have to start the processover and determine a new goal.However, often your goal isobtained, and monitoring your suc-cess is a way to keep in touch with

your land after the planningprocess is complete. Keeping ajournal is a good way to keep trackof your progress, and will help youto see the differences you havemade on the land. This may alsohelp you determine potential prob-lems and possibly catch thembefore they occur.

Monitoring your results is often themost rewarding part of the plan-ning process. You will be able tosee what you have accomplishedthrough your hard work and carefulplanning. The landscape develop-ments that occur and the newsightings of wildlife you observewill bring much satisfaction. Simplywriting down the day you saw thefirst pair of bluebirds setting up ahousehold in the nesting box youinstalled is a memorable event thatis fun to record. You will realize thesame enjoyment when the purpleconeflowers you planted in the but-terfly garden begin to bloom, orthat spring morning you heard acock pheasant crow.

WRITING A MANAGEMENT PLAN



WRITING A MANAGEMENT PLAN


To meet the needs of wildlife speciesit may be necessary for neighborsto work together to improve habitat

on adjoining properties. AlthoughMichigan has more public land than anystate east of the Mississippi River, mil-lions of acres also belong to thousandsof private landowners. If wildlife popula-tions survive in Michigan, it will be large-ly due to habitat management on privatelands. Especially in southern Michiganwhere more than 95 percent ofMichigan's land is privately owned.

Many of these private propertiesinclude small parcels of one to 20 acreseach, and many more are backyards lessthan an acre in size. As more and moreland is converted to houses, highways,and shopping centers, wildlife habitatsbecome fragmented and isolated. Thisfragmentation makes it difficult forwildlife to find the right combination ofhabitat components necessary for theirsurvival. Even in northern Michigan,where large blocks of public forest occur,

fragmentation and human developmentof land continues to increase.

Landowners can make a differencefor wildlife, and lessen the impact of thisfragmentation, by creating habitat ontheir land. However, landowners workingtogether can make an even bigger dif-ference by providing larger tracts of landfor wildlife. No matter what size your lotis, you can still improve your plan byworking with your neighbors. This chap-ter explains how to work with yourneighbors to develop a better habitatmanagement plan.

Begin a Dialogue withYour Neighbors

The habitat, animal, and plantinventories you made on your land(described in the chapter on Evaluatingthe Land in this section) have helpedyou to understand the habitats thatwildlife use, and to identify what habitatsyou have and do not have to offer them.Animals do not understand humanboundaries such as fences, roads,drainage ditches, and rights of way(although they may be attracted to themif key components of habitat are provid-ed). They readily respond to naturalhabitat--wetlands, woodlands, andgrasslands. Unless you owna large amount of land that isdiverse in habitat types, youmay not be able to managefor some species.Hummingbirds, for example,won't be attracted to yoursugar-water feeder unlessthere is a wooded area near-by where they can nest and

find shelter. Deer might be attracted tothe clover in your lawn but only if thereis brushland shelter nearby in which toescape and raise their young. In addi-tion, some species require larger blocksof one type of habitat, such as somegrassland and woodland birds.

Opening a dialogue with propertyowners near you is an important part ofyour overall management plan. Yourneighbors' goals may be the same asyours or altogether different. Either way,it is good policy to find out as soon aspossible. Working with your neighborscan make your goals more attainable.Your neighbors may have one or moreimportant components of habitat thatyou do not have. If you plan together,you may be able to provide all of thenecessary components needed to obtainyour goal.

It is always best to make your con-tacts long before your decisions have thepotential to impact property that is notyour own. If you think that your plan willdirectly affect someone else’s property,seek their approval before you take anyaction. Your plan to restore a wetland,for example, may alter hydrology onadjacent lands. The water you impound

WORKING WITH

NEIGHBORS


Working with Neighbors

- begin dialogue

- share ideas

- combine efforts

may spread to another's property andcreate a problem. Your neighbors maytake any mishaps that might occur a lotbetter if they were involved in, andagreed to, your plans.

Your goals could also threaten aneighbor's plan for their land. If yourneighbor earns income from farming,the deer population you have attractedto your property may eat the crops thefarmer has planted. If you had taken thefarm into consideration when planning,you could have planted preferred foodson your land to reduce your neighbor'scrop damage. Other decisions you makecould alter property values, make accessdifficult, or be in direct conflict with yourneighbors' goals. The gains you makecould cancel out your neighbors'improvements and vice versa.

Sharing Ideas andCombining Efforts

Sitting down with your neighbors todiscuss short-term and long-term goalsis the best way to avoid these problems.As you share plans, you may learn howmuch you have in common. The wood-lands or wetlands you own may be con-nected to the woodlands or wetlandsowned by your neighbor. Perhapstogether you can manage shared habi-tats for the common good. You may dis-cover that the idled farm field you ownand the cattail marsh your neighbor

owns can be managed as a single unit.The grassland can provide nesting andbrood-rearing cover, and the wetlandcan provide secure protection fromstorms and predators for mallards,pheasants, red-winged blackbirds, andbluebirds.

There are many advantages to commu-nicating your ideas and goals with neigh-bors. One or more local property own-ers may be able to furnish valuable infor-mation about your land and its history.What grew there, how the property wasused, what birds and mammals livedthere at one time, when the timber waslast harvested, and what farming prac-tices were carried out are examples ofuseful information that will help you toset goals and objectives that could bemutually beneficial. Cropping patterns,pesticide and herbicide use, tiling anddrainage programs, and fertilizing andgrazing are all important things to knowas you write your overall ManagementPlan.

Sharing your plans with your neigh-bors and asking for their ideas in returnopens the door for good relations andmay lead to complementary agree-ments. Although there is no guaranteethat subsequent owners will share yourmutual interests, it is the best assuranceyou can expect for long-term manage-ment goals. The reality is that if eitherof you sells your land, there is no way toknow if future owners will be wildlifefriendly. What happens when the goalsare contradictory? The answer lies innegotiating to find some commonground.

Creating, enhancing, andmaintaining wildlife habitat canbe hard work that costs timeand money. Sharing the workloadwith neighbors who have commoninterests can save time and expense,and add to the overall enjoymentthat comes from making a dif-

ference for wildlife. Two people can cre-ate a brushpile for rabbits in half the timeit takes one person to do the job. Thework of cutting trees for firewood whilethinning a woodlot is not so difficult ifyou have a partner to help. Also, shar-ing tools and specialty equipment likechain saws, mowing machines, tractors,and farming implements is a good wayto save money.

You might even find ways to cost-share certain projects such as creatingfood plots, windbreaks, wetland orprairie restorations, pruning wild-appletrees, planting fruit-bearing shrubs, tim-ber cutting for commercial sale, buildingnesting platforms for ducks, and housesfor birds and bats. Perhaps you willmanage the sharp edge between grassand tall trees by each person planting arow or two of fruiting shrubs like elder-berry or highbush cranberry. Besidesbenefiting wildlife that live in the diversehabitats you and your neighbor are man-aging, the shared plantings reducedcosts.

Boundary lines offer a great oppor-tunity to work together for wildlife.Fencerows, for example, can bewidened through the joint planting oftrees, shrubs, and grasses. If each ofyou planted one row of evergreens andone row of fruit-producing shrubs, youwould create a living fencerow thatmany species of birds and mammals

would be attracted to. Anotheroption would be for yourneighbor to plant cool seasonand/or warm season grass-

es, and you plant a mixtureof clover, alfalfa, andother legumes. Or, youcould thin the trees

along yourwood l and

border to

provide more sun for your neighbor’swildflowers.

If you do not know who your neigh-bors are, you can find out by consultinga county plat book, available throughyour local library, county courthouse,township government office, or MichiganState University Extension office. Some-times landowners may have little or nointerest in wildlife. Yet other neighborsmay be public land managers who arekeenly interested in helping you developplans that support their interests. If yourproperty borders a township park, statewildlife or recreation area, or state orfederal forest, a management plan for

wildlife may exist. In that event, youmight be able to tailor your goals to com-plement a plan already in effect.

In summary, few landowners areable to improve wildlife habitat withoutin some way affecting nearby propertyowners. Sharing information and ideasmay be mutually rewarding and createpartnerships that can last a lifetime.Whenever you combine efforts withneighbors, you increase the benefits towildlife.

WORKING WITH NEIGHBORS



WORKING WITH NEIGHBORS


Pre-settlement vegetation isthe vegetation that occurredacross Michigan's diverse

landscapes at the time of Europeansettlement. Before settlement, elk,bison, wolf, moose, and woodlandcaribou were abundant and NativeAmericans inhabited Michigan.Imagine the county or townshipwhere you live without roads,supermarkets, power lines, reten-tion ponds, industrial parks, subdi-visions, strip malls, golf courses, orlarge monocultures of corn or soy-beans. Picture having only the sunto guide you through a sea ofgrasses that stretched to scatteredpockets of large, wide-spreadingoaks and bison grazing in the dis-tance. Imagine your backyard filledwith 500-year-old white pines thatseemed to touch the sky, trees sowide that even two people couldnot put their arms around them. Inyour mind's eye, see wetlands thatstretched as far as sight allows, liv-ing marshlands filled with thesounds of thousands of waterfowlas they settle in for the evening. Itis likely that this is what early set-tlers saw when they first arrived inMichigan.

Knowing where such land-scapes occurred historically helps inhabitat planning today. A pre-set-tlement vegetation map allows usto see this. It describes the land-scape when Michigan was first sur-veyed, and it shows where distinctplant communities occurred. Thismap is a tool that improves ourunderstanding of patterns and

processes across landscapes. Thisinformation offers insights for man-aging lands as large as state forestsor as small as your backyard.Knowledge of the type, location,and ecological context ofMichigan's native vegetation helpslandowners choose effective landmanagement goals. Today's pat-terns of land-use, wildlife distribu-tion, wetland water levels, andecosystem functions are far moremeaningful when placed in a his-torical context.

This historical informationbecomes very important when youbegin writing a management planfor your property. What you canlearn about the land's history willhelp you develop managementgoals, decide specific habitat pro-

jects, and plan for stewardship nowand in the future.

How Are Pre-settlement Vegetation Maps Made?

Before land in Michigan couldbe sold for the first time to settlers,the federal government requiredthat it be surveyed. Deputy sur-veyors from the General LandOffice visited Michigan prior to thelogging era between 1816 and1856. These surveyors' townshipplat maps and transcribed fieldnotes provide the best availablerecord about Michigan’s nativelandscape. The General Land Officerequired surveyors to note the loca-

PRE-SETTLEMENT/PAST VEGETATION

TYPES


Actual field notes from when Michigan was first surveyed.

tion of wetlands, lakes, andstreams; to comment on the agri-cultural potential of soils; and tonote the quantity and quality oftimber resources. The surveyorsrecorded recently burned areas,beaver floodings, windthrows fromstorms, and Native American settle-ments. At each section corner andhalf-mile point they pounded awooden post into the ground.These markers would later be usedto establish legal property bound-aries. The measuring tools theyused were a compass and a"chain." A chain contained 100links and was 66 feet long. A totalof 80 chains marked a mile. Thesurveyors left markers to indicatetownship and section borders forthe first private property owners.They also recorded enough landresource information for the set-tlers to make sight-unseen pur-chases, and to help them find theparcels they bought.

Recently, ecologists from theMichigan Natural FeaturesInventory (MNFI) used informationfrom these original field notes andplat maps to compile pre-settle-ment vegetation maps forMichigan's 83 counties. Becausethe surveyors took information onlyalong section lines and becausesmall plant communities such as20-acre wetlands were not includ-ed, the MNFI ecologists also reliedon other references. They studiedsurface geology maps, soil maps,and other technical data to makethe pre-settlement maps as accu-rate as possible.

From these and otherresources they determined thatmore than 80 different native plantcommunities historically occurredin Michigan. These communitiesranged from pockets of unique

wetlands that depended on fluctu-ating water levels, to tracts of hard-wood-conifer forests that stretchedover several counties. Ecologistscombined all 83 counties into astatewide pre-settlement vegeta-tion map.

RegionsThere are four major regions

that differ in Michigan: the south-ern Lower Peninsula, northernLower Peninsula, eastern UpperPeninsula, and western UpperPeninsula. These regions are pri-marily based on climate and geolo-gy, which in turn determines thetypes of vegetation present.Understanding these areas will helpyou to determine what has histori-cally grown in your area, and whatmay feasibly grow there now.

Southern Lower PeninsulaThe southern Lower Peninsula

was a diverse landscape of oak-hickory forest, beech-sugar mapleforest, oak-grassland areas calledsavannas, and hardwood swamps.Beech, sugar maple, walnut, hicko-ry, and tulip trees grew on well-drained soils and dominated thelandscape. Areas with well-drainedsandy soils supported mosaics ofoak-hickory forest and oak-savan-nas. These drier sites allowed peri-odic wildfires to occur which pro-moted the establishment of oaks,hickories, prairie grasses, and wild-flowers. These fires were oftenstarted by lightning strikes andNative Americans.

Hardwood swamps of redmaple, ash, swamp white oak, andelm grew in lowland depressionsand poorly-drained areas. Alongthe eastern edge of southernMichigan near the Great Lakes,large areas of wet prairies and oakopenings prevailed and were great-

ly influenced by water-level fluctua-tions and fire. The vast areaaround Saginaw Bay and its wetclay plain were covered with low-land hardwoods, hemlock, andwhite pine. The shoreline support-ed wet prairies and Great Lakesmarshes, as it did along Lake Erieand Lake St. Clair.

Today, the landscape looks dra-matically different. Major losses toforests and wetlands have occurreddue to agriculture and urbaniza-tion. Large portions of marshlandson the Great Lakes were destroyedby development of ports and mari-nas, as well as by farming activi-ties. Native grasslands, bothprairies and oak-savannas, wereamong the first areas to be plowedbecause they contained few trees.Dry conditions and poor soils latercaused some of these farmlands tobe abandoned. Many converted toforests of oak and, if fire was sup-pressed, eventually to stands ofbeech-maple. Only a few smallremnants of native grasslandsremain.

Northern Lower PeninsulaNorthern hardwoods, oak-pine

grasslands, pine forests, andconifer swamps originally coveredthe northern lower peninsula.There were more conifers as youwent north due to the colder cli-mate. However, northern hard-woods, which were comprised ofsugar maple, beech, white pine,hemlock, basswood, and yellowbirch dominated. Pockets of aspenand birch occurred in this systemwhere local disturbance such aswind or fire opened the forestcanopy to allow regeneration ofthese early-successional trees.

In the central portion, a mix ofpine forests and barrens developed

because of the sandy, dry soils andthe high frequency of fire. Jackpine prospered on the driest sites,and forests of white and red pinegrew in other places. Some of thepoorest quality sites burned oftenenough to support communitiescalled barrens, which are grass-lands that contain a few oaks, pinesor a mixture of both. Northernwhite cedar, black spruce, andtamarack grew in poorly drainedareas.

When loggers removed the redpine and white pine forests in thelate 1800s, much of the region con-verted to stands of aspen and oak.Although previously logged north-ern hardwoods have regenerated,the composition today favors redoak, red maple, and paper birch,and thus fewer hemlock and whitepine. Past and present timber har-vest methods have increased aspencoverage from 100,000 acres origi-nally to more than 1.5 million acrestoday. Large amounts of coniferswamps that once held cedar,tamarack, and spruce have con-verted to hardwood swamps andswamp brushlands of dogwood andalder. The loss of conifer swamps isa very significant change since pre-settlement and should be takeninto account when managing theseareas. Furthermore, due to thesuppression of fire during the lastcentury many of the historical bar-rens and dry-sand prairies havebeen lost.

Eastern Upper PeninsulaWhen the first settlers arrived,

the eastern Upper Peninsulaappeared similar to the northernLower Peninsula. Northern hard-woods dominated the landscape,and conifer and conifer-hardwoodswamps also occurred. Aspen-birchforests were more prevalent than inthe northern Lower Peninsula due

to the shallow, poorly drained,sandy soils. Compared to the restof Michigan, however, this areacontained large expanses of peat-land, muskegs, and boreal (north-ern conifer) forests of fir, spruce,and cedar. Vast marshes frontedLakes Huron and Michigan. Aunique grassland community calledalvar occurred on DrummondIsland, the Garden Peninsula, andalong the north shore of LakeHuron where flat, limestonebedrock lay close to the surface.

Since settlement, one of thebiggest changes has been the lossof the Great Lakes marshes. Thiswas caused by habitat alterationsand fluctuations in water levelsfrom timber harvest, roads, high-ways, and quarries. Though bore-al forests and northern hardwoodforests still cover a large part of theregion, these too have beenimpacted. In many cases drainageand logging have allowed somelandowners to convert forests tofarmland. Even in areas allowed toregenerate to northern hardwoods,there is a lack of hemlock andwhite pine. Other property ownershave converted areas that oncesupported red pine-white pine andred pine-jack pine forests, amongothers, to red pine plantations.

Western Upper PeninsulaOriginally the western Upper

Peninsula was dominated by north-ern hardwood forests of sugar andred maple, hemlock, yellow birch,and beech. Jack pine and red pine-jack pine forests dominated dryareas, and shrub swamps, bogs,and conifer swamps containing bal-sam fir, spruces, tamarack, andwhite cedar occurred in poorlydrained depressions. Heavy log-ging and out-of-control fires thatraged through harvested areashave greatly reduced the regenera-

tion of hemlock and white and redpine.

Although the area remainslargely wooded, current harvestactivities have tended to reduceforest species diversity and haveincreased the relative abundance ofsugar maple. Also, early-succes-sional species such as aspen andbirch are more abundant today.

How To Use Pre-settlementMaps

The native plant communitiesshown on your county pre-settle-ment map were the ones bestadapted to the soils, land forms,and climate. Because the vegeta-tion existed for thousands of yearsbefore European settlement, ecolo-gists point out that managing fororiginal cover types should be lowmaintenance and cost-effective.Further, it should provide a widediversity of habitat for wildlife.However, many things havechanged since Michigan was set-tled, and these changes sometimesmake such management goals diffi-cult, if not impossible, to achieve.Also, such goals may not be part ofthe landowner's plan.

Even if your goal is not to attainpre-settlement conditions, pre-set-tlement vegetation maps can helpwith any goal by answering ques-tions like:

•"Is restoration of this wetlandor this prairie a good idea?" •"How do the managementplans for my property fit in withwhat grew here 200 years ago? •"What kinds of changes haveoccurred and over how long aperiod?" •“What plants and animals nat-urally occurred here?”•“Are there any rare plants oranimals historically present

PRE-SETTLEMENT

that should be looked for?”•“What disturbances weremost likely required (i.e. fire) tosustain the types of vegetationhistorically present?”

Answering these questions willhelp you to understand thechanges that occurred in yourarea, and help you to fit your prop-erty in with the surrounding land-scape. The more you learn aboutyour property's history, the moreyou will understand its limitationsand its potential.

Consider, for example, how nat-ural disturbances of fire, wind, anderosion played important roles increating and altering the patternsof Michigan's native landscape. Theability to clarify the type, location,and impact of a wildfire, or a windstorm hundreds of years ago helpswildlife researchers to develop eco-logical models. These models canthen be used to plan managementstrategies that will mimic the natur-al processes, with the goal ofrestoring former habitats or creat-ing new ones.

Learning as much as we canabout the past also helps us to bet-ter understand present uses of theland. The reason, for example,that celery grows so well on theneighbor's black soil is because theland was originally a muck-bottomwetland that a former ownerdrained. The soil type and thepresence of moisture dictated whatgrew there then and what growsthere now. Another example of alost landscape is the prairie. If you

live on a sandy, relatively flat areain west-central Michigan, you mayown a remnant prairie. By studyingpre-settlement vegetation mapsand present-day soils maps, youmight find areas that historicallyharbored grassland species such asbig bluestem, Indiangrass, butter-flyweed, or black-eyed Susan. Youcould even discover a rare speciesor two that may still persist andthat could benefit from a prairierestoration.

To use the pre-settlement mapin your management plan, start bystudying the map and making a listof the native plant communitiesthat were historically found on andnear your property. Check withyour local library, area historicalsociety, older neighbors, or formerlandowners as they may also havehelpful information. Use referencebooks and information in this guideto make a list of plants and soilsthat are associated with each plantcommunity you can identify. Thensearch your property to see if anypre-settlement plants or communi-ties are still growing there.

Pre-settlement vegetationmaps help guide landowners tosearch for things they might nothave known existed. This new-found knowledge can be added toother pieces of information to writea dynamic management plan thatconsiders soils, surface water,ground water, current land cover,surrounding land use and habitats,and wildlife present.

County pre-settlement mapsare currently available through theMichigan Department of NaturalResources for a nominal fee. Askfor the Michigan ResourceInformation System (MIRIS) unit.In addition, the Natural ResourceConservation Service (NRCS) orConservation District (CD) officelocated in most counties will have afull-color county pre-settlementmap for reference use only.

In summary, everything youcan learn about your land, past andpresent, is a valuable asset towardwriting a management plan aimedat improving wildlife habitat. TheMichigan pre-settlement vegetationmaps offer important clues to whatyou can and can not expect toaccomplish on your property.



PRE-SETTLEMENT


What does your property's soilhave to do with wildlife? Ina word -- everything. Life on

land begins with soil. The type of soil,along with climate, determine whatplant communities will grow in anarea. Together the soils and plantcommunities provide the habitatsthat give animals the requirementsthey need to survive: food, shelter,space, and water. All plants and ani-mals need minerals and nutrients tosurvive, and wildlife obtain themfrom food. Plants absorb mineralsand nutrients from the soil, whichthen pass through the food chain toplant eaters and eventually to meateaters.

Michigan's diverse landscapesare the result of many different kindsof soil. The Natural ResourcesConservation Service (NRCS) has cat-egorized in wetlands alone about2,000 different soils within the UnitedStates, and these wetland soils sup-port some 5,000 different kinds ofplants. This chapter will help you toidentify three major soil types thatmay occur on your property.Included are suggestions for creatingwildlife habitats based on soil charac-teristics.

Soil SystemsThe reason that the supply of

minerals in nature never runs out isbecause they are constantly beingrecycled. When plants and animalsdie they decompose. Organisms likemushrooms and other fungi, as wellas bacteria, feed on the dead mater-ial and help to break it down until it

is released to the atmosphere andsoil. This decomposition processeventually creates topsoil, which isthe richest in minerals and nutrients.The process takes a long time, creat-ing only an inch of topsoil every onehundred years. The minerals andnutrients in the topsoil are leachedinto the subsoil where the roots oflong-lived plants find them and storethem into their tissues providing thebase of the food chain.

This natural process sustainsecosystems and the well-being of allwildlife. Therefore, soil is much morethan dirt. It is a living ecosystem.The soil of a typical acre of grasslandhabitat, for example, will include15,000 pounds of plant roots, 400 to4,000 pounds of bacteria, 500 to5,000 pounds of fungi, 250 to1000 pounds of earthworms, and10 pounds of insects, all of whichinteract to sustain life.

However, soils and plant com-munities are easily abused throughcareless management that allowserosion to occur. The naturalprocess may also be upset by theimproper use of herbicides thatdestroy plants, and insecticidesthat may kill certain soil organismsthat act as decomposers whichprovides a key part of the foodchain.

Soil TexturesThe soils that comprise your

property developed slowly over along period of time. The physicaland chemical composition of the

parent material played a major role inwhat kind of soils developed. Thethe effect of climate and the plantsand animals that lived and died thereare other contributing factors.

Although soil contains many liv-ing things, it is also composed ofnon-living matter such as minerals,water, and air. How much water andair found in soil depends uponweather, water uptake by plantsgrowing there, the lay of the land,texture of the topsoil and subsoil,and groundwater levels. As weath-er, seasons, and land-use change,the level of the groundwater and soilmoisture fluctuates. Wet sand inspring, for example, may be dried outin fall. Moisture content of topsoilalso depends on the type of subsoil.

KNOWING YOUR SOILS


TOPSOIL = roots, bacteria, organic

matter, fungi, insects,

and earthworms

SUBSOIL = roots, bacteria, fungi,

insects, and earthworms

PARENT MATERIAL = limestone,

bedrock, or

other mineral

substance

soil profile

A rich loam topsoil, for instance, maynot be especially productive if thesubsoil is moisture-leaching gravel.

Texture is also a common way toclassify soils. It is determined by theamount of sand, silt, and clay foundin the soil. Sand particles are thelargest, and clay particles are thesmallest. Silt particles fall betweensand and clay for size. As you mightexpect, clay is capable of holdingmuch more water than sand becausethe clay particles are so much small-er and do not leave as many spacesfor the water to leach through.

Sandy soils are loose, light soilsthat are easy to work with. Theyusually drain water readily and arelow in nutrients. Sandy soils dry outquickly as they do not hold water.Instead they absorb it, at a rate ofmore than two inches of water perhour, and it leaches through to lowerlayers. Therefore, sandy soils supportdrought-resistant vegetation such asthat found in Jack pine barrens,savannas, and dry prairies. They arealso generally well suited for plantingwildflowers, native grasses, and pinetrees in open-land or woodland habi-tats.

Clay soils are heavy soils rich innutrients but difficult to work with.They absorb less than a quarter-inch

of water per hour, and therefore arecapable of holding a lot of water.Therefore clay soils are associatedwith vegetation communties that tol-erate high water content in the soilsuch as swamps and floodplainforests, and plant species such asbulrushes, smartweed, duck potato,and pondweed.

Loamy soils are intermediatebetween sands and clays. Composedof many different-sized soil particles,they combine fertility with moisture-holding capacity (a quarter-inch totwo inches of water absorption perhour). Therefore, these soils are ableto support a wide variety of vegeta-tion, especially hardwood forestsand, in a few favored sites, prairies.Areas with these soils offer manymanagement possibilities.

Here's a simple test to determinesoil texture on your property:Squeeze a moist (but not muddy) ballof soil in your hand. Then rub thesoil between your fingers. Sandy soilfeels gritty and loose. It won't forma ball and it falls apart. Clay soil, onthe other hand, is smooth and stickyand has a somewhat plastic feeling.It forms ribbons when pressedbetween fingers. Loamy soil is a com-bination of clay and sand particles. Itis smooth, slick, partially gritty andsticky, and forms a ball that crumbleseasily.

For most soils, the amount oforganic matter comprises less thanfive percent of its total weight.Exceptions are peats and mucks,which are special classifications ofsoil that contain more than 80 per-cent organic matter. Although high innitrogen, such wet soils are often lowin other nutrients. Frequently drainedfor growing vegetables or miningpeat, these organic soils at one timesupported wetland habitats, includ-

ing bogs and fens. Unfortunately,these communities may be very diffi-cult to restore and should be protect-ed whenever possible.

Most of Michigan's counties nowhave a published Soil Survey which isavailable from your local Conser-vation District office. The surveycontains maps that describe soiltypes on your property along withpotential uses including food andcover needs for wildlife.

Soil Fertility What the maps won't tell you,

however, is how fertile your soil is.This information is obtained by takingsoil samples from your property.Information about your soil fertility isimportant if you want to improve soilthat has been degraded to producewildlife habitat. First, though, ithelps to know what you are lookingfor.

Soil pH is a measurement of rel-ative acidity. In the soil pH scale,each number represents a ten-foldincrease or decrease in acidity fromthe number before or after it. Forexample, a soil with a pH of 5 is 10times more acid than a soil having apH of 6. The pH range for mostMichigan soils is 4 (acid) to 9 (alka-line), with 7 being neutral. It isimportant to know the pH of your soilbecause too much acidity or alkalini-ty in the soil prevents plants fromabsorbing nutrients. Maximum avail-ability of most nutrients for plantsoccurs when the pH falls within theneutral range (6 to 7). Soil pH can beraised or lowered to desired levels byapplying either lime or specific fertil-izers. These applications, whenapplied to degraded soils, willincrease the activity of microbes,improve nutrient availability, andimprove overall soil structure. The pHof acidic soils can be raised by apply-

Water Table wet

mesic-wet

mesic

dry-mesic

dry

Soil moisture levels as they ret reat from the water table.Soil moisture levels in relation to the watertable.

ing lime. The pH of alkaline soils canbe lowered by adding specific fertiliz-ers. Therefore, it is important toknow the pH of your soil beforeapplying anything to improve it. Forexample, adding fertilizer to soil witha pH of 5 won't help most plants togrow any better.

Soil fertility is measured by theamount of nitrogen, phosphorus, andpotassium present. If the soil needsthem, adding these nutrients as fer-tilizer at the correct rates helps plantsto grow to their maximum potential.Commercial fertilizers are labeledaccording to the content of elementalnitrogen, available phosphorus, andsoluble potash (potassium). Theanalysis of a blended fertilizer, forexample, might read 12-12-12. Thefigures refer to the percent of nitro-gen, phosphorus, and potash (in thatorder), which is contained in the fer-

tilizer. In the above example, each100-pound bag contains 12 poundseach. If a soil analysis calls for 24pounds of nitrogen per acre for thecrop or vegetative cover you intendto plant, you would need to apply200 pounds at the rate in the exam-ple. Secondary nutrients of calcium,magnesium, and sulfur are suppliednaturally in soil or may be added tosoil as needed. Plants also needsmall amounts of boron, iron, zinc,manganese, copper, molybdenumand chlorine, all of which usuallyoccur naturally. The only way toknow what your soil needs is to do asoil test.

In addition to this, it is helpful toknow the requirements of the plantsyou are trying to grow. Clover, forexample, grows best in soils with apH of 6.5 to 7.0. Prairie grasses andwildflowers are not as restrictive--

they will grow in a pH range of 5.0 to7.5.

Testing Your SoilPlanting anything on your land

without first getting a soil test is liketrying to create a new meal without arecipe. It is impossible to know, forexample, why a certain site will notgrow grass or sunflowers withoutfirst sampling the soil for nutrientsand pH. Depending on the size ofyour management site, be sure tocollect several samples because dif-ferent locations may be the same soiltype but vary widely as to fertility.

Before testing your soil for fertil-ity, consider its recent past history.For example, the use of pesticidesmay have greatly reduced theamount of micro-organisms. Nut-rient value of the soil may be some-what depleted if the land was used toproduce row crops for many years. Ifthe property was a long-time pas-ture, the soil structure might betightly impacted due to animals walk-ing over it. These considerations willhelp to explain why the test resultscome back the way they do, and theywill also help you to understand therange of your management options.

Perc

ent clay

Percent silt

Percent sand

Orchard

grass

Lit t le

bluestem

Timothy

hart showing the opt imal soil t exture for 3 common MI grasses.Chart showing the optimal soil texture forthree common Michigan grasses.

Soil ph

KNOWING YOUR SOILS

On the Soil Survey map of your prop-erty, or on a sketch you've preparedyourself, divide your land into soiltypes. Plan to take twenty to thirtysamples for each 10-acre site. Ifyour property is an acre or less, twoto four samples might be sufficient.Backyards and other small parcelsmight require a single sample.Number all site samples and recordthem on the map or sketch.

Use a soil probe, spade or trow-el, and a clean plastic pail to takefrom each site soil samples 6 to 8inches deep (no grass, sod or otherplants are needed). Mix the samplethoroughly in the pail and collect onepint for testing and take it to yourcounty Michigan State UniversityExtension office, which will charge anominal fee for analysis. Furnish siteinformation on any history of crop-ping, liming and fertilizing, andinclude the soil type listed in the SoilSurvey. You should also explain whatyou want to plant because recom-

mended fertilizer rates vary widelyfor different food plots and habitats.

Soil test results can be interpret-ed by knowledgeable people at theMichigan State University Extensionoffice, Conservation District office, orfarm supply dealer. Keep the resultswith your wildlife management planand refer to it before future planti-ngs. The success of your overallplan depends greatly on how wellyou know your soils and what theycan and cannot do for wildlife habi-tat.



KNOWING YOUR SOILS


MeACo

12

3

4

5

6 7

8

910

11 12

13

18

19

20

14

15

16

17

Key

Soil Series Part it ion

Soil test site and

sample number

Metamora-Capac

sandy loams,

0-4 percent slopes

Colwood Loam, nearly

level

MeA

Co

Sample soil survey map of a 10 acre backyard with soil test sites.Sample soil survey map of a 10 acre backyard with soil test sites.

Edges and fragments are keypieces of the habitat puzzle.In order to properly manage

for wildlife, it is important to under-stand edges and habitat fragmentsand their potential impacts onwildlife. Edges are places wheretwo cover types come together,such as a wetland next to a field ora young stand of aspens next to anolder stand of aspens. Edges ben-efit a large variety of wildlife butcan also harm other species.Habitat fragments are remainingpieces of larger habitats that havebeen broken up, either by naturalcauses such as wildfire or storms,or by human disturbance such asroads, housing developments, andpipelines. Habitat fragments oftencontain a lot of edge, and may betoo small to provide quality habitatfor certain kinds of wildlife.

Before European settlement,Michigan's historical ecosystemsincluded edges and fragments.However, today there is a largeamount of habitat fragmentation,

especially in the Lower Peninsula,due to the addition of nearly 10million people to the state. As aresult of habitat fragmentation,many edge-loving species havebecome abundant, while edge-sen-sitive species have reduced in num-bers.

Knowing the positive and nega-tive impacts that edges and frag-ments have on wildlife will help youdecide on the best managementoptions for your land. Options canrange from doing nothing to inten-sive manipulation of habitats.Because of the large amount ofhabitat fragmentation in Michigan,one of the best management goalsfor wildlife is to enhance existingedges and minimize fragmentation.This chapter discusses such optionsto managing edges and fragmentson your property.

Edges - Pros and ConsEdge is important to wildlife

that require plants from two kindsof habitat to provide their food and

cover needs. Manyspecies will nest in onehabitat, and feed or findshelter in another. Forexample, a grassland anda wetland next to eachother can provide year-round habitat for pheas-ants. The grassland pro-vides nesting and brood-rearing cover in springand summer, while thewetland provides securityfrom predators and

storms in winter. Other animals thatthrive along habitat edges includeruffed grouse, bobwhite quail, wildturkeys, deer, rabbits, raccoons,and foxes. Song sparrows, brownthrashers, gray catbirds, flickers,indigo buntings, bluebirds, cardi-nals, and red-tailed hawks are alsoactive along edges. Because of thelarge amount of edge in Michigan,many of these species are nowabundant. However, edges canoften become too narrow to bene-fit these species. With the properedge enhancements, they may berelatively easy to attract to yourland.

Other species shun edges, andprefer the interior of one type ofhabitat to provide their food andcover needs. They rely on largertracts of habitat and, due to largeamounts of habitat fragmentation,they are becoming less abundant inMichigan. Woodland birds that aresensitive to edges are wood thrush-es, ovenbirds, broad-wingedhawks, pileated woodpeckers, yel-low-throated vireos, American red-starts, veeries, and Blackburnian,yellow-throated, cerulean, mourn-

EDGES ANDFRAGMENTS


ing, and hooded warblers.Grassland birds that shun edgesinclude northern harriers, sharp-tailed grouse, upland sandpipers,bobolinks, and savannah andHenslow's sparrows. Certainspecies of salamanders, frogs, andbutterflies also thrive best awayfrom edges. One reason that thesespecies can not survive alongedges is that they do not posessdefenses against edge-roamingpredators such as snakes, foxes,raccoons, opossums, skunks, bluejays, and feral housecats. Thesepredators pose serious threats tothese edge-sensitive species ashabitat fragmentation increases.

Another serious threat to theseedge-sensitive species is thebrown-headed cowbird, which is anest parasite that thrives along theedges of woodlands. The cowbirddoes not build its own nest, butinstead lays its brown-speckledeggs in another bird's nest, leavingthem for the host bird to hatch andraise. The cowbird chicks, whichare larger and more voracious thanthe host’s chicks, hatch earlier thanmost host species do and are ableto out-compete the host's chicksfor food and space. This bird hasgrown abundant in Michiganbecause of habitat fragmentation,

and is becoming a large problemfor woodland birds. In some frage-mented forests of the centralUnited States, 60 percent of all birdnests in those forests containedcowbird eggs. Other species thatare feeling the impact of cowbirdparasitism are Kirtland’s warblers,wood thrushes, yellow-throatedwarblers, chipping sparrows, scar-let tanagers, red-eyed vireos, andeastern phoebes.

Managing EdgesMany people think of edges as

wasted areas. However, the shrubsand grasses found there providegood food and nesting cover formany species of wildlife. Bobwhitequail, for example, relish giant rag-weed seeds and poison ivy berries,American goldfinches savor bullthistle seeds, monarch butterfliesrely on milkweeds, black-cappedchickadees peck out insect larvaefrom the swollen stems of golden-rod, and meadowlarks andbobolinks nest in the herbaceouscover. Small, permanent openingsin forests are edges that providegood sources of food, nesting sites,and escape cover for ruby-throatedhummingbirds, broad-winged hawks,deer, black bears, red foxes, chip-munks, and other wildlife.

Michigan has an abundance of

edge, which is mostly associatedwith farming, timber harvesting,and urban development. Much ofthese edges can be improved tobenefit edge-loving wildlife, as wellas lessen the impact of predationon edge-sensitive species. Whenedges are narrow, they do not pro-vide enough habitat for manyspecies as they contain little escapecover and make it easy for preda-tors to find nests. Woodland open-ings, fencerows, hedgerows, androadsides are also examples ofedges that are often too narrowand can be enhanced to benefitwildlife. In addition to this, broadfields of row crops have forcedmany species to nest along fieldedges, windbreaks, ditches, travellanes, and anywhere else they canfind suitable shelter. These areas,when enhanced can provide essen-tial food and cover for nesting andtravel.

The first step to managingedge is to identify any edges thatalready exist on your property.Then, you must decide if theseedges can be improved. As youwalk along the edge, determine ifthe transition between the twohabitats is abrupt. Generally, thewider and more subtle and blendedthe edge is, the better it will be forwildlife habitat. You can therefore

cowbird chickin host nest

improve habitat by creating a moregradual transition between covertypes.

There are two ways to do this.Either option will provide habitatfor edge-loving species, as well aslessen the impact of predators onedge-sensitive species. One optionis to let nature take its course andallow vegetation to grow. If theedge on your property is 30 feet orwider, doing nothing may be thebest option. A 30-foot-wide strip offield next to your woods will slowlyrevegetate on its own.

Another option, if you havetime and are willing to invest a lit-tle money, is to create a gradualtransition by planting shrubs alongthe edge. Wildlife friendly shrubsinclude dogwood, highbush cran-berry, nannyberry, ninebark, ser-viceberry, hazelnut, wild plum, andcrab apples. They provide berries,seeds, fruit, browse, and insects forwildlife. To protect the shrubs fromhungry deer and rabbits, you mayhave to place chicken wire, hard-ware cloth cages, or plastic treeguards around the new plantings.This option can be costly, but it willprovide enhanced habitat relativelyquickly.

If you farm and are concernedabout taking valuable field spaceout of crop production, considerthat crops planted to within 20 feetor more of an abrupt woodlandedge often grow poorly becauseadjacent tree roots compete withcrops for moisture. By creating agradual edge, you can producegood wildlife habitat without much,if any, crop loss.

When removing field acreagefrom crop production is not anoption, consider widening the edgeinto adjoining woodlots by remov-

ing some trees. Try to not removemore trees than is needed to createan edge that totals 30 feet wide. Toencourage stumps to resprout intoa lush tangle of branches, cut someof the trees off at ground level. Toprevent regrowth of less desirabletrees such as box elder, carefullyspot- treat cut ends with brushkiller. If you are conducting a com-mercial timber sale, always putyour wildlife plans in writing beforesigning a contract. Mark thosetrees you want preserved forwildlife and relay this informationto the logger. It is also importantto leave wildlife shrubs and nativevines, such as grape, bittersweet,and Virginia creeper, that may beclinging to trees.

You can also create a moregradual transition between forestand field by girdling some of thetrees within a 30-foot-wide spanfrom the forest edge. To girdle atree, which will eventually kill it cre-ating a snag, remove a three- tofour-inch strip of bark completelyaround the tree, making certain topenetrate the first layers of wood.Creating snags will open thecanopy allowing shrubs andgroundcover to develop. Besidescavity-type homes, these snagsyield insects for chickadees,

nuthatches, and many kinds ofwoodpeckers. They also provideperches for hawks and owls.

As mentioned, fencerows canleave wildlife vulnerable to preda-tion if they are narrow and containlittle protective cover. Wideningthem to increase the amount ofcover and diversity of plants grow-ing there will have an immediatepositive impact on many species.For example, to improve afencerow separating a crop fieldfrom a pasture, widen it to 25 to 50feet by planting the area on eitherside of the fence with mixed nativegrasses and wildlife trees andshrubs. To increase diversity, leaveoccasional gaps in the tree andshrub plantings, plant vines togrow on the fence, and possiblybuild brush piles.

To enhance roadsides, whichcan serve as travel corridors andcover for many species, plant themto grasses, or allow existing grass-es to grow. Mow between July 15and August 31 when ground-nest-ing birds are no longer sitting oneggs. Mow between 8 to 12 inch-es in height to provide nestinghabitat for the following spring. Ifyou must apply herbicides, spot-treat problem weeds instead ofspraying the whole area.

You can create edge by planti-ng hedgerows of shrubs or a mix-ture of shrubs and evergreens.Planting windbreaks around yourhome and outbuildings is often awise energy-conservation activity,which has the added benefit of pro-viding nesting, rearing, roostingand escape cover for wildlife.When creating these living screensto make your home or property lessconspicuous, consider mixing inconifers (evergreens). Neighborscan work together to create valu-

EDGES & FRAGMENTS

able wildlife habitat by creatingdynamic edges between properties.For example, if each neighborplants two rows of shrubs, theedge effect will have doubled inwidth and be much more attractiveto many animals.

Creating or enhancing the bestedge habitat usually requires somework. Before you decide to take onsuch a project, determine if youhave the time, money, and energyto routinely maintain it. If you donot manage the edge you have cre-ated, natural succession will pro-ceed and the habitat will change.Therefore, if you wish to keep theedge on your property, plan tooccasionally mow or disk woodland

openings and trails to keep the for-est from filling in. Expect to mow,disk, burn, or otherwise treatgrasslands to keep trees andshrubs from taking over.

Your property may already befragmented to the point that creat-ing edge is counter-productive towildlife. Consider the areas sur-rounding your property to deter-mine what management optionsmay best reduce fragmentation.Connecting two fragmented habi-tats often best benefits wildlife, andshould be considered wheneverpossible. One way to enhance frag-mented areas is to connect forestopenings by planting grasses,shrubs, and trees. Trails and road-

sides often fragment wildlife habi-tat and can be improved by planti-ng to grasses or shrubs. If there isan overabundance of fencerows inyour area, you may want to consid-er removing them. However, beaware that this may impact otherspecies that may use fencerows fortravel or cover. For instance, afencerow may join two fragmentedforests, while at the same timefragmenting a grassland. To decidewhich option is best for your prop-erty you must determine whichhabitat needs enhancing more thanthe other. This can be done byexamining the areas surroundingyour property. In this instance, ifthe grassland is surrounded by for-est, then it may be best to keep thefencerow and allow the grasslandto convert to a forest, thus con-necting the forest fragments.

In summary, identifying edgesand fragments on your propertyand understanding their impor-tance to wildlife should be part ofyour management plan. There aremany ways to enhance the existingedges on your property to benefitwildlife. Always examine your sur-rounding landscape before makingany management decisions and,whenever possible, connect frag-mented habitats.



EDGES & FRAGMENTS


Depending on your goals and the surrounding landscapes, it maybe beneficial to wildlife to close gaps or connect fragmentedhabitats. Above are illustrations of this. In Case 1, the surroundinglandscape is predominantly fragmented forests. Therefore, it maybe beneficial to close the grassy opening with trees or shrubs. InCase 2, the surrounding landscape is predominatly fragmentedgrasslands. Therefore, it may be beneficial to connect the twofragments by removing the trees and shrubs separating them.

Image not yet available.

Land stewardship is the conservationof your property's natural resourcesand features over a long period of

time. The motives of good land stew-ardship seem to be paradoxical as theyare essentially both selfish and altruistic.They are selfish because as a landown-er, you want to continue to reap therewards of your land for many years tocome. These rewards may mean qualityfarm products, high-value timber, song-birds throughout the year, successfulwild turkey hunts, large bags of morelmushrooms, peace and solitude, or agreat view just to name a few. However,stewardship motives are also altruistic,as you also want to be a good neighbor,one who shares concern for the landsthat surround yours and the water thattravels downstream from your property.You also want to ensure that the oppor-tunities you enjoy now will continue tobe there when your great grandchildrenare old enough to appreciate your hardwork and dedication.

Many consider the late Aldo Leopoldto be the father of modern conservationtheory and practice. Leopold believedthat land stewardship was not only root-ed in conservation but also involvedethics, or the search for a higher mean-

ing. He wrote that all ethics rest uponthe single premise "...that the individualis a member of a community of interde-pendent parts. The land ethic simplyenlarges the boundaries of the commu-nity to include soils, waters, plants, ani-mals, or collectively: the land." This isto say that once we understand thathumans are not separate from, but arepart of and depend on the natural com-munity, we will develop an ethic to carefor the community as a whole.

Stewardship of your land is thegreatest gift you can give to present andfuture generations. This chapterexplains what healthy ecosystems are,and what you can do to help restore andmaintain them for the future.

Focus on the BuildingBlocks

Natural resources refer to all thethings that are naturally produced, andinclude water, air, soils, minerals, plants,and animals. The key to good land stew-ardship is to ensure that the basic build-ing blocks for healthy ecosystems aretaken care of. These basic buildingblocks are healthy soil, clean water andair, and biological diversity. Soil is thefoundation of our plants, whether theyare natural communities, tree farms, orfood crops. Clean water and air areessential for all living organisms.

Biological diversity is simply the vari-ety or diversity of living organisms. Overthe last 500 years many organisms havebecome extinct or extirpated because ofhuman activities, and many more arecurrently declining in population. Some

of these species play acritical role in ourecosystems, andothers offer medici-nal, economic,nutr it ional,and aesthet-ic values.For most species we do nothave enough knowledge to fully under-stand what roles they play in our ecosys-tems or what values they offer. As agood steward, though, making sure thatthe native plant and animal communitiesfound in your area continue to live is apriority as important as maintaininghealthy soils and clean water and air.This is especially true for rare speciessuch as the Karner blue butterfly, whichhas a hard time recolonizing within othersites.

Stewardship and thePlanning Process

Stewardship is not just about get-ting outside and appreciating your land,it is also closely linked with creating andcarrying out of a good habitat manage-ment plan. Stewardship includes every-thing from sitting on a hillside observingwhich wildlife species visit your propertyto getting on your tractor and brushhog-ging the shrubs and trees that are invad-ing your prairie. The key elements togood land stewardship are very similar tothe steps in writing the managementplan. First you must identify the soils,topography, plants, animals, habitats,and waterways that occur on your prop-erty. In addition to this you should try tounderstand the relationships betweenthese natural features. You can do this

LAND STEWARDSHIP


black-capped chickadee

and talking to neighbors or experts. Youcan then begin developing a plan. Yourplan should focus on maintaining thelong-term health of your land, andshould be done within the context of sur-rounding lands. After your managementplan is implemented, while enjoying yourresults, you should monitor yourprogress and identify any problems. Ifyou have thought out your managementplan thouroughly, future generations willbe able to enjoy the same opportunitiesthat you have.

Understanding What'sThere

Good land stewardship is built dayby day while spending time on your landobserving the various events in the nat-ural world. To obtain the most knowl-edge from your land you must be veryobservant. Listen to frogs calling in thewooded swamp in spring, watch thebrood of wild turkeys hunt for insects inthe grassy meadow, view the songbirdsin May as they migrate to places farthernorth, notice trails created by variousanimals, look for tracks, nests, or othersigns of animal activities. Ask yourselfquestions about your land. Are there anydecaying logs or dead trees in the woodsthat may be potential homes for wildlife?What flowers bloom in early spring, latesummer, and early fall? What types ofsoils occur on your land? Is the streamnext to your property still cool and clear,or is it warmer than usual and filling withsediment?

These informative activities shouldserve as guideposts for future manage-ment decisions. What you observe onyour land now can teach you about yourland's limitations as well as the opportu-nities that exist. For example, if you live in an areawhere the soil isp redominant l ycoarse, nutrient-

poor sand with very little topsoil, grow-ing a forest of hardwoods will be difficultand costly. On the other hand, this loca-tion might be ideal for restoring a mosa-ic of prairies and savannas. Diligentobservation, therefore, is a key towardbuilding good land stewardship. Refer tothe chapter on Evaluating the Land inthis section for more information.

Managing Long-TermHealth

Taking into account the long-termhealth of your land helps ensure thattoday's options will exist several genera-tions from now. Health, according toAldo Leopold, is "the capacity of the landfor self-renewal." What you do withyour land today will determine the land'sfuture health. Therefore, whether youmanage for specific species, manage fordiversity, or take a hands-off approach, itwill effect the opportunties that will beavailable on your land in the future. Forthis reason, it is important to be verycareful in making mangement decisions.It is always important to take a criticallook at surroundiing landscapes whendeveloping a management plan. Forexample, if you live in a largely forestedarea with few scattered old fields, it maybe more beneficial to manage for a for-est on your land, rather than a prairiewhich will require more maintenanceand have less benefit to wildlife in thissetting.

Also, it is important to discuss yourplans with neighbors so that everyoneinterested in improving wildlife habitatcan work together toward a commongoal. A landowner, for instance, whodecides to remove a fencerow should

consider the potential impact on theadjacent forests, wetlands, rivers andlakes, and the plants and animals thatlive there. Perhaps, impacts could beminimized by creating a buffer strip ofshrubs, planting a hedgerow, or seedingthe area with native grass and wildflow-ers. Refer to the chapter on Workingwith Neighbors for more information.

Maintenance ofManagement Goals

Maintaining the habitat you haverestored or enhanced will ensure long-term fulfillment of your managementgoals. Without some maintenance, mosthabitat plans are doomed to failure.Suppose you own 20 acres of nativeprairie, which you would like to maintainas such. You will have to do more thanmerely allow nature to take its course.Historically, prairies were maintained byperiodic fires, which were set by light-ning or Native Americans. If you wantyour prairie to be there 10, 20, and even50 years from now, you will have to takesome course of action such as mowing,cutting, grazing, prescribed burning, orapplying a selective herbicide. Mainten-ance also includes smaller-scale activitiessuch as cleaning out bluebird boxes,replacing livestock fencing in disrepair,repairing bird houses and feeders, prun-ing wild apple trees, and replacing dam-aged saplings. Maintenance oftenrequires substantial manual labor, but itoffers the biggest reward of all--being agood steward.

Because the most important part ofsuccessful land stewardship is the

health of your land, all mainte-nance should be crafted withthis long-term goal in mind.

Therefore, maintenancealso means keeping acareful eye on your land

for potential threats suchas sedimentation in the

stream, soil erosion,

pest and disease outbreaks, overbrows-ing, overgrazing, ORV damage, and theinvasion of non-native species such aspurple loosestrife, glossy buckthorn,autumn olive, or multiflora rose.

Landowners should also considerlong-term maintenance to ensure thatthe lands they are managing remaingood wildlife habitat far into the future.Unfortunately, land frequently changesdue to development and land sales.However, this need can be addressedpartially through legalized tools such asconservation easements, donations, anddeed restrictions. These tools can pro-hibit or restrict future development ofthe property for parking lots, subdivi-sions, strip malls, or other projects detri-mental to wildlife. A conservation ease-ment, for example, is most commonlyused because it can be tailored to suitthe property's unique characteristics. Itcan be flexible, and the landowner typi-cally retains ownership and access. Formore information about conservationeasements, contact the Michigan UnitedConservation Clubs office or your localConservation District office.

MonitoringMonitoring the changes that result

from your efforts at improving wildlifehabitat brings the stewardship cycle fullcircle. Now when you go back toobserving the wildlife and plants on yourproperty you can see what differenceshave occurred. Are the managementstrategies for eliminating an exotic plantin your wetlands working? Are you see-ing more of the species that you man-aged for? How many new species ofanimals are visiting your property? Isthere sufficient water in spring and sum-mer in the marsh you restored forwaterfowl habitat? Do ducks use themarsh for feeding, nesting, or simply forresting during migration?

Keeping track of your progress pro-vides the opportunity to make adjust-ments before too much time, energy,and money have been invested in themanagement plan. Monitoring is agreat chance to become an even bettersteward of your land because it helpsyou become more familiar with itsecosystems, the needs of the plants andanimals that live within them, and howyour actions directly affect their welfare.

SummaryResponsible land stewardship is

essential to improving wildlife habitat inMichigan. It is the foundation of a suc-cessful wildlife management plan and

the cornerstone to its success. Becauseof the fragmented nature of today'slandscape, the need for holistic manage-ment plans has never been more impor-tant. Stewardship is more than control-ling competing vegetation, managingdeer populations, restoring overgrazedareas, and putting up fencing to keepout unwelcome ORV traffic. It is alsoabout being a careful observer of yourland and surrounding areas, and under-standing what is needed to maintain itslong-term health. Without good landstewardship, most habitat plans are des-tined to fail, no matter how well-writtenthey are.

In many ways stewardship is themost rewarding part of doing somethingpositive for wildlife because it requiresbecoming involved with your land, aswell as understanding it. Getting yourhands in the soil and your feet in thewater often helps in appreciating the factthat it is there. Land stewardship is ajourney that lasts as long as you own theproperty, regardless of whether youmake a living off the property, live there,or only visit it occasionally. Stewardshipis one of the most rewarding things youwill ever do, and it is something that yourgrandchildren and their children willappreciate and thank you for long afteryou are gone.

LAND STEWARDSHIP



LAND STEWARDSHIP


Documents

PLANNING PROCESS: NEED AN OVERVIEW · 2000-06-13 · When managing your land for wildlife, the planning process should involve five steps: (1) ... Do your woods, for example, merge