Americancinemaisover125yearsold,andAfricanAmericanshavebeenapartofitfromthebeginning.Thisparticipationhasoftenbeenfraught,stymied,andcurtailed,butthedesiretousemotionpicturestocraftaself-imagehasmotivatedAfricanAmericanfilmmakersandperformerssincethemedium’semergence.Atlastafullerpictureofthislongandintricatehistoryiscomingintopublicawareness.WhatKinoClassicshasgivenusinPioneersofAfricanAmericanCinema—aseriesofthirty-fourfilms,fragments,andothermaterialexpertlycuratedbyscholarsCharlesMusserandJacquelineNajumaStewart,releasedin2016,andnowplayingontheCriterionChannel—isarichtestamenttotherangeoffilmsproducedprimarilyforsegregatedblackaudiencesinthefirsthalfofthetwentiethcentury.Knownas“racefilms,”thesemoviesfeaturedmainlyall-blackcastsandmanyweremadebyblackfilmmakers,answeringtheneedforaself-determinedcinematicimagethatwaskeenlyfeltatthetime.In1920,LesterWalton,theartscriticfortheAfricanAmericannewspapertheNewYorkAge,championedtheinnovative“racepromoters”whohadbeenendeavoringto“depictourmenandwomeninafavorablelightandastheyreallyare;notsolelyashewersofwoodanddrawersofwaterandusingadialectforeigntotheaveragecoloredAmerican.”Theresultswerevariedandoftencontroversial,butracefilmssharedafundamentalpremise:insteadofusingtheirblacksubjectsaspropsorobjectsofridicule,thesefilmsplacedtheirlivesfrontandcenter.Toanextent,mainstreamAmericanculturemotivatedracefilmmakerstofashionakindofcountercinema.TheyoftenadaptedaspectsoftheconventionsofHollywoodstorytellingtosuittheirproductionconditionswhilealsocreativelydevelopingaformallanguagethatrespondedtotheconcernsofblacklife.WritingonthegreatfilmmakerOscarMicheaux,historianJ.RonaldGreennotedthathehita“straightlickwithacrookedstick.”Micheaux’sformalingenuity—builtongenressuchasthemelodrama,crimedrama,andromance—constitutedanoriginalengagementwiththemediumthatmineditspotentialtospeaktotheparticularsofhissubjects.Theembeddedflashbacksinhisearliestsurvivingfeature,WithinOurGates(1920),presentcomplex,

layeredlivesandafterlives,anditscrosscuttingandtemporallogicdirectlyrefutetheracistclaimsofTheBirthofaNation(1915)byshowingtherealitythatthatfilm’sdirector,D.W.Griffith,chosetoelide.UsingGriffith’sownlanguagetodisprovehisracistassertions,Micheaux’sportrayalofawhitelynchmobbeliesGriffith’sdepictionofagallantKlan.AsJaneGainesobserves,Micheaux“choosestoshowwhatblacksknewandnorthernwhiteswouldrefusetobelieve—thetotalbarbarismofthewhitemob.”ThatTheBirthofaNationcontinuestobeheldasalandmarkachievementinfilmformisfurtherreasonfortakingseriouslyhowracefilmmakersresisteditsversionofhistory—imbricatedwithitsaestheticstandards—withtheirowninnovativeapproaches.

Top of post: The Flying Ace Above: Within Our Gates WhileMicheauxhasbecomesynonymouswithracefilms,PioneersofAfricanAmericanCinemapresentsadiversearrayoffilmsandfilmmakers,whichtakentogetherrefutesanymonolithicnotionsof

“blackness.”Indeed,racefilmsdefyeasycategorization.TheyrangefrommelodramaslikeTenNightsinaBarRoom(1926)andTheScarofShame(1929),tocomedieslikeARecklessRover(1918)andHotBiskits(1931),tocrimethrillerslikeTheGirlfromChicago(1932)andTenMinutestoLive(1932)—allofferingdifferentimagesofblacklife.Theirformalstructuresvaryaswell.Totakeoneelusivecase,RichardMaurice’sElevenP.M.(1928)isanexperimentalmelodramawhosedreamscapesandflashbacksevokeMicheaux’ssilentfilms,butwhoseavant-gardeaestheticandsurrealeffectsmakeitsingularinthehistoryofracefilm.Thegatheringoftheseworksinonecompilationisamajorfeatofarchivaldiscoveryandresearch,andofpresentation.WhatemergesisawildsenseofthepossibilitiesforanAfricanAmericancinemathatranalongside,mergedwith,andarguedagainstthedominantwhitecinemaofHollywood.Micheauxhimselfwasnotwithoutcontroversy.Insomecases,hewasheavilycriticizedbyblackelitesonthegroundsofrepresentation—positionsanddebatesthathaveechoestothisday.Forexample,MicheauxwastakentotaskintheAfricanAmericanpressforhisdepictionofafalsepreacher—aconmanposingasapastor,playedbythegreatPaulRobeson—inBodyandSoul(1925).Thestereotypingofblackpeopleinthewhiteimaginarywasbadenough,theargumentwent,sowhyparticipateinsuchdegradationbyfurnishingfurthernegativedepictions?Inresponse,Micheauxarguedthatrealism,andnotsomefalseidyll,wasthekeytotheprogressoftherace:“IamtoomuchimbuedwiththespiritofBookerT.Washingtontoengraftfalsevirtuesuponourselves,tomakeourselvesthatwhichwearenot.Nothingcouldbeagreaterblowtoourownprogress.Therecognitionofourtruesituationwillreactinitselfasastimulusforself-advancement.”Thecinemagaveracefilmmakersanopportunityforself-representationandtheabilitytoassertanidentityforAfricanAmericansthatwasmultifacetedwhilealsodefyingtheracistcaricaturessoprevalentinHollywood.However,self-representationcouldneverbeastraightforwardconceptinracefilm.Mostofthecommercialcompaniesthatproducedthesemovieswereinterracialventures,withveryfewbeingentirelyownedoroperatedbyAfricanAmericans.Yetitwouldbeamistaketopresume

thatthefilmsmadebyevenwhite-controlledcompaniesweremoresuspectorcompromisedthanthosethatweremoreclearlyauthoredbyAfricanAmericanfilmmakers,howevermotivatedthosecompaniesmayhavebeenbytheprospectsofcapitalizingontheblacktheatricalaudience.Todosowouldbetopresumenotonlyanessentialistviewofracebutalsoanoverdeterminedroleofthedirector.Indeed,manyofthesefilmscanbebestunderstoodascollaborationsamongproducers,directors,cameraoperators,andperformers,allaimingtoappealtoblackaudienceswithanimageofblacklifethatstoodinclearcontradistinctiontoviciousmainstreammisrepresentations.OneofthegemsintheKinoClassicscollection,TheFlyingAce(1926),madebywhitefilmmakerRichardE.NormaninJacksonville,Florida,isanarrativesetinanexclusivelyAfricanAmericanworld.Thedramacentersonareturningwarpilotandhisrivalfortheaffectionsofthelocalrailroadstationmaster’sdaughter,acharactermodeledonfamedAfricanAmericanaviatorBessieColeman.Anentertainingcrimedramawithitsshareofaction,comedy,andromance,TheFlyingAceplacesitsfictionalnarrativeindialoguewiththereal-lifeheroismofblackAmericansthatwouldhavebeenfamiliartoitsaudience.OneofthepleasuresofthecollectionisthatitrevealsthebreadthofAfricanAmericanperformersworkingnotonlyincinemabutalsointhetheatricalcontextsonwhichitoftendrew.Thesemoviesofferaprivilegedglimpseofearlytwentieth-centuryAfricanAmericanperformance,fromitsstarstoitsunnamedbitplayersandchorines.MajorfiguressuchasLawrenceChenault,CharlesGilpin,LorenzoTucker,EvelynPreer,FlournoyMiller,andRobesoncanbeseeninthesefilms.Andblackcelebritieslikemodel,singer,andactorFrancineEverett(DirtyGertiefromHarlemU.S.A.)arepresentedasthestarsHollywoodwouldn’thaveallowedthemtobe.HerbJeffries—whodiedin2014,areminderthatthesefilmsaremorerecentartifactsthanwemightotherwisethink—sangwithDukeEllington’sorchestraandstarredasasingingcowboyinaseriesofblack-castwesternsforwhiteproducerRichardC.Kahn,includingTheBronzeBuckaroo(1939).ThethreeMosessisters,whoworkedasCottonClubchorusdancers,appearedonBroadwayandinracefilms—LuciaLynnMosesstarsintheColoredPlayersFilmCorporationofPhiladelphia’sTheScarof

Shame,andEthelMosesstarsinMicheaux’sBirthright(1938)—andtheirstoryisincludedinthecollectioninarareoralhistorymadebyarchivistandscholarPearlBowser,herselfapioneerofAfricanAmericanfilmhistory.Pioneersencapsulatestheinterconnectedworldofblackentertainersinthefirsthalfofthetwentieth-centuryandmakesavailablearangeofmaterialthathadpreviouslyresidedonlyinthearchives.Aspowerfulastheseperformancesare,thesignificanceofthiscollectionliesequallyinitscapturingofaspectsofcultureseldomseenon-screen.Oneoftheconsequencesofthesefilms’restrictedbudgetswasthatfilmmakersoftenshotoutsidethestudioandusednonprofessionalactorsalongsideprofessionals.Becauseoftheseconstraints,weseeshotsofactualstreets,shops,churchgoers,andothertracesofregionallydiverseAfricanAmericancommunities.Sowhile,inBodyandSoul,MicheauxshowsRobeson’sfalsepreacherdeliveringafierysermontoacongregationfilmedonset,healsointercutsshotsofactualruralchurchgoers,puttinghismovieindirectconversationwiththepeopleitseekstorepresent.Likewise,SpencerWilliams’sTheBloodofJesus(1941)isafictionfilmthatiswovenaroundextendedscenesofdistinctreligiouspracticesenactedbyReverendR.L.RobertsonandhisHeavenlyChoirandmembersoftheTexascommunityinwhichthefilmwasshot.Otherfilmsfocusevenmoreexplicitlyonrealpeopleandplaces.PioneersincludesthehomemoviesofReverendSolomonSirJones,aBaptistpreacherfromOklahomawho,between1924and1928,documentedAfricanAmericancommunitiesacrossthecountryaspowerfulsitesofself-determination,andfilmsbyJamesandEloyceGist,whomadefictionalizedbiblicalparableslikeHell-BoundTrain(circa1930)forthepurposeofdemonstrationduringsermons.Theseareuniquedocuments.AlsoamongthericharrayofnontheatricalmovingpicturesaretheanthropologicalfieldworkfilmsofrenownedauthorZoraNealeHurston,whocapturedstunningimagesofAlabamaandFloridain1928,andoftheGullahpeopleinaSeaIslandcommunityinSouthCarolinain1940.Here,adirectconnectionbecomesvisiblebetweenHurston’slatterfilmandthecultureatthecenterofJulie

Dash’slandmarkfeatureDaughtersoftheDust(1991),alsoplayingontheCriterionChannel.PioneersalsosuggestsjusthowmanyofthetreasuresofearlyAfricanAmericanfilmmakinghavebeenlost.ThecollectionincludesthesurvivingfragmentsofthelastfilmoftheLincolnMotionPictureCompany,oneofthefirstrace-filmcompanies,ledbybrothersGeorgeandNobleJohnson—arguablythefirstblackmoviestar,whoalsohadaprolificandlongcareerasacharacteractorinHollywood.OnlyfourminutesofByRightofBirth(1921)areextant,butthefootageisremarkable—inthisshortrunningtime,weseecomedy,action,romance,andintrigue.WatchforthebriefsuperimpositionofNobleJohnsonatthebeginning,intheupperleftcorneroftheframe.AlsofeaturedistheonlyextantreelofRichardE.Norman’sRegeneration(1923),athrillersetonthehighseas.TheextremenitratedecompositionofRegenerationisanacutereminderofthefateofmostsilent-erafilms—ratesofsurvivalareevenlowerforblack-castfilms,forwhichfewerprintswerestruck—andatestamenttothepreciousnessofthematerialthatisavailable.Indeed,noneofthefilmsmadebytheearliestAfricanAmericanfilmmakersofthe1910s—includingGeorgeW.Broome,WilliamFoster,HunterC.Haynes,andPeterP.Jones—areknowntosurvive.

Regeneration Becauseofthis,blackfilmhistoryseemstobegininmediasres,andsomeworkisrequiredtounderstandandappreciateaspectsofthesefilmsthatcanbeopaqueandillegibletocontemporaryaudiences.TheoldestfilminPioneersisacomedyproducedbytheChicago-basedandwhite-ownedHistoricalFeatureFilmCompany(laterpurchasedanddistributedbyEbonyFilmCo.)forgeneralrelease,TwoKnightsofVaudeville(1915),whichtradesinracisttropesbutisalsoafascinatingdepictionofboththevaudevillestageandanimaginedall-blackperformancespace.Inshowcasingthesetwoseparatevenues,TwoKnightsofVaudevilleenactsoneoftheenduringtensionsofracefilm:itscontestedformsofexhibition.Comedywasparticularlysusceptibletocritique,andTwoKnightsofVaudevilleandothershortsdrewtheireoftheChicagoDefenderfortheirbuffoonishportrayals,leadingthepapertoproclaim,“WewantcleanRacepicturesornoneatall.”Yetevenfortheirdetractors,thelargelyintraracialsettingsinwhichmostracefilmswereseenaffordedkindsofrepresentationthatwouldhavebeen—and

wereoften—eschewedininterracialcontexts.Thisisevidentintheblackpress’ssharplycriticalreadingofthegeneral-releasecomediesproducedbyEbony—alsorepresentedinPioneersbyMercy,theMummyMumbled(1918)andARecklessRover(1918)—despiteAfricanAmericanbusinessmanLutherJ.Pollardbeingatthehelm.TheDefendercautioneditsreaders,“Keepyourmoneyinyourpocketandsavethatdimeaswellasyourself-respect.”Complicatedandpersistentnegotiationsofperformanceandreceptionundergirdthesemoviesandotherslikethem.

Two Knights of Vaudeville Thiscollectionpreservesriskyandcomplexformsofracializedperformance.TaketheincorporationofblackactorsinblackfacemakeupinMicheaux’sTheDarktownRevue(1931),oneofthedirector’sfirstsoundfilms,andhisdramaticfeatureTenMinutestoLive(1932).Totwenty-first-centuryeyes,thisseemsincompatiblewithMicheaux’scommitmentsasa“raceman.”Andyetthesemomentsencapsulatesomanyofthetensionsbeingnegotiatedatthetime,extendingfrom

ragtime-eraAfricanAmericanreimaginingsofwhite-performedminstrelsy.TheDarktownRevueincludesacomedic“Hard-ShellSermon”ofmalapropisms,asiftakenfromtheolioportionofaminstrelshow,performedinblackfacebyblackstageveteranAmonDavis.Theshortfilmalsopreservesacomedyroutinebytwomajorvaudevilleperformers,TimMooreandAndrewTribble.TribblewasafamedfemaleimpersonatorwhoperformedwiththeOldPekinStockCompanyandtouredwithColeandJohnsonattheturnofthecentury;MoorewouldgoontostarasKingfishalongsideSpencerWilliamsinthetelevisionadaptationofAmos’n’Andy(atthetimeofTheDarktownRevue,hewasmarriedtoGertieBrown,whoappearsintherecentlyrediscovered1898filmSomethingGood—NegroKiss).Thesecomedicroutinesdefyupliftdictums.Micheaux’smotivationsarehardtodiscerninafilmthatseemstotradeonantiquatedand(by1931)clearlycompromisedforms.Nonetheless,TheDarktownRevueshowstheatricaltraditionsthatweresimultaneouslyopportunitiesandconstraintsforblackperformers.ThefilmfeaturesthepopularDonaldHeywoodchoir,whoseleaderworkedcloselywithMicheauxacrossanumberoffilms.ThechoirwatchesDavis’s“sermon”asifitwerepartoftheact—yetaretheseseasonedperformersamused?Aretheydisgusted?Inthefilm,theirreactions,aswellastheirsongselections,areconfusing:Aretheycelebratingfolkcultureorrebukingitironically?It’shardtoresolvethesecontradictionsbutimpossibletoescapethem.Despitebeingawell-establishedfieldofstudy,thanksinnosmallparttotheeffortsofMusserandStewart,AfricanAmericanfilmhistoryisstillpervadedwithunknowns,andwearestilllearningaboutthesefilmsandtheirmakers,performers,andexhibitionenvironments.Somuchisyettobewritten,especiallyconcerningtheendofthisera.Thedeclineofracefilmmakingcameaboutinthelatefortiesandisusuallyattributedtotheriseofintegrationistpoliticsandchallenges,howeverslowandtentativeinmanyplaces,tosegregatedpublicspaces.Nevertheless,thelegacyofracefilmandtheexperiencesofitsaudiencescontinuedtoinformblackfilmmakingthroughtherestofthetwentiethcentury.Pioneersisamajorsteptowardhelpingthishistoryreachawideraudience,anditwillnodoubtserveasthegroundworkforthenextgenerationofscholarstobetterunderstandthecomplexwaysthat

thecinematicimageofAfricanAmericanswasnegotiated,asserted,anddefinedbyanardentsetoffilmmakers.