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Socio-Affective Differences
Running head: Socio-Affective Differences in Chilean Schoolchildren
The Development of a Scale to Examine Socio-Affective Differences in Chilean
Schoolchildren.
Andrew Colin Higham
Pontifica Universidad Catolíca de Chile
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Abstract
The aim of this paper was to develop an instrument to investigate socio-
affective differences between gifted adolescents and those of regular ability in
Santiago, Chile. At such an early stage in the development of a new program,
this form of research is a very valuable route of investigation, particularly for
nations which formerly have no such system in place. In addition it can
provide a foundation on which to build a more robust model in consequent
research.
The current research attempted to design and test an instrument for the
identification of affect in the Chilean sixth form student population. The
results showed a number of differences between students of differing genders
and socio-economic status, in addition to support for the reliability of a test
battery for identifying affective differences in this population. Considerations
for the use of such an instrument in future research were then discussed.
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Over the past two decades, there has been increasing interest in the education of
gifted children and the effect of environmental influences on affect, resulting from
increases in characteristics such as self-esteem/self-concept and locus of control. A look
at the literature surrounding the field of gifted education shows a number of strategies,
which have been developed in order to utilize the potential of those individuals with
exceptional academic gifts and talents. These include strategies, which can be seen as
some combination of acceleration, enrichment and out of school opportunities. As a
result of this research, many programs and specialized schools (e.g. the Roeper school,
Johns Hopkins, Storrs) for the gifted have been developed worldwide with the goal of
facilitating an advanced level of learning It is the combination of methods, that is a
strategy, not the education itself.
However, the influence of the external environment on the affective
development of these gifted individuals must be viewed as more than simply programs
developed for them within the framework of education, but the entirety of the child’s
environment. In viewing this environment as a whole, it is the combined influence of
educational provision, the home and peer environment and the greater socio-economic
group of which the individual is a part, which can all be seen as influencing the
affective development of the child
The aim of this initial investigation was to highlight the influence of affective
factors on the child, during participation in a program of educational enrichment, with
particular interest being on the influence of the socio-economic group and internal
factors, such as the development of the child’s self concept/self-esteem and locus of
control. Consequent research in these areas will then provide information towards the
development of a research model with the aim of identifying the predominant internal
and external factors for those of different ages and levels of ability. If these factors can
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be identified, it will allow not only a greater understanding of these students, but an
opportunity to more adequately meet the needs of different groups of gifted individuals
and facilitate greater level of learning and personal development.
However, in order to examine if there is any socio-affective effect, we must first
define which factors make up this effect. To do this it is necessary to examine the
relevant literature from the perspective of both external and internal influences on
affect.
Peer Relations and Social Support
This leads us to the question of how gifted students relate to their peers. Do they
fit the common stereotype of the social misfit, who has difficulty relating to others? Or
is the reality somewhat different to the popular image given of the gifted student?
Mayseless (1993) in a review of a number of studies suggested that, in reality,
the opposite is often true and that pre-adolescent and adolescent gifted students are
often at least as popular as other students of the same age, but often self-report a lower
level of popularity than their peers of average ability. However, this could be seen as a
reflection of the level of value placed on peer relations by the gifted youth. Support for
this can be seen from the work of Kline et al., (1991). Kline et al found that the gifted of
both genders scored very highly on a self-report measure of peer relationship, but with
age this value, over time, was seen to increase for females and decrease for males.
In addition, when compared to regular ability students, Mayseless (1993) found
that gifted students gave a lower rating for relationships with closest friends of the same
sex than regular ability students. Mayseless (1993) purports that this could be due to the
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gifted having higher levels of expectation as regards friendship, or being more task
orientated in their relationships than average ability students.
However, a number of factors have been seen to help the social relationships of
gifted students. For example Van Tassel Baska et al (1994), found that students of
higher socioeconomic status felt they had a greater level of social support than students
of lower socioeconomic status. This raises the question of if there is a difference in
parenting style related to higher socio-economic status. However, the source of the
support differed for different groups of students with males reporting a greater overall
level of support from friends than females. Therefore, this would suggest that further
investigation is necessary.
The Influence of Parenting Style
A number of research studies regarding parental behavior and its relationship
with a number of traits in children have grouped behaviors into a number of different
parenting styles. A variety of labels have been used to describe the relative influence of
discipline, nurturance, reinforcement and acceptance exhibited by parents during child
development (e.g. Dornbusch, Ritter, Leiberman, Roberts, & Fraleigh, 1987; Steinberg,
Elmen, & Mounts, 1989). The result of this research suggests that positive behaviors in
adolescents may be attributable to parenting styles encouraging autonomy and an
environment of mutual respect between the parent and child.
The investigation developed at PENTA-UC, used the parenting style
classifications put forward by Baumrind (1991), which give particular attention to the
specific behavioural dimensions relating to levels of demandingness and responsiveness
in the parent-child relationship.
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The definitions given by Baumrind (1991) in relation to the dimensions of
demandingness and responsiveness relating to parenting styles are as follows:
“(Demandingness is). . .the claims parents make on children to become integrated into
the family whole, by their maturity demands, supervision, disciplinary efforts and
willingness to confront the child who disobeys” (Baumrind, 1991).
“(Responsiveness is). . .the extent to which parents intentionally foster individuality,
self-regulation, and self-assertion by being attuned, supportive and acquiescent to
children’s special needs and demands” (Baumrind, 1991).
From these two definitions, Baumrind developed three categories of parenting
style based on the degree to which these behaviors were practiced by the parent and
perceived by the child. These categories are authoritarian, permissive, and authoritative.
The authoritarian style of parenting is a result of parental behaviors placing a high level
of restriction and demand on the child, the result of authoritarian parents tending to
exert punishment, placing a high level of value in conformity of the child as opposed to
individuality. The permissive style of parenting results from non-restrictive parental
behaviors, highly responsive and accepting of the child, the child being allowed self-
regulation and freedom from restraint by the parent.
These first two described categories can be viewed as representing the extremes of
the behavioral continuum. The third category of authoritarian parenting represents a
mid-point between the two extremes. The authoritative category combines elements of
both parenting styles, being quite restrictive and responsive, balanced by explanations
of policy and equality within the parent / child relationship.
Similar to previous research, Baumrind (1991) found a relationship between the
style of parenting and adolescent behaviour. The authoritarian style of parenting
resulted in adolescents who were unfriendly, uncooperative, uninterested, and displayed
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a higher rate of delinquency. The permissive style of parenting resulted in adolescents
who displayed a high level of aggression and independence. However, adolescents
whose parents practiced an authoritative style exhibited more positive behaviours on the
whole. These adolescents were found to be friendlier, to have qualities of leadership and
trust, a higher level of social competence, and were found to display a greater level of
responsibility.
With relation to the review at hand, the primary purpose of this exploratory study is
to measure differences of socio-economic levels of gifted adolescent perceptions of
parental demandingness and responsiveness using the three categories of authoritarian,
permissive, and authoritative parenting, and how these perceived parenting styles are
related to gifted adolescent locus of control orientation and self-concept, with a
secondary purpose of this investigation being an exploration of the relationship between
adolescent locus of control and self-concept and the resultant effect of enrichment
programs on these affective factors and in turn reciprocal effects on parenting style for
those of varying socio-economic levels.
The Influence of Socio-Economic Status
As has already been mentioned, Van Tassel Baska et al (1994) found that
students of higher socioeconomic status felt they had a greater level of support than
students of lower socioeconomic status. However, to what extent does socio-economic
status affect the parenting style of the families of gifted youth?
However, a problem with using the results of studies of socio-economic status as
a means of comparison is that many studies use many different factors as indicators of
socio-economic status and there is no single underlying theory or standardized test to
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use as guidance. In addition, as Duncan et al., (2001) highlight, in surveys used to
measure socio-economic status, questions regarding income are always subject to a high
level of non-response. Duncan et al, (2001) suggest that, to overcome this, respondents
need to be motivated by qualitative interviewers, with a series of easy and short follow-
on questions.
Self-Concept
The Problem of Definition in Self-concept Research
“A general definition of self-concept refers to the image the individual holds of
themselves, this can be viewed as a combination of attitudes, feelings and knowledge
[regarding] abilities, skills, appearance and social acceptability” (Byrne, 1984)
Self-concept can be seen as a construct of many facets, including cognitive,
perceptual, affective and evaluative dimensions. The evaluative dimension refers to how
various aspects of personality, achievement, social status etc. of self are assessed by the
child. However, it is this process of evaluation that is generally referred to as ‘self-
esteem’.
Recently, this has developed into a hierarchical model of self-concept that can be
seen as an extension of the multi-dimensional model of self-concept. For example,
Shavelson et al., (1976) proposed a model which portrays self-concept as the result of
evaluations of specific behaviours, the levels of definition becoming increasingly
broader, with the most general level of self-concept at its peak. It is this most general
peak which can be conceived as that which is commonly regarded as self-esteem, as it is
the total sum of self-concept judgements for every part of the individuals perception.
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Therefore, as a result, it could be said that it is from this that an individual judges their
worth.
Locus of Control
Locus of control (Rotter, 1996) can be defined as the extent to which an
individual attributes success or failure to their own actions or to powers beyond their
control. Those described as having an, ‘internal’ locus of control, feel that they have
more control over the events and outcomes that affect them. In contrast, those described
as having an, ‘external’ locus of control are those who believe that they have little
control over what happens to them. An internal locus of control stems from the
individual possessing a causal understanding of behavior and resultant effect. An
internal locus of control can be viewed as being developed from freely making choices
and taking personal responsibility for the resultant outcome of those choices. Through
experience of this process, the young person learns to attribute the cause of success or
failure internally, therefore being able to learn from the experience.
Method
Rationale, Research Questions and Hypotheses
The purpose of this study was to provide a first stage in the development of a
questionnaire intended to investigate the affective characteristics (self-concept / self-
esteem, self-control, pro-sociality, locus of control and empathy) of talented Chilean
children and their evolution over time in comparison with regular ability students. This
primary stage was intended to form the basis for a longitudinal study of the influence of
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differing socio economic status’ and parenting styles and participation or non-
participation in a course of enriched education and subsequent effects on these socio
affective characteristics over time
Therefore, the aim at this stage was to design a questionnaire which was
appropriate for a sample of Chilean children from all educational levels. Like many
countries, Chile has a stratified system of education, which, on the most part reflects the
socio-economic status of the students, within each Metropolitan community. Those
from the lowest socio-economic levels in each community attend schools classified as
‘Municipales’ (Municipal schools). This type of school will generally have both the
lowest resources and the highest number of students in each class. Those of a higher
socio-economic status than Municipales attend schools named ‘Particular
Subvencionado’ (Private subsidized schools). For these schools, the government
distributes vouchers, which can be used as part payment for the education of the student.
These schools will often have slightly higher resources and smaller class sizes than in
the ‘Municipales’. Those of the highest socio-economic status attend schools named
‘Particular Pagado’ (Paid private schools). For these schools, the government gives no
contribution to the education of the child. These schools will usually have the highest
level of resources and smallest class sizes than in the other types of school.
The study was designed to primarily examine the applicability of the instrument
designed, within the aforementioned school system. The rationale for this was that it
would first be necessary for the questionnaire to be applicable to the education system
as a whole, before it can be used for comparison with those from this system, given
additional enriched education.
The design of the questionnaire was achieved by using a combination of
questions taken from the available testing literature, with relation childhood affect. The
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questionnaire will be repeated, in order to form a longitudinal study over the students’
progress during a three-year period
This will help to further clarify affective areas of most importance to talented
students, in order to develop guidance in enhancing the effectiveness of enrichment
programmes for talented children. The results of this research will then hopefully result
in the possibility of the development of a unified model of socio-affective influence on
the gifted adolescent. Although there is a myriad of research in this area, problems of
definition of the terms used makes the development of a model premature before
primary relationships between the specific areas in this study are identified.
To examine the reliability of this measure, we had to consider the following
research questions:
1) Are there significant differences in affect between genders within different
demographic groups?
To answer this question, a comparison of questionnaire responses for
students of different genders was conducted, using comparative testing to
find differences between groups. Therefore testing the following hypothesis:
Hypothesis 1
There will be a significant difference in affect (self-concept / self-esteem,
pro-sociality, locus of control and motivation), between students of different
genders.
2) Are there significant differences in affect between students from different
demographic groups?
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To answer this question, a comparison of questionnaire responses for
students of varying levels of socio-economic status was conducted, using
comparative testing to find differences between groups. Therefore testing the
following hypothesis:
Hypothesis 2
Those students from higher socio-economic groups will display a greater
level of affect (self-concept / self-esteem, pro-sociality, locus of control and
motivation), than students from the lower socio-economic groups.
Participants
The sample consisted of 101 students. 34% of these were male (n=34) and 66%
(n=67) were female. These were all taken from 6 th grade level and had a mean age of
11.57 years (SD = 0.64; range = 10-13).
The students were recruited from the three types of institution distributed across
the Chilean educational system, these being 29% from municipal schools (n=29), 42%
from private voucher schools (n=42) and 30% from private paid schools (n=30).
Materials
The apparatus used for this experiment was a questionnaire battery derived from
literature in the area, all having previously shown high levels of reliability (Cronbach’s
alpha >.7). These were as follows:
Academic Self-Concept: The Self Concept section from ‘Yo, Mis Amigos, Y Mi
Colegio’, (Arancibia, 2003).
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Social Self-Esteem: The Self Esteem section from ‘Yo, Mis Amigos, Y Mi Colegio’,
(Arancibia, 2003).
Self Control: The Self Control section from ‘Yo, Mis Amigos, Y Mi Colegio’,
(Arancibia, 2003).
Pro-Social Tendencies: Pro-Social Tendencies Measure (PTM, Carlo and Randall,
2002).
Parental Authority: The Parental Authority Questionnaire (PAQ, Reitman et al, 2002).
Locus of Control: Children’s Nowicki-Strickland Locus of Control scale (CNSIE,
Nowicki and Strickland, 1973)
Motivation: Academic motivation section from ‘Yo, Mis Amigos, Y Mi Colegio’,
(Arancibia, 2003).
Primarily, before any analysis could be performed, it was necessary to translate
the questionnaires for appropriate use with a Chilean sample. This was done by a
method of backwards translation. The method of backwards translation requires the
assistance of four bi-lingual translators. Two of the translators were given English
copies of the tests to translate into Spanish. Once completed, these were then given to
the other to translators to translate the tests back to English. Any differences in the
translations were discussed and once a consensus was reached, appropriate corrections
were made.
Procedure
During the following stage of the investigation, schools representing the
different types of establishment in the Chilean educational system were approached and
asked to volunteer one class to take part in the study. Participants were then introduced
to the study by a Chilean assistant, to avoid cultural or language problems and guided
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through the standardized instructions. Participants were then reminded that there were
no correct or incorrect responses and told that if they had any questions they were to
raise their hand and someone would then come to address their question. There was no
time limit given, but pre-testing had suggested that all students would be able to
complete the test in the one hour allotted time slot given by the schools. After
completion, all questionnaires were collected and the students were thanked for their co-
operation and debriefed.
Results
Due to the use of the previously stated backwards translation, it was considered
necessary to first retest the reliability of the scales. The results of this showed an
acceptable level of reliability (α > 0.7) for the scales used to measure Locus of Control
(α > 0.82), Self-Esteem (α > 0.87), Self-Control (α > 0.75) and Pro-Social Tendencies
(α > 0.76).
Gender Differences and Affect
__________________________ Insert Table 1 about here
__________________________
For gender related differences, there were significant differences regarding the
influence of self-control, pro-social ability and empathy (see Table 1), thus supporting
Hypothesis 1, that there will be significant differences between the different genders.
For males, this difference was strongest regarding the influence of self-control (d =
3.28, p<.01), whereby, for females, there was a difference regarding the influence of
pro-social ability (d = 5.48 p<.05) and a strong difference for empathy (d = 3.99, p<.01).
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However, the effect of locus of control or self-esteem, although having good levels of
reliability, did not differ significantly between the groups.
Type of School and Affect
__________________________ Insert Table 2 about here
__________________________
For socio-affective influences, there were significant differences regarding the influence
of self-esteem, self-control and empathy (see Table 2), thus supporting Hypothesis 2,
that there will be significant differences between the different different socio-affective
levels. For self-esteem, this difference was significant between the municipal and
prívate voucher schools (d = 11.63, p<.05). For empathy, this difference was also
significant between municipal and prívate voucher schools (d = 3.76, p<.05). The
strongest difference was regarding self-control whereby there were differences between
the municipal schools and both the prívate voucher schools (d = 4.76, p<.01) and prívate
paid schools (d = 3.86, p<.05). However, the effect of locus of control or pro-social
ability, although having good levels of reliability, did not differ significantly between
the groups.
Discussion
This study investigated differences of affective influences for Chilean sixth
graders of both different genders and the three levels of the Chilean educational system,
with respect to self-concept / self-esteem, self-control, pro-sociality, locus of control
and empathy. The initial aim of this investigation, was to develop a reliable
questionnaire battery for use in a simple of Chilean highschool students. Ultimately, the
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aim of this questionnaire would be to identify differences in affective characteristics
between gifted and regular ability students of both genders and from all socio-economic
levels. Furthermore, to investigate the influence of a program of enriched education on
these gifted students, in comparison with those in regular schooling and in turn evaluate
the effectiveness of such program.
Bearing the aforementioned in mind, the results of the study do indeed suggest
that the resulting questionnaire can be used to test levels of affect in sixth grade Chilean
schoolchildren. The analysis has shown that there are very high reliability scores for
Locus of Control (α > 0.82), Self-Esteem (α > 0.87), Self-Control (α > 0.75) and Pro-
Social Tendencies (α > 0.76). These findings alone would suggest that this test is
appropriate for use in affective research for this sample.
As regards the differences, for genders a great deal of this could be explained by
gender role socialization and teacher and parent expectations. This has often been found
in studies related to achievement, such as Eccles (1983) model. In addition affective
influence has been suggested to play a more important role in this achievement process
than cognitive ability (Preckel et al, 2008). This could be seen as true in this case, as
males were more strongly influenced by self-control issues, necessary in a more
masculine environment, whereby females were more strongly influenced by pro-
sociality and empathy, these being stereotypically more female traits.
The same could also be said for socio-economic level. It is possible that lower
socio-economic levels are influenced to a greater negative degree by role socialization
and it has been noted that deprivation, segregation and stigmatization stunt the
development of aspiration (Ambrose, 2002). Indeed, in this study, it is self-esteem and
empathy in which those of the lowest socio-economic level score significantly less than
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questionnaire was examined, not only by psychologists from the culture to be addressed,
but also by translation professionals, trained in the subject matter being examined.
One further consideration is the classification of socio-economic status by type
of school. Although there is quite a linear relationship between standard of school and
social status, this is a less than exact measurement tool. It would be of great benefit if
the consequent larger scale study developed a more precise system of measurement for
this variable.
Conclusion
In summary, gifted students have been suggested as having higher scores on
measure of social skills, often putting the needs of others before their own, yet are often
less willing to compromise (Lehman, 1981). If this is indeed the case cross-culturally, it
is necessary to develop a system for these individuals, so these talents may be identified
and nurtured in order to provide a valuable resource, not only for the individual, for the
society of which they are an important part.
The results of this research have given inference to the differences that may exist
within this particular culture. However, more importantly, they have provided an initial
stage in the development of a tool for the identification and development of affect in not
only the gifted, but all adolescents in this culture. Now that this goal has been achieved,
it is necessary to apply this instrument to a larger representative sample of children from
all socio-economic groups, both gifted and of regular ability, in enriched education and
every regular educational level. If this goal is achieved, it is hoped that, in time affective
benefits will be seen.
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students. Roeper Review, 16, 186–192.
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8/7/2019 Pilot Study Paper Submitted Andrew2
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/pilot-study-paper-submitted-andrew2 22/23
8/7/2019 Pilot Study Paper Submitted Andrew2
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/pilot-study-paper-submitted-andrew2 23/23
Socio-Affective Differences
Means, Standard Deviations and Anova Results for the Comparison of Locus of
Control, Self-Esteem, Self, Control, Pro-Social Ability and Empathy Between Different
Socio-Affective Levels, Measured by Type of School.
Municipal Private Voucher Private Paid Anova______________ ______________ ______________
_____________
Measures of Affect M S.D. M S.D. M S.D. f
______________________________________________________________________
_______________
Locus of Control 62.28 3.24 60.24 10.14 60.87 5.20 .67
Self-Esteem 116.04 15.50 127.67 15.70 125.57 17.80 4.67*Self-Control 21.86 6.00 17.10 5.97 18.00 4.36 6.70**
Pro-social Ability 63.45 8.32 68.70 12.42 65.67 10.89 2.04
Empathy 31.76 4.48 35.52 6.62 32.83 5.64 4.05*
______________________________________________________________________
Note: For all scales, Municipal n=29, Private Voucher n=42, Private paid n=30
* p<.05
** p<.01
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