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8/19/2019 physics assignment 2.docx
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Applications of Polaroids
Polaroids polarize light. A number of needle shaped crystals quinine iodosulphate with theiraxes parallel to one another are packed between two sheets of plastic. This arrangementserves as the polaroids.
The important uses are:
• These reduce excess glare and hence sun glasses are tted with Polaroid sheets.
• These are also used to reduce headlight glare of cars.
• They are used to improve color contrast in old oil paintings.• These are useful in !"# motion pictures i.e.$ holography.
• %ind shields of automobiles are also made of Polaroid sheets.
Uses of Polaroids
Polaroids polarize light. A number of needle shaped crystals quinine iodosulphate with their
axes parallel to one another are packed between two sheets of plastic. This arrangement
serves as the polaroids. The important uses are:
• These reduce excess glare and hence sun glasses are tted with Polaroid sheets.
• These are also used to reduce headlight glare of cars.
• They are used to improve color contrast in old oil paintings.
• These are useful in !"# motion pictures i.e.$ holography.
• %ind shields of automobiles are also made of Polaroid sheets.
Polarizing sheets are used in liquid crystal displays$ optical microscopes and sunglasses. &ince
Polaroid sheet is dichroic$ it will absorb impinging light of one plane of polarization$ so
sunglasses will reduce the partially polarized light re'ected from level surfaces such as
windows and sheets of water$ for example. They are also used to examine for chain
orientation in transparent plastic products made from polystyrene or polycarbonate.
The intensity of light passing through a Polaroid polarizer is described by (alus) law.
Uses of polaroid
*. Polaroids are used in the laboratory to produce and analyse plane polarized light+. Polaroids are widely used as polarizing sun glasses!. They are used to eliminate the head light glare in motor cars.,. They are used to improve colour contrasts in old oil paintings.-. Polaroid lms are used to produce three"dimensonal moving pictures.. They are used as glass windows in trains and aeroplanes to control the intensity
of light. /n aeroplane one polaroid is xed outside the window while the other is
tted inside which can be rotated. The intensity of light can be ad0usted by
rotating the inner polaroid.
1. Aerial pictures may be taken from slightly di2erent angles and when viewedthrough polaroids give a better perception of depth.
3. /n calculators and watches$ letters and numbers are formed by liquid crystal
display456#7 through polarisation of light.8. Polarization is also used to study size and shape of molecules.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_crystal_displayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscopehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunglasseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polystyrenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polycarbonatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polarizer#Malus.27_law_and_other_propertieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscopehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunglasseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polystyrenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polycarbonatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polarizer#Malus.27_law_and_other_propertieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_crystal_display
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Applications of Ultrasonics
9omogenizing #ispersing and #eagglomeration
mulsifying %et"(illing and ;rinding
#isintegration
6ell xtraction 9ot %ater #isinfection
&onochemistry
Transesterication 4ltrasonic homogenizing is very e?cient for the reduction of soft and hard particles.
9ielscher produces ultrasonic devices for the homogenization of any liquid volume for batch
or inline processing. 5aboratory ultrasonic devices can be used for volumes from *.-m5 to
approx. +5. >ltrasonic industrial devices are used for the process development and production
of batches from @.- to approx +@@@5 or 'ow rates from @.*5 to +@m per hour.
Ultrasonic Dispersing and Deagglomeration
The dispersing and deagglomeration of solids into liquids is an important application of
ultrasonic devices. >ltrasonic cavitation generates high shear forces that break particle
agglomerates into single dispersed particles. The mixing of powders into liquids is a common
step in the formulation of various products$ such as paint$ ink$ shampoo$ beverages$ or
polishing media. The individual particles are held together by attraction forces of various
physical and chemical nature$ including van der %aals forces and liquid surface tension. The
attraction forces must be overcome on order to deagglomerate and disperse the particles into
liquid media. Bor the dispersing and deagglomeration of powders in liquids$ high intensity
ultrasonication is an interesting alternative to high pressure homogenizers and rotor"stator"
mixers.
Ultrasonic Emulsifying
A wide range of intermediate and consumer products$ such as cosmetics and skin lotions$
pharmaceutical ointments$ varnishes$ paints and lubricants and fuels are based wholly or in
part of emulsions. mulsions are dispersions of two or more immiscible liquids. 9ighly
intensive ultrasound supplies the power needed to disperse a liquid phase 4dispersed phase7
in small droplets in a second phase 4continuous phase7. /n the dispersing zone$ imploding
cavitation bubbles cause intensive shock waves in the surrounding liquid and result in the
formation of liquid 0ets of high liquid velocity. At appropriate energy density levels$ ultrasound
can well achieve a mean droplet sizes below * micron 4micro"emulsion7.
http://www.hielscher.com/technolo.htm#Ultrasonic_Homogenizinghttp://www.hielscher.com/technolo.htm#Ultrasonic_Dispersinghttp://www.hielscher.com/technolo.htm#Ultrasonic_Emulsifyinghttp://www.hielscher.com/technolo.htm#Ultrasonic_Wet_Millinghttp://www.hielscher.com/technolo.htm#Ultrasonic_Disintegrationhttp://www.hielscher.com/technolo.htm#Ultrasonic_Extractionhttp://www.hielscher.com/technolo.htm#Water_Disinfectionhttp://www.hielscher.com/technolo.htm#Sonochemistryhttp://www.hielscher.com/technolo.htm#Ultrasonic_Biodieselhttp://www.hielscher.com/technolo.htm#Ultrasonic_Degassinghttp://www.hielscher.com/technolo.htm#Leak_Detectionhttp://www.hielscher.com/technolo.htm#Ultrasonic_Wire_Cleaninghttp://www.hielscher.com/homogenize_01.htmhttp://www.hielscher.com/disperse.htmhttp://www.hielscher.com/inkjet_ink_01.htmhttp://www.hielscher.com/emulsify_01.htmhttp://www.hielscher.com/cosmetics_01.htmhttp://www.hielscher.com/technolo.htm#Ultrasonic_Homogenizinghttp://www.hielscher.com/technolo.htm#Ultrasonic_Dispersinghttp://www.hielscher.com/technolo.htm#Ultrasonic_Emulsifyinghttp://www.hielscher.com/technolo.htm#Ultrasonic_Wet_Millinghttp://www.hielscher.com/technolo.htm#Ultrasonic_Disintegrationhttp://www.hielscher.com/technolo.htm#Ultrasonic_Extractionhttp://www.hielscher.com/technolo.htm#Water_Disinfectionhttp://www.hielscher.com/technolo.htm#Sonochemistryhttp://www.hielscher.com/technolo.htm#Ultrasonic_Biodieselhttp://www.hielscher.com/technolo.htm#Ultrasonic_Degassinghttp://www.hielscher.com/technolo.htm#Leak_Detectionhttp://www.hielscher.com/technolo.htm#Ultrasonic_Wire_Cleaninghttp://www.hielscher.com/homogenize_01.htmhttp://www.hielscher.com/disperse.htmhttp://www.hielscher.com/inkjet_ink_01.htmhttp://www.hielscher.com/emulsify_01.htmhttp://www.hielscher.com/cosmetics_01.htm
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Ultrasonic Wet-Milling and Grinding
>ltrasonication is an e?cient means for the wet"milling and micro"grinding of particles. /n
particular for the manufacturing of superne"size slurries$ ultrasound has many advantages$
when compared with common size reduction equipment$ such as: colloid mills 4e.g. ball mills$
bead mills7$ disc mills or 0et mills. >ltrasonication allows for the processing of high"
concentration and high"viscosity slurries C therefore reducing the volume to be processed.
>ltrasonic milling is suitable for processing micron"size and nano"size materials$ such asceramics$ alumina trihydrate$ barium sulphate$ calcium carbonate and metal oxides.
Ultrasonic Cell Disintegration
>ltrasonic treatment can disintegrate brous$ cellulosic material into ne particles and break
the walls of the cell structure. This releases more of the intra"cellular material$ such as starch
or sugar into the liquid. /n addition to that the cell wall material is being broken into small
debris.
This e2ect can be used for fermentation$ digestion and other conversion processes of organic
matter. After milling and grinding$ ultrasonication makes more of the intra"cellular material
e.g. starch as well as the cell wall debris available to the enzymes that convert starch into
sugars. /t does also increase the surface area exposed to the enzymes during liquefaction or
saccharication. This does typically increase the speed and yield of yeast fermentation and
other conversion processes$ e.g. to boost the ethanol production from biomass.
Ultrasonic Cell Extraction
The extraction of enzymes and proteins stored in cells and subcellular particles is an e2ective
application of high"intensity ultrasound$ as the extraction of organic compounds contained
within the body of plants and seeds by a solvent can be signicantly improved. >ltrasound
has a potential benet in the extraction and isolation of novel potentially bioactive
components$ e.g. from non"utilized by"product streams formed in current processes.
Continuous Disinfection of Hot Water ystems
To ght the dangerous 5egionella bacteria in hot water systems and secure a safer showering
environment the;ruenbeck company has developed the ;DE"breakF system. This system
uses 9ielscher ultrasonic technology in combination with >G"6 light.
onoc!emical Application of Ultrasonics
&onochemistry is the application of ultrasound to chemical reactions and processes. The
mechanism causing sonochemical e2ects in liquids is the phenomenon of acoustic cavitation.
The sonochemical e2ects to chemical reactions and processes include increase in reaction
speed and=or output$ more e?cient energy usage$ performance improvement of phase
transfer catalysts$ activation of metals and solids or increase in the reactivity of reagents or
catalysts.
Ultrasonic "ransesteri#cation of $il to %iodiesel
>ltrasonication increases the chemical reaction speed and yield of the transesterication of
vegetable oils and animal fats into biodiesel. This allows changing the production from batch
processing to continuous 'ow processing and it reduces investment and operational costs.
The manufacturing of biodiesel from vegetable oils or animal fats$ involves the base"catalyzed
http://www.hielscher.com/mill_01.htmhttp://www.hielscher.com/nano_01.htmhttp://www.hielscher.com/cell_disintegration_01.htmhttp://www.hielscher.com/extraction_01.htmhttp://www.hielscher.com/water_disinfection.htmhttp://www.gruenbeck.de/http://www.hielscher.com/sonochem_01.htmhttp://www.hielscher.com/sonocatalysis_catalysis.htmhttp://www.hielscher.com/sonocatalysis_catalysis.htmhttp://www.hielscher.com/biodiesel_ultrasonic_mixing_reactors.htmhttp://www.hielscher.com/mill_01.htmhttp://www.hielscher.com/nano_01.htmhttp://www.hielscher.com/cell_disintegration_01.htmhttp://www.hielscher.com/extraction_01.htmhttp://www.hielscher.com/water_disinfection.htmhttp://www.gruenbeck.de/http://www.hielscher.com/sonochem_01.htmhttp://www.hielscher.com/sonocatalysis_catalysis.htmhttp://www.hielscher.com/sonocatalysis_catalysis.htmhttp://www.hielscher.com/biodiesel_ultrasonic_mixing_reactors.htm
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transesterication of fatty acids with methanol or ethanol to give the corresponding methyl
esters or ethyl esters. >ltrasonication can achieve a biodiesel yield in excess of 88H.
>ltrasound reduces the processing time and the separation time signicantly.
Ultrasonic Degassing of &i'uids
#egassing of liquids is an interesting application of ultrasonic devices. /n this case the
ultrasound removes small suspended gas"bubbles from the liquid and reduces the level of dissolved gas below the natural equilibrium level.
onication of %ottles and Cans for &ea( Detection
>ltrasound is being used in bottling and lling machines to check cans and bottles for leaks.
The instantaneous release of carbon dioxide is the decisive e2ect of ultrasonic leakage tests
of containers lled with carbonated beverages.
Ultrasonic Wire) Ca*le and trip Cleaning
>ltrasonic cleaning is an environmentally friendly alternative for the cleaning of continuous
materials$ such as wire and cable$ tape or tubes. The e2ect of the cavitation generated by the
ultrasonic power removes lubrication residues like oil or grease$ soaps$ stearates or dust.
Applications of Ultrasonic Sound
Sounds in the range 20-100kHz are commonly used for communication and navigationby bats, dolphins, and some other species. uch higher fre!uencies, in the range 1-20
Hz, are used for medical ultrasound. Such sounds are produced by ultrasonic
transducers. " #ide variety of medical diagnostic applications use both the echo time
and the $oppler shift of the reflected sounds to measure the distance to internal organs
and structures and the speed of movement of those structures. %ypical is the
echocardiogram, in #hich a moving image of the heart&s action is produced in video
form #ith false colors to indicate the speed and direction of blood flo# and heart valve
movements. 'ltrasound imaging near the surface of the body is capable of resolutions
less than a millimeter. %he resolution decreases #ith the depth of penetration since
lo#er fre!uencies must be used (the attenuation of the #aves in tissue goes up #ith
increasing fre!uency.) %he use of longer #avelengths implies lo#er resolution since the
ma*imum resolution of any imaging process is proportional to the #avelength of the
imaging #ave.
http://www.hielscher.com/degassing_01.htmhttp://www.hielscher.com/bottle_can_leak_testing_01.htmhttp://www.hielscher.com/wire_01.htmhttp://www.hielscher.com/degassing_01.htmhttp://www.hielscher.com/bottle_can_leak_testing_01.htmhttp://www.hielscher.com/wire_01.htm
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+rior to orld ar , sonar, the techni!ue of sending sound #aves through #ater and observing
the returning echoes to characterize submerged obects, inspired early ultrasound investigators to
e*plore #ays to apply the concept to medical diagnosis. n 1/2/ and 1/, Sokolov studied the
use of ultrasonic #aves in detecting metal obects. ulhauser, in 1/1, obtained a patent for using
ultrasonic #aves, using t#o transducers to detect fla#s in solids. irestone (1/30) and Simons
(1/3) developed pulsed ultrasonic testing using a pulse-echo techni!ue.
Shortly after the close of orld ar , researchers in 4apan began to e*plore medical diagnostic
capabilities of ultrasound. %he first ultrasonic instruments used an "-mode presentation #ith blips
on an oscilloscope screen. %hat #as follo#ed by a 5-mode presentation #ith a t#o dimensional,
gray scale imaging.
4apan&s #ork in ultrasound #as relatively unkno#n in the 'nited States and 6urope until the
1/0s. %hen researchers presented their findings on the use of ultrasound to detect gallstones,
breast masses, and tumors to the international medical community. 4apan #as also the firstcountry to apply $oppler ultrasound, an application of ultrasound that detects internal moving
obects such as blood coursing through the heart for cardiovascular investigation.
'ltrasound pioneers #orking in the 'nited States contributed many innovations and important
discoveries to the field during the follo#ing decades. 7esearchers learned to use ultrasound to
detect potential cancer and to visualize tumors in living subects and in e*cised tissue. 7eal-time
imaging, another significant diagnostic tool for physicians, presented ultrasound images directly onthe system&s 87% screen at the time of scanning. %he introduction of spectral $oppler and later
color $oppler depicted blood flo# in various colors to indicate
speed of flo# and direction.
%he 'nited States also produced the earliest hand held
9contact9 scanner for clinical use, the second generation of 5-
mode e!uipment, and the prototype for the first articulated-
arm hand held scanner, #ith 2-$ images.
Beginnings of Nondestructive Evaluation (NDE)
:ondestructive testing has been practiced for many decades, #ith initial rapid developments in
instrumentation spurred by the technological advances that occurred during orld ar and the
subse!uent defense effort. $uring the earlier days, the primary purpose #as the detection of
defects. "s a part of 9safe life9 design, it #as intended that a structure should not develop
macroscopic defects during its life, #ith the detection of such defects being a cause for removal of
the component from service. n response to this need, increasingly sophisticated techni!ues using
ultrasonics, eddy currents, *-rays, dye penetrants, magnetic particles, and other forms of
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interrogating energy emerged.
n the early 1/;0&s, t#o events occurred #hich caused a maor change. %he continued
improvement of the technology, in particular its ability to detect small fla#s, led to the
unsatisfactory situation that more and more parts had to be reected, even though the probability
of failure had not changed. Ho#ever, the discipline of fracture mechanics emerged, #hich enabled
one to predict #hether a crack of a given size #ould fail under a particular load if a material
property, fracture toughness, #ere kno#n.
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by the velocity of sound in the test material. %he result is e*pressed in the #ell-kno#n
relationship
d = vt/2 or v = 2d/t
#here d is the distance from the surface to the discontinuity in the test piece, v is the
velocity of sound #aves in the material, and t is the measured round-trip transit time.
%he diagram belo# allo#s you to move a transducer over the surface of a stainless
steel test block and see return echoes as they #ould appear on an oscilloscope. %he
transducer employed is a Hz broadband transducer 0.2 inches in diameter. %he
signals #ere generated #ith computer soft#are similar to that found in the %hompson-
?ray easurement odel and '%S developed at the 8enter for :ondestructive
6valuation at o#a State 'niversity.
+recision ultrasonic thickness gages usually operate at fre!uencies bet#een 00 kHz
and 100 Hz, by means of piezoelectric transducers that generate bursts of sound
#aves #hen e*cited by electrical pulses. " #ide variety of transducers #ith various
acoustic characteristics have been developed to meet the needs of industrial
applications. %ypically, lo#er fre!uencies are used to optimize penetration #hen
measuring thick, highly attenuating or highly scattering materials, #hile higher
fre!uencies #ill be recommended to optimize resolution in thinner, non-attenuating,
non-scattering materials.
n thickness gauging, ultrasonic techni!ues permit !uick and reliable measurement of
thickness #ithout re!uiring access to both sides of a part. "ccuracy&s as high as @1
micron or @0.0001 inch can be achieved in some applications. t is possible to measure
most engineering materials ultrasonically, including metals, plastic, ceramics,
composites, epo*ies, and glass as #ell as li!uid levels and the thickness of certain
biological specimens.
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%he most commonly occurring defects in #elded oints are porosity, slag inclusions,
lack of side-#all fusion, lack of inter-run fusion, lack of root penetration, undercutting,
and longitudinal or transverse cracks.
ith the e*ception of single gas pores all the defects listed are usually #ell detectable
by ultrasonics. ost applications are on lo#-alloy construction !uality steels, ho#ever,
#elds in aluminum can also be tested. 'ltrasonic fla# detection has long been thepreferred method for nondestructive testing in #elding applications. %his safe, accurate,
and simple techni!ue has pushed ultrasonics to the forefront of inspection technology.
'ltrasonic #eld inspections are typically performed using a straight beam transducer in
conunction #ith an angle beam transducer and #edge. " straight beam transducer,
producing a longitudinal #ave at normal incidence into the test piece, is first used to
locate any laminations in or near the heat-affected zone. %his is important because an
angle beam transducer may not be able to provide a return signal from a laminar fla#.
%he second step in the inspection involves using an angle beam transducer to inspect
the actual #eld. "ngle beam transducers use the principles of refraction and mode
conversion to produce refracted shear or longitudinal #aves in the test material. A:oteB
any "S inspections are performed using refracted shear #aves. Ho#ever, material
having a large grain structure, such as stainless steel may re!uire refracted longitudinal
#aves for successful inspections.C %his inspection may include the root, side#all,
cro#n, and heat-affected zones of a #eld. %he process involves scanning the surface of
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the material around the #eldment #ith the transducer. %his refracted sound #ave #ill
bounce off a reflector (discontinuity) in the path of the sound beam. ith proper angle
beam techni!ues, echoes returned from the #eld zone may allo# the operator to
determine the location and type of discontinuity.
%o determine the proper scanning area for the #eld, the inspector must first calculate
the location of the sound beam in the test material. 'sing the refracted angle, beam
inde* point and material thickness, the D-path and skip distance of the sound beam is
found.
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e*ist> ho#ever, there is the 8enter for the Holographic "rts in :e# ForkA3;C and the H
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n static holography, recording, developing and reconstructing occur se!uentially, and a permanent hologram is
produced.
%here also e*ist holographic materials that do not need the developing process and can record a hologram in a
very short time. %his allo#s one to use holography to perform some simple operations in an all-optical #ay.
6*amples of applications of such real-time holograms include phase-conugate mirrors (9time-reversal9 of light),
optical cache memories, image processing (pattern recognition of time-varying images), andoptical computing.
%he amount of processed information can be very high (terabitsLs), since the operation is performed in parallel
on a #hole image. %his compensates for the fact that the recording time, #hich is in the order of a microsecond,
is still very long compared to the processing time of an electronic computer. %he optical processing performed by
a dynamic hologram is also much less fle*ible than electronic processing.
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any of these holographers #ould go on to produce art holograms. n 1/, red 'nterseher published
the Holography Handbook , a remarkably easy-to-read description of making holograms at home. %his brought in
a ne# #ave of holographers and gave simple methods to use the then-available "?" silver halide recording
materials.
n 2000, rank $ereitas published the Shoebox Holography Book and introduced the use of ine*pensive laser
pointers to countless hobbyists. %his #as a very important development for amateurs, as the cost for a mlaser dropped from M1200 to M as semiconductor laser diodes reached mass market. :o#, there are hundreds
to thousands of amateur holographers #orld#ide.
5y late 2000, holography kits #ith the ine*pensive laser pointer diodes entered the mainstream consumer
market. %hese kits enabled students, teachers, and hobbyists to make many kinds of holograms #ithout
specialized e!uipment, and became popular gift items by 200. A3C %he introduction of holography kits #ith self-
developing film plates in 200 made it even possible for hobbyists to make holograms #ithout using chemical
developers.AC
n 200G, a large number of surplus Holography =uality ?reen Iasers (8oherent 81) became available and put
$ichromated ?elatin ($8?) #ithin the reach of the amateur holographer. %he holography community #as
surprised at the amazing sensitivity of $8? to green light. t had been assumed that the sensitivity #ould be
non-e*istent. 4eff 5lyth responded #ith the ?0; formulation of $8? to increase the speed and sensitivity to
these ne# lasers.AGC
any film suppliers have come and gone from the silver-halide market. hile more film manufactures have filled
in the voids, many amateurs are no# making their o#n film. %he favorite formulations are $ichromated ?elatin,
ethylene 5lue Sensitised $ichromated ?elatin and $iffusion ethod Silver Halide preparations. 4eff 5lyth has
published very accurate methods for making film in a small lab or garage. A;C
" small group of amateurs are even constructing their o#n pulsed lasers to make holograms of moving obects.
AC
Holographic interferometryAeditC
Main article: holographic interferometry
Holographic interferometry (H) is a techni!ue that enables static and dynamic displacements of obects #ith
optically rough surfaces to be measured to optical interferometric precision (i.e. to fractions of a #avelength of
light).A/CAG0C t can also be used to detect optical-path-length variations in transparent media, #hich enables, for
e*ample, fluid flo# to be visualized and analyzed. t can also be used to generate contours representing the form
of the surface.
t has been #idely used to measure stress, strain, and vibration in engineering structures.
nterferometric microscopyAeditC
Main article: Interferometric microscopy
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silver_halidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silver_halidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_DeFreitashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_DeFreitashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_pointerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_pointerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_pointerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hobbyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holography#cite_note-IEEE-54http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holography#cite_note-physicsteacher-55http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holography#cite_note-56http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holography#cite_note-57http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holography#cite_note-58http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Holography&action=edit§ion=29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holographic_interferometryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holographic_interferometryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holography#cite_note-59http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holography#cite_note-60http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Holography&action=edit§ion=30http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interferometric_microscopyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interferometric_microscopyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silver_halidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_DeFreitashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_pointerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_pointerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hobbyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holography#cite_note-IEEE-54http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holography#cite_note-physicsteacher-55http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holography#cite_note-56http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holography#cite_note-57http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holography#cite_note-58http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Holography&action=edit§ion=29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holographic_interferometryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holography#cite_note-59http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holography#cite_note-60http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Holography&action=edit§ion=30http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interferometric_microscopy
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%he hologram keeps the information on the amplitude and phase of the field. Several holograms may keep
information about the same distribution of light, emitted to various directions. %he numerical analysis of such
holograms allo#s one to emulate large numerical aperture, #hich, in turn, enables enhancement of the
resolution of optical microscopy. %he corresponding techni!ue is called interferometric microscopy. 7ecent
achievements of interferometric microscopy allo# one to approach the !uarter-#avelength limit of resolution. AG1C
Sensors or biosensorsAeditC
Main article: Holographic sensor
%he hologram is made #ith a modified material that interacts #ith certain molecules generating a change in the
fringe periodicity or refractive inde*, therefore, the color of the holographic reflection. AG2CAGC
SecurityAeditC
Main article: Security hologram
Identigram as a security element in a ?erman identity card
Security holograms are very difficult to forge, because they are replicated from a master hologram that re!uires
e*pensive, specialized and technologically advanced e!uipment. %hey are used #idely in many currencies, such
as the 5razilian 20, 0, and 100-reais notes> 5ritish , 10, and 20-pound notes> South Norean 000, 10,000, and
0,000-#on notes> 4apanese 000 and 10,000 yen notes> and all the currently-circulating banknotes of
the 8anadian dollar , $anish krone, and 6uro. %hey can also be found in credit and bank cards as #ell
as passports, $ cards, books, $D$s, and sports e!uipment.
8overtly storing information #ithin a full colour image hologram #as achieved in 8anada, in 200, at the 'H7
lab. %he method used a fourth #avelength, aside from the 7?5 components of the obect and reference beams,to record additional data, #hich could be retrieved only #ith the correct key combination of #avelength and
angle. %his techni!ue remained in the prototype stage and #as never developed for commercial applications.
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Non-optical holography AeditC
n principle, it is possible to make a hologram for any #ave.
6lectron holography is the application of holography techni!ues to electron #aves rather than light #aves.
6lectron holography #as invented by $ennis ?abor to improve the resolution and avoid the aberrations of
the transmission electron microscope. %oday it is commonly used to study electric and magnetic fields in thinfilms, as magnetic and electric fields can shift the phase of the interfering #ave passing through the sample.
AGC %he principle of electron holography can also be applied to interference lithography.AGGC
"coustic holography is a method used to estimate the sound field near a source by measuring acoustic
parameters a#ay from the source via an array of pressure andLor particle velocity transducers. easuring
techni!ues included #ithin acoustic holography are becoming increasingly popular in various fields, most notably
those of transportation, vehicle and aircraft design, and :DH. %he general idea of acoustic holography has led to
different versions such as near-field acoustic holography (:"H) and statistically optimal near-field acoustic
holography (S
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8rypton uture edia, a music soft#are company that produced Hatsune iku,A;1C one of many Docaloid singing
synthesizer applications, has produced concerts that have iku, along #ith other 8rypton Docaloids, performing
on stage as 9holographic9 characters. %hese concerts use rear proection onto a semi-transparent $I"$
screenA;2CA;C to achieve its 9holographic9 effect.A;3CA;CA;GC
n 2011, in 5eiing, apparel company 5urberry produced the 95urberry +rorsum "utumnLinter 2011 Hologram
7un#ay Sho#9, #hich included life size 2-$ proections of models. %he company&s o#n videoA;;C
sho#s severalcentered and off-center shots of the main 2-dimensional proection screen, the latter revealing the flatness of the
virtual models. %he claim that holography #as used #as reported as fact in the trade media. A;C
icrosoft Hololens can potentially be mistaken for a true hologram.
Holography in fictionAeditC
Main article: Holography in fiction
Holography has been #idely referred to in novels, %D and movies.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crypton_Future_Mediahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hatsune_Mikuhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holography#cite_note-71http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vocaloidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vocaloidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holography#cite_note-72http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holography#cite_note-72http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holography#cite_note-73http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holography#cite_note-74http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holography#cite_note-75http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holography#cite_note-75http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holography#cite_note-76http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burberryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burberryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holography#cite_note-77http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holography#cite_note-78http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Hololenshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Hololenshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Holography&action=edit§ion=36http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holography_in_fictionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holography_in_fictionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crypton_Future_Mediahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hatsune_Mikuhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holography#cite_note-71http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vocaloidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holography#cite_note-72http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holography#cite_note-73http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holography#cite_note-74http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holography#cite_note-75http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holography#cite_note-76http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burberryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holography#cite_note-77http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holography#cite_note-78http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Hololenshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Holography&action=edit§ion=36http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holography_in_fiction