Gopal B. Saha, Ph.D.

Physics and Radiobiolo of Nuclear Medicine Fourth Edition

*ü Springer

Contents

Preface vii

Chapter 1 Structure of Matter 1 Matter and Energy 1

Radiation.. 2 The Atom 3

Electronic Structure ofthe Atom 3 Structure ofthe Nucleus..... 6 Nuclear Binding Energy 7

Nuclear Nomenclature 8 Chart ofthe Nuclides 8 Questions , 10 Suggested Readings 10

Chapter 2 Radioactive Decay 11 Spontaneous Fission 11 Isomeric Transition 12

Gamma (y)-Ray Emission 12 Internal Conversion 12

Alpha (a)-Decay 14 Beta OT)-Decay 15 Positron (/ft*)-Decay 17 Electron Capture 18 Questions 20 Suggested Readings 20

Chapter 3 Kinetics of Radioactive Decay 21 Radioactive Decay Equations 21

General Equation 21 Half-Life 22 MeanLife 24 Effective Half-Life. 25

ix

x Contents

Units ofRadioactivity 25 Specific Activity 26 Calculation 27 Successive Decay Equations 30

General Equation 30 Transient Equilibrium 30 Secular Equilibrium 31

Questions 32 Suggested Readings 34

Chapter 4 Statistics of Radiation Counting 35 Error, Accuracy, and Precision 35 Mean and Standard Deviation 3,6

Gaussian Distribution 36 Standard Deviation of Count Rates 38 Propagation of Errors 38 Chi-Square Test 41 Minimum Detectable Activity 43 Evaluation of Diagnostic Tests 43 Questions 45 Suggested Readings 45

Chapter 5 Production of Radionuclides 47 Cyclotron-Produced Radionuclides 47 Reactor-Produced Radionuclides 50

Fission or (n, f) Reaction.. 51 Neutron Capture or (n,y) Reaction 52

Target and Its Processing 52 Equation for Production of Radionuclides 52 Radionuclide Generators 57

"Mo-99mTcGenerator 59 Cyclotron production o f T c 60 Questions 60 References and Suggested Readings 61

Chapter 6 Interaction of Radiation with Matter 63 Interaction of Charged Particles with Matter 63

Specific Ionization 64 Linear Energy Transfer 65 Range 65 Bremsstrahlung 67 Annihilation 67

Interaction of y-Radiations with Matter 68 Mechanism of Interaction of y-Radiations 68 Attenuation of y-Radiations 72

Interaction of Neutrons with Matter 75

Contents xi

Questions 76 Suggested Readings 77

Chapter 7 Gas-Filled Detectors 79 PrinciplesofGas-Filled Detectors 79 Ionization Chambers .. 81

Ion Chamber Survey Meter 82 Dose Calibrator 83 Pocket Dosimeter 86 Proportional Counters 87

Geiger-Müller Counters 87 Questions 90 Suggested Readings 90

Chapter 8 Scintillation and Semiconductor Detectors 91 Scintillation Detectors 91

Solid Scintillation Detectors 92 Solid-State Detectors 94

Solid Scintillation Counters 95 Nal(Tl) Detector 95 Photomultiplier Tube 95 Preamplifier... 97 Linear Amplifier.. 97 Pulse-HeightAnalyzer 97 Display orStorage..... 98

Gamma-Ray Spectrometry 98 Photopeak 98 Compton Valley, Edge, and Plateau 99 Characteristic X-Ray Peak 100 Backscatter Peak 100 Iodine Escape Peak 100 Annihilation Peak 101 Coincidence Peak 101

Liquid Scintillation Counters 102 Characteristics of Counting Systems 104

Energy Resolution 104 Detection Efficiency 106 DeadTime 108

Gamma Well Counters 110 Calibration of Well Counters 110 Counting in Well Counters 111 Effects of Sample Volume 112

Thyroid Probe.... 113 Thyroid Uptake Measurement 114

Questions 114 Suggested Readings 116

xü Contents

Chapter 9 Gamma Cameras 117 Gamma Cameras 117

Principles of Operation 117 Detector , 119 Collimator 120 Photomultiplier Tube 121 X-, Y-Positioning Circuit 121 Pulse-Height Analyzer 123 Display and Storage 123

Digital Cameras 124 Solid State Digital Cameras 124 Questions 125 Suggested Readings 126

Chapter 10 Performance Parameters of Gamma Cameras 127 Spatial Resolution 127

Intrinsic Resolution 127 Collimator Resolution 128 Scatter Resolution 132

Evaluation of Spatial Resolution 132 Bar Phantom 132 Line-Spread Function 134 Modulation Transfer Function 135

Sensitivity 137 Collimator Efficiency 137

Uniformity 139 Pulse-Height Variation 139 Nonlinearity 139 EdgePacking 140

Gamma Camera Tuning 141 Effects of High Counting Rates 141 Contrast 142 Quality Control Tests for Gamma Cameras 145

Daily Checks 146 Weekly Checks 148 Monthly Checks 148 Annual, Semiannual, or As-Needed Checks 149

Questions 149 References and Suggested Readings 151

Chapter 11 Digital Computers in Nuclear Medicine 153 Basicsofa Computer 153

Central Processing Unit 154 Computer Memory 155 External Storage Devices 155

Contents xiii

Input/Output Devices 155 Operation ofa Computer 156 Digitization of Analog Data 156 Digital-to-Analog Conversion 157 Digital Images 157

Application of Computers in Nuclear Medicine 158 Digital Data Acquisition 158 Static Study 159 Dynamic Study 160 Gated Study 160 Reconstruction of Images 162 Fusion and Subtraction of Images 162 Display 162 Software and DICOM 163 PACS 164

Questions 166 Suggested Readings..... 166

Chapter 12 Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography 167 Tomographie Imaging 167 Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography 167

Data Acquisition 169 Image Reconstruction 170 SPECT/CT 184 Factors Affecting SPECT 187

Performance of SPECT Cameras 196 Spatial Resolution 196 Sensitivity 197 Other Parameters 198

Quality Control Tests for SPECT Cameras 198 Daily Tests 198 Weekly Tests 198

Quality Control Tests for CT Scanners 199 Questions , 200 References and Suggested Readings 201

Chapter 13 Positron Emission Tomography 203 PET Radiopharmaceuticals 203 Detectors in PET Scanners 204 PM Tubes and Pulse-Height Analyzers 205 PET Scanners 205

Block Detectors 205 Coincidence Timing Window 207

PET/CT Scanners 209 PET/MR Scanners 210

xiv Contents

PrinciplesofMRImaging 212 MR Scanner , 216 Commercial PET/MR Scanners 217

Mobile PET or PET/CT 218 Micro-PET 219 Dual- and Triple-Head Gamma Cameras ; 220 Data Acquisition 221

TimeofFlightMethod 223 Two-Dimensional Versus Three-Dimensional Data Acquisition 224

Image Reconstruction 225 Factors Affecting PET 226

Normalization 227 Photon Attenuation Correction 227 Random Coincidences 230 Scatter Coincidences 230 DeadTime 232 Radial Elongation 232

Performance of PET Scanners 232 Spatial Resolution 232 Sensitivity......... 235 Noise Equivalent Count Rate 235

Quality Control Tests for PET Scanners 236 Daily Tests 236 Weekly Tests 236

Quality Control Tests for MR Scanners 237 Accreditation of Nuclear Medicine and PET Facilities 238 Questions. 240 References and Suggested Readings 241

Chapter 14 Internal Radiation Dosimetry 243 Radiation Units 243 Dose Calculation 246

Radiation Dose Rate.... 246 Cumulative Radiation Dose 247 Radiation Dose in SI Units 251

Effective Dose Equivalent and Effective Dose 252 Pediatric Dosages 256 Questions 260 References and Suggested Readings 261

Chapter 15 Radiation Biology 263 The Cell 263 Effects of Radiation 266

DNAMolecule 266 Chromosome 269

Contents xv

Direct and Indirect Actions of Radiation 270 Radiosensitivity ofCells 272 Cell Survival Curves 274 Factors Affecting Radiosensitivity 276

Dose Rate 277 Linear Energy Transfer 277 Chemicals 278 StageofCellCycle 281

Apoptosis 281 Classification of Radiation Damage 281 Sources of Radiation Exposure in the United States 283 Stochastic and Deterministic Effects 284 Acute Effects of Total Body Irradiation 284

Hemopoietic Syndrome 285 Gastrointestinal Syndrome 285 Cerebrovascular Syndrome 286

Long-Term Effects of Radiation 286 Somatic Effects 286 Genetic Effects 293

Risk Versus Benefit in Diagnostic Radiology and Nuclear Medicine 295 Risk to Pregnant Women 296 Questions 297 References and Suggested Readings 299

Chapter 16 Radiation Regulations and Protection 301 License 301 Radiation Protection 303

Definition of Terms 303 Caution Signs and Labels 304 Occupational Dose Limits 305 ALARA Program 305 Principles of Radiation Protection 306 Personnel Monitoring 309 Dos and Don'ts in Radiation Protection Practice 310 Bioassay 311 Receiving and Monitoring of Radioactive Packages 311 Radioactive Waste Disposal 312 Radioactive Spill 313 Recordkeeping 314

Medical Uses of Radioactive Materials 314 Applications, Amendments, and Notifications 314 Authority and Responsibilities of the Licensee 315 Supervision 315 Mobile Nuclear Medicine Service 315 Written Directives 316

xvi Contents

MeasurementofDosages , 316 Calibration, Transmission, and Reference Sources 317 Requirement for Possession of Sealed Sources 317 Labeling of Vials and Syringes 317 Surveys of Ambient Radiation Exposure Rate 317 Calibration of Survey Instruments 318 Training and Experience Requirements for Medical Uses of By-Product Materials 318 Report and Notification of a Medical Event 319 Report and Notification of a Dose to an Embryo/Fetus ora Nursing Child 320 Release of Patients Administered with Radiopharmaceuticals 320 Recordkeeping 323 Dirty Bombs 323 Types of Accidental Radiation Exposure 323 Protective Measures in Caseof Explosion ofa Dirty Bomb 325 Verification Card for Radioactive Patients 326 Radiation Phobia 327

Transportation of Radioactive Materials 328 European Regulations Governing Radiation 330 Questions 332 References and Suggested Readings 333

Appendix A Units and Constants 335

Appendix B Terms Used in Text....... 337

Appendix C Answers to Questions 343

Index 345