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1.0 INTRODUCTION
Photovoltaic were first used in about 1890, the word has two parts: photo, derived from
the Greek word for light, and volt, relating to electricity pioneer Alessandro Volta. So,
photovoltaic could literally be translated as light-electricity, they convert light energy into
electrical energy which is also called Photoelectric Effect and it was discovered by
French physicist Edmond Becquerel in 1839.
Commonly known as solar cells, individual PV cells are electricity-producing devices
made of semiconductor materials. PV cells come in many sizes and shapes—from
smaller than a postage stamp to several inches across. They are often connected together
to form PV modules that may be up to several feet long and a few feet wide. Modules, in
turn, can be combined and connected to form PV arrays of different sizes and power
output. The size of an array depends on several factors, such as the amount of sunlight
available in a particular location and the needs of the consumer. The modules of the array
make up the major part of a PV system, which can also include electrical connections,
mounting hardware, power-conditioning equipment, and batteries that store solar energy
for use when the sun is not shining. Simple PV systems provide power for many small
consumer items, such as calculators and wristwatches. More complicated systems provide
power for communications satellites, water pumps, and the lights, appliances, and
machines in some people's homes and workplaces. Many road and traffic signs along
highways are now powered by PV. In many cases, PV power is the least expensive form
of electricity for performing these tasks.
PV Cells PV Modules PV Arrays
Fig.1.0. Parts of PV system.
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1.1 Source for PV
Solar radiation provides a huge amount of energy to the earth. The total amount of
energy, which is irradiated from the sun to the earth's surface equals approximately
10 000 times the annual global energy consumption. On average, 1 700 kWh per square
meter is insolated every year. The light of the sun, which reaches the surface of the earth,
consists mainly of two components: direct light and indirect or diffuse light, which is the
light that has been scattered by dust and water particles in the atmosphere. Photovoltaic
cells not only use the direct component of the light, but also produce electricity when the
sky is overcast. So, it is a misconception that PV systems only operate in direct sunshine
and are therefore not suitable for use in temperate climates. This is not correct:
photovoltaics make use of diffuse solar radiation as well as direct sunlight. To determine
the PV electricity generation potential for a particular site, it is important to assess the
average total solar energy received over the year, rather than to refer to instantaneous
irradiance. Using photovoltaic cells, this radiation can be used to generate electricity.
When sunlight strikes a photovoltaic cell, direct current (d.c.) is generated. By putting an
electric load across the cell, this current can be collected. Not all of the light can be
converted into electricity however. Photovoltaic cells use mainly visible light. A lot of
the sun's energy is in IR- or warmth- and UV radiation, which explains why theoretical
conversion efficiencies are as low as 20-30%. Practical deficiencies as impurities may
decrease the performance of a photovoltaic cell even further. The amount of useful
electricity generated by a PV module is directly generated to the intensity of light energy,
which falls onto the conversion area. So, the greater the available solar resource, the
greater the electricity generation potential. The tropics, for instance, offer a better
resource for generating electricity than is available at high latitudes. It also follows that a
PV system will not generate electricity at night, and it is important that modules are not
shaded. If electricity is required outside daylight hours, or if extended periods of bad
weather are anticipated, some form of storage system is essential.
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1.2 How it works
The photovoltaic cell is the component responsible for converting light to electricity.
When sunlight strikes a photovoltaic cell, part of the light particles (photons), which
contain energy, is absorbed by the cell. By the absorption of a photon a (negative)
electron is knocked loose from a silicon atom, and a positive "hole" remains. The freed
electron and the positive hole together are neutral. Therefore, in order to be able to
generate electricity, the electron and the hole need to be separated from each other.
Therefore a photovoltaics cell has an artificial junction layer, also called the p/n-layer.
Now, the freed electronics cannot return to the positive charged holes. When the electric
contacts on the front and rear are being connected through an external circuit, the freed
electrons can only return to the positively charged holes by flowing through this external
circuit, thus generating current.
loadload
currentcurrent
lightlight
N-TypeN-Type
P-TypeP-Type
Backplane
Backplane
Schematic diagram of P/N Junction solar cellSchematic diagram of P/N Junction solar cell
Fig.1.2. Schematic diagram of P/N Junction solar cell.
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2.0 CONSTRUCTION OF PV SYSTEMS
Photovoltaic devices can be made from various types of semiconductor materials,
deposited or arranged in various structures, to produce solar cells that have optimal
performance. There are three main types of materials used for solar cells. The first type is
silicon, which can be used in various forms, including single-crystalline, multicrystalline,
and amorphous. The second type is polycrystalline thin films, mostly of copper indium
diselenide (CIS) cadmium telluride (CdTe), and thin-film silicon. Finally, the third type
of material is single-crystalline thin film, focusing especially on cells made with gallium
arsenide. These materials are arranged in various ways to make complete solar devices.
The four basic structures include homojunction, heterojunction, p-i-n and n-i-p, and
multijunction devices.
Typical and maximum module and cell conversion efficiencies at Standard Test Conditions
Type Typical module efficiency [%]
Maximum recorded module efficiency [%]
Maximum recorded laboratory efficiency [%]
Single crystalline silicon
12-15 22.7 24.7
Multicrystalline silicon
11-14 15.3 19.8
Amorphous silicon
5-7 - 12.7
Cadmium telluride
- 10.5 16.0
CIGS - 12.1 18.2
2.1 Configurations of PV Cells
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There are basically two types of configurations used in producing electricity by PV cells.
I Grid-Connected System
When using grid-connected systems solar photovoltaic electricity is fed into the grid. As
the electricity generated by a PV module is in the form of direct current (d.c) the
electricity needs to be converted to alternating current (a.c) for which an inverter is
required. There are two types of grid-connected PV systems. Small utility interactive PV-
systems can be used by private owners for their own consumption. Energy surplus will be
fed into the grid, while in times of shortage (e.g. at night) energy will be consumed from
the grid. The other option is utility scale, central station PV fields, managed by the
utilities in the same way as other electric power plants. All d.c.-output of the PV field,
which are generally of megawatt range, is converted to a.c. and then fed into the central
utility grid after which it is distributed to the customers.
Fig.2.1.I. Grid Connected Systems
In a grid-connected power system the grid acts like a battery with an unlimited storage
capacity. Therefore the total efficiency of a grid-connected PV system will be better than
the efficiency of a stand-alone system: as there is virtually no limit to the storage
capacity, the generated electricity can always be stored, whereas in stand-alone
applications the batteries of the PV system will be sometimes fully loaded, and therefore
the generated electricity needs to be "thrown away".
II Stand-Alone System
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Stand-alone systems are direct coupled system where the DC output of a PV module or
array is directly connected to the DC load. They do not have inverter. Stand-alone PV
systems are often best in places where utility-generated power is either unavailable
(because the area is so remote from power plants), undesirable (because of a possible
utility power outage in an emergency), or too costly to hook up to (because of the price of
extending power lines). Stand-alone systems are also excellent for uses that don't require
a lot of power.
Fig 2.1.II Stand-Alone System
The sunny days are very good for generating electricity with photovoltaics. Stand-alone
PV systems (those not connected to a utility power grid) generate electricity every sunny
day, and on some cloudy days, too, all over the world. The electricity is then used to
power water pumps for irrigation and drinking wells, for example, or ventilation fans for
cooling. For this reason, the simplest PV systems are those that generate direct-current
(dc) electricity so it can be used right away to run water pumps, fans, and many other
appliances that use dc electricity.
The basic PV systems have several advantages. First, they produce energy where and
when it's needed, so complex wiring, storage, and control systems aren't needed. Second,
small systems that produce less than 500 watts and weigh less than 68 kilograms (150
pounds) are easy to transport and install. Most installations take only a few hours. And,
although pumps and fans require regular maintenance, PV modules require only an
occasional inspection and cleaning.
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For many developing countries, where the electricity grid is largely confined to the main
urban areas, and where a substantial proportion of the rural population does not have
access to most basic energy services, PV is widely regarded today as the best - and least
expensive - means of providing many of the services that are lacking. Based on minimum
energy requirements to provide basic energy services to every individual in the
developing world, the corresponding potential for PV is estimated to be 16 GW
(approximately 15 W per capita).
PV modules can be used for:
Pumping systems: to supply water to villages, for land irrigation or livestock
watering
Refrigeration systems: particularly to preserve vaccines, blood and other
consumables vital to healthcare programs.
Lighting: for homes and community buildings such as schools and health centers
to enable education and income generation activities to continue after dark.
Battery charging stations: to recharge batteries, which are used to power
appliances ranging from torches and radios to televisions and lights
Solar home systems: to provide power for domestic lighting and other DC
appliances such as TVs, radios, sewing machines, etc.
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3.0 ADVANTAGES
PV systems provide a number of advantages over the conventional energy sources. Some
of those advantages are following:
3.1 Environmental
PV systems pose few environmental problems. The generating component produces
electricity silently and does not emit any harmful gases during operation. The basic
photovoltaic material for most common modules made out of silicon is entirely benign,
and is available in abundance.
Many people today are concerned for the future of the planet. Conventional energy
technologies are widely recognized as a major cause of environmental destruction - both
in terms of depletion of natural resources and pollution. PV and other renewable energy
technologies are gaining acceptance as a way of maintaining and improving living
standards without harming the environment. More and more energy utilities are
responding to the wishes of consumers by including PV in their supply mix.
3.2 Components and maintenance
Photovoltaic power systems are exceptionally modular, which not only provides for easy
transportation and rapid installation, but also enables easy expansion if power
requirements increase. The solar PV generating equipment has no moving parts, which on
the whole keeps maintenance requirements to a minimum and leads to long service
lifetimes. The modules themselves are typically expected to operate for about twenty
years, and should not require much more than the occasional cleaning to remove deposits
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of dirt. The majority of the other components - referred to as the Balance of Systems
(BOS) - are generally serviceable for ten or more years if simple preventative
maintenance measures are followed. Batteries, which are commonly required for most
off-grid applications except water pumping, are currently the "weak-link" in the PV
system and will typically need replacement every five years or so.
It is essential that storage batteries and indeed all system components are of an acceptable
quality. Where PV systems have failed in the past for technical reasons, it has generally
been due to bad system design and/or poor selection of BOS components, rather than to
failure of a PV module. As a result, considerable international research efforts are
presently directed towards improving performance of BOS components.
3.3 Costs and economics
The vast majority of PV installations to date have been for relatively low-power
applications in locations, which do not have ready access to a mains electricity grid. In
such cases, PV has been selected because it offers a secure and reliable power supply,
and is often the cheapest power option.
Like any such commodity, the total purchase price of a PV system is based on all
inherent costs of producing the individual components, transporting these to the site and
installing them. There may also be associated costs of designing and engineering the
system and purchasing land - particularly for large-scale or one-off projects.
The total price is therefore very difficult to define, varying with application, size of
system and location. However, the costs of the PV array are a significant factor and will
typically constitute 30%-50% of the total capital cost with the BOS contributing a similar
amount. As an example, a small domestic lighting system to power two or three
fluorescent tubes would typically be in the order of 50 W, and would cost perhaps
USD 500, whereas a solar photovoltaic vaccine refrigerator might require a 200 W array,
bringing the total price of the system to around USD 5000. Thus PV systems are an
attractive option in rural areas where no grid-connection is available, though simple
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payback terms, because of its high capital costs, PV can often appear unattractive.
However, using life-cycle costing, which accounts for all fuel and component
replacement costs incurred over the life of the system, PV often compares favorable with
the alternatives, which tend to have lower initial costs, but incur significantly greater
operating costs.
Displacing conventional technologies with photovoltaic systems can bring various
positive effects, which are difficult to quantify in direct financial terms, but which
nonetheless offer significant economic and social benefits. For instance, in comparison to
traditional kerosene lamps, PV can provide better lighting levels, enabling educational
and income generating activities to continue after dark with reduced risk of fire and
avoidance of noxious combustion fumes. The World Health Organization has noted that
PV offers a more reliable refrigeration service than other power supply options. This has
resulted in increased efficacy of stored vaccines, which in turn has helped to reduce
mortality rates. Such factors must be considered when PV is compared to the alternatives
even though the cost benefits are not easy to assess.
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4.0 DRAWBACKSThere are some drawbacks also from PV systems, but compared to advantages,
drawbacks are negligible. The following are the notable drawbacks of PV systems:
4.1 Health Hazard
There are, potential hazards allied to the production of some of the more exotic thin film
technologies. The two most promising options, cadmium telluride and copper indium
diselenide, both incorporate small quantities of cadmium sulphide, which poses potential
cadmium risks to module manufacturer. Fortunately, there are well-established
procedures governing the handling of such compounds, which are adhered to throughout
the production process.
4.2 Energy Consumption
One criticism of early PV modules was that they consumed more energy during their
production than they generated during their lifetime. With modern production methods
and improved operational efficiencies this allegation is no longer true. The exact energy
payback is obviously dependent on the available solar resource and on the degree to
which the system is operational. High levels of solar irradiation and a high utilization
factor will offer more rapid energy paybacks than if there is less sun and less usage, but
typically energy payback will be realized within three to four years.
4.3 Initial Cost
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Initial cost of installation is higher than the conventional electricity. In terms of average
unit energy costs calculated using traditional accounting techniques, PV generated
electricity cannot yet compete with efficient conventional central generating plants.
4.4 Evolving Technology
It is relatively a new technology and has to compete with established technology.
Consumer’s confidence has to be built by delivering promised performances.
5.0 SCOPE IN MEDITERRANEAN COUNTRIES
The Mediterranean countries receive a very good source of solar radiation and there
exists a good scope for the utilization of solar energy to fulfill the growing energy needs
of the region. The region as a whole has not been endowed with same energy resources.
Some countries in southern region called as MEDREC countries like Libya, Egypt and
Algeria are hydrocarbon exporting countries whereas Tunisia and Morocco are energy
dependent countries. The energy demand has increased from 42 Mtoe in 1970 to 107
Mtoe in 2000 in these countries
Fig. 5.0.a Energy demand in MEDREC countries.
According to OME scenarios, demand is expected to increase to 157.4 Mtoe by 2010.
The figure 5.0.b below shows the primary energy consumption in the MEDREC countries
are dominated by oil at 54% and 41% by natural gas with coal, hydro and renewable
energy at 3.6%, 1.2% and 0.03% respectively.
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Fig 5.0.b. Renewable energy usage in MEDREC countries
The consumption of electricity in MEDREC countries has increased spectacularly at almost 10 times in 30 years. The growth of 6% to 7% is expected annually till 2020. In order to meet the growing demands of electricity, additional capacities have to be constructed. The major power stations in MEDREC countries are expected to be run by natural gas as its availability is immense in the region. The following table 5.0 shows the electricity trade between Mediterranean countries in 2000 in GWh.
Electrical Interconnections Export Import Total
Portugal-Spain 3765 4597 8362
France-Spain 8447 587 9034
France-Italy 16142 393 16535
Italy-Slovenia/Croatia 73 4509 4582
Slovenia/Croatia-ExYoug./Macedonia 152 159 311
Greece-ExYoug./Macedonia 173 617 790
Greece-Albania 922 49 971
Albania-ExYoug./Macedonia 173 120 293
Spain-Morocco 2261 1 2262
Algeria-Morocco 99 65 164
Algeria-Tunisia 111 109 220
Egypt-Libya 111 128 239
Egypt-Jordan 217 53 270
Syria-Lebanon 1418 1418
Total intra-Mediterranean 34064 11387 45451Table 5.0 Electricity trade between Mediterranean Countries
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In order to meet electricity demands to promote social and economic development in a
sustainable manner it is essential to promote advanced and clean energy technologies like
the renewable energy or RES. The substantial contribution that RES plays in alleviating
poverty and development of countries has been confirmed by the Millennium
Development Goals in the Johannesburg World Summit on sustainable development and
also in International Conference on Renewable Energies (Bonn 2004). In MEDREC
countries renewable energy sources represent 8.5% of total primary energy supply
(TPES) in 2000. But there are large disparities in it like for Algeria its 0.3% while
Morocco uses 25%. Solar water heating amount to 0.03 Mtoe which is 0.02% of TPES in
whole MEDREC region. The total surface of solar panels is around 0.427 million m2
with 300,000 in Egypt, 45,000 in Morocco and 82,000 in Tunisia. Their use is expected
to increase significantly. Photovoltaic system reached 11MWh capacity. PV supplied a
total of 61,400 households with electricity at 50,000 in Morocco, 10,400 in Tunisia, 906
in Algeria and 120 in Egypt representing 6.5 MWp and remaining 4.4 MWp was used in
applications like telecoms, schools, mosques, pumping water for agriculture, street
lighting etc. The total power generation from renewable energy accounted for 15.1 TWh
in 2000 which represents around 11% of total power generation but majority of it was i.e.
97% from large hydro sources.
The EU has adopted a directive on the promotion of electricity produced from RES in the
internal market. It sets national indicative targets for future consumption of electricity
produced from RES. This is done to show the EU commitment on reducing the
greenhouse gas emissions in the framework of Kyoto Protocol. Support schemes are
implemented by different states to achieve this target. This target is set to 12% of share
from RES by 2010. However, current trends show this target will not be achieved, and
the share will rise just to 8 to 10%. EU needs to take drastic measures to achieve this
target. None of the Mediterranean EU countries have reached those targets. Incentives
should be provided by government to use RES. One suggestion could be that the whole
Mediterranean countries should be included in this directive scope. They can be linked to
other EU states and sell their energy generated from RES. This will promote the
utilization of green energy. Mediterranean countries will benefit from the technical know
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how of EU countries which helps in bringing down the cost of RES production. Further
benefits include employment, development of local resources, security of supply etc. This
will be a win-win situation for both parties as EU countries will be able to bring the
emissions down to the directive level of 12%.
5.1 Kyoto Protocol
Kyoto protocol was established in 1997, it is a global strategy on climate changes agreed
under the United Nations Climate Change Convention. It is an International legal entity
that promotes financial and technical cooperation to enable all countries to adopt more
climate-friendly policies and technologies. It sets targets and timetable for emissions
reductions by developed countries as they are largely responsible for greenhouse effect
which increases the global climate due to ozone layer depletion. Industries emits GHG or
green house gases that are the main cause of environmental pollution and most of them
are located in Industrialized or developed countries called Annex 1 countries, although
the number of developed countries in the world are significantly less as compared to
underdeveloped or developing countries called non-annex countries. Kyoto protocol
calls for 39 developed countries to reduce GHG emissions to 5.2% relative to 1990 levels
which should be reached by 2008-2012 referred as first commitment period. Within
Kyoto protocol there is a provision for the creation of a bubble of emissions
commitments. The EU bubble allows the EU to act as a group to reduce its total
commitments to 8% reduction of GHG only. Industrialized countries are responsible for
55% of the 1990 carbon dioxide emissions. As of September 2004, 124 countries have
ratified the protocol. The following extra incentives are given by Kyoto Protocol so that
the developed countries can reach their target in different ways:
1. International Emissions Trading (ET) allows developed countries to sell a part of
its emissions to other developed countries.
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2. Joint Implementations (JI) allows the annex 1 countries to implement projects that
reduce greenhouse gas emissions by source or enhance removal by sinks in
territories of other Annex 1 countries and credit the resulting Emission Reduction
Units (ERU) against their own emissions targets.
3. The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) allows Annex 1 countries to
implement project in non-annex 1 countries thereby benefiting with twin
objectives of achieving sustainable development targets in non-annex 1 countries
and also to contribute to the original aim of the convention i.e. to lower green
house gas emission to a level not dangerous to human being.
6.0 ALGERIA
Algeria’s electricity demand is growing at annual rate of 5%-7% and Sonelgaz, the
state-owned entity predicts that it has to add another 8000MW by the year 2010.
Current installed power generating capacity of 6000 MW is not sufficient during peak
cooling periods in summer. In Feb 2002 legislation by parliament ended the
monopoly of Sonegaz in electricity production and distribution. Since then new
independent companies have started operation. Algeria is endowed with very high
solar resources. The solar potential is estimated at 5 GWh. Solar radiation falls
between 5.6 kWh/m2 and 7.2 kWh/m2, corresponding to 1700 kWh/m2/year in the
North and 2263 kWh/m2/year in the south. Desert area has a great potential of solar
energy generation due to very less population which is rather scattered and traditional
solutions are relatively costly. Algeria started development of RES very early by
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establishing of specialized agency like solar energy institute in 1962 to promote
research and development in this field. Furthermore, in 1988 centre for development
of renewable energy source was created with finances from government, Sonatrach
and Sonelgaz which was responsible for research and development programs of solar,
wind, geothermal and biomass sources. New initiative like Five-Year Orientation and
program on scientific research and technological development (1998-2002) has been
created. The aim of this plan is to develop clean and renewable energy potential in
Algeria and decentralize technologies which best fit the isolated population. Recently
in July 2002, new agency called NEAL has been formed showing great interest and
determination by the government to utilize the RES. NEAL is a public-private
company associating Sonatrach (45%), Sonelgaz (45%) and the private partner SIM
(10%). NEAL’s main objective is the development of solar and wind electricity
generation, the promotion of solar water heaters and hybrid power installation like
PV-wind-diesel-natural gas, the promotion of clean energy sources (LPG) as well as
establishing a research pole on solar energy. NEAL is also a member of SolarPACES,
program for the promotion of solar energy and chemical energy systems of
International Energy Agency (IEA). All this initiative fits into the Algeria’s
commitment of share of solar energy in power generation to 5% by year 2010.
Algeria plans to supply solar energy to EU. Government has also announced that the
Interconnection project of 2000MW to Europe will be partly generated by solar
energy sources. NEAL is currently doing projects for 120 MW solar thermal plants; a
hybrid wind-PV-diesel project in Timimoun; a PV electrification project in the south;
promotion of local industry in the production of solar water heaters. The law “Loi
Relative á la maìtrise de l’ěnergie” passed in July 1999 provides benefits to projects
enhancing energy efficiency and promoting RES. These include financial benefits, tax
cuts as well as certain exemptions from custom duties. These projects are also
designated as a priority projects. New law called Electricity and Gas distribution
(EGD) passed in February 2002 provides incentives for electricity generated from
RES and cogeneration. The law also mentions the preferential tariffs as well as
premium to cover part of the additional costs incurred from the production of RES as
well as tax reductions. One drawback of current legislation is that they are general
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guidelines and do not set specific guidelines. This reason led to enactment of new
Decree on renewable energy sources and cogeneration (Decree N. 04-92, 25th march
2004). It sets clear targets and introduces several specified benefits for the promotion
of RES and cogeneration projects. It aims for the protection of environment and the
sustainable development of energy supply through the increase in share of RES and
sets objective of 10% for electricity generation from RES by 2012 out of total of 25
TWh currently. Decree also puts purchase conditions for electricity generated from
RES such that:
A premium of 100 to 300 per cent over the electricity price as established by
the market operator to be given to every kWh supplied to network.
The different premium allocated shows clear bias towards the solar energy.
The maximum installed capacity is 50 MW and vary according to energy
produce.
Authorizations necessary for the implementation of power generation capacity
from RES to be granted by the Regulatory Commission to any power producer
or enterprises promoting RES.
If necessary the Regulatory Commission will set annual quotas for power generation from RES and ensures compliance to such obligations.
Source Premium (% of electricity price)
Hybrid Solar-gaz
25% (and more) solar share
20% to 25% solar share
15% to 20% solar share
10% to 15% solar share
5% to 10% solar share
0 to 5% solar share
200%
180%
160%
140%
100%
0
Solar PV 300
Solar thermal 300
Hydro 100
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Wind 300
Wastes 200
Cogeneration 160
Table 6.0 Premium granted to RES systems
Recently upon a proposal by Ministry for Territory Management and Environment the
law for the promotion of renewable energy in the framework of the sustainable
development has been approved in June 2004. The objective of this law is:
Protection of the environment by developing non polluting energy resources.
Climate change mitigation by reducing GHG emissions.
Sustainable development by conservation of fossil fuels.
Policy of territory management by developing renewable energy fields.
6.1 PV developments in Algeria:
The government has financed a decentralized electrification program carried out in the
period between September 1999 and November 2000 by Sonelgaz which resulted in
electrification of twenty villages in the isolated sites of the Great South by solar energy
representing 906 households. The PV installations have unit capacity of 1.5, 3 and 6 kWp
to respectively supply 3, 6 and 12 households where the consumption is between 1.5
kWh/day to 2 kWh/day. The power integrating the installations of rural electrification of
the twenty villages is around 500 kWp, the relays of telecommunication add up a power
of 350 kWp and the remainder is divided between water pumping with 59 kWp, and the
street lighting and domestic with 62 kWp. Total installed PV capacity is about 1 MW.
A second rural solar electrification project for 16 villages is being implemented,
supplying an additional 600 households with electricity in Adrar, Illizi and Tamanrasset
in the south (2000-2004).
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There are no solar thermal applications currently in place in Algeria but a feasibility
study is being carried for a 120 MW solar thermal which is a hybrid solar and natural gas
projects overseen by NEAL.
Overall Algeria is aiming for 5% share for solar in the country’s electricity mix by 2010.
It plans to supply electricity from solar power plants to the European Union. The
Interconnection project would also be generated partly with solar energy sources.
7.0 EGYPT
Egypt is located in the world’s solar belt and has excellent solar availability. The annual
average global solar radiation over Egypt ranges from about 1950 kWh/m2/year on the
Mediterranean coast to a more than 2600 kWh/m2/year in Upper Egypt. About 90% of
the country has an average global radiation greater than 2200 kWh/m2/year.
The government of Egypt has set target of 3% of its electric energy demand to be met by
renewable energy by 2010 which includes about 650 MW of wind farms and 150 MW
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solar combined cycles power station. The objective of government is to reach 14% of
Egyptian electricity demand with Renewables by 2020.
New and Renewable Energy Authority (NREA) was established in 1986 and affiliated to
the ministry of electricity and energy (MEE) whose responsibility is to undertake
Renewable Energy activities. It provides the institutional framework for the renewable
energy strategy implementation and acts as a focal point for expanding efforts to develop
and introduce renewable energy technologies to Egypt on a commercial scale. NREA is
entrusted to coordinate efforts with national, regional and international entities for the
renewable energy resources assessment; the development and introduction of new
technologies; renewable energy testing and certification; pilot and field testing projects
implementation and evaluation; market and economic evaluation studies and technical
and environmental feasibility studies.
Promotion of renewable energy was included in early 1980s as an integral part of national
energy planning. Considerable progress has been achieved as far as data base
development is concerned as well as resource assessment for solar and wind energy
sources.
There is no legislation specifically promoting the use of renewable energy. Purchase
conditions for existing projects follow individually negotiated terms.
In June 2004, the Ministry of Electricity and Energy, in cooperation with Ministry of
Petroleum have mutually agreed to establish the Renewable Energy fund for financing
part of the incremental cost of wind energy projects from revenues of exporting the saved
natural gas that gives a kWh premium. The fund will come into force by the operation of
the new projects in the near future.
NREA testing and certification center named EREDO has been established in 1996 in
cooperation with the European Union and Italian government. EREDO includes a set of
indoor and outdoor testing facilities for testing and certifying Renewable Energy
components and systems namely; solar thermal, photovoltaic and biomass. EREDO also
includes a number of mobile and stationary testing facilities that can serve for energy
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audits and testing of equipment for environment activities. Test done at EREDO follows
the Egyptian and international procedure and standards. EREDO has fulfilled all the
requirement of the International Standards Organization ISO 9001 and the auditing of
Quality Management System have been conducted by the Germanisher Lloyds
Certification Body.
NREA is currently establishing an accredited laboratory for energy efficiency testing of
home appliances like air conditioners, refrigerators and washing machines. This project is
being established in cooperation with UNDP, and is a complementary component of the
on going UNDP/GEF Energy Efficiency Improvement and Greenhouse Gas Reduction
Project.
7.1 PV Developments in Egypt
Ministry of Electricity and Energy (MEE) has addressed the photovoltaic power
utilization since 1979. NREA has used PV applications in water pumping, desalination,
village electrification, refrigeration and communication. Many PV applications have been
field tested and some already commercialized. The current capacity amounts to 3 MW.
The Egyptian government can use PV systems to 121 remote villages/communities for
the on-going rural electrification program through grid extensions.
7.2 Solar Thermal Market
Domestic solar water heaters have been produced since 1980’s. 8 factories/companies are
active in this field of production and installation. The annual production capacity is about
25000m2 of solar collectors. More than 500000m2 of solar collectors has been installed
in new cities and tourist Village resorts.
NREA built two solar industrial process heat systems in 1990. New project from NREA
includes solar industrial process heat by utilizing parabolic trough concentrating
collectors, to produce and deliver saturated steam at a pressure of 7.5 bars and
22
temperature of 130 0C to the steam network of El-Nasr Pharmaceuticals Company, the
solar collector area is 1900m2 to generate 1.3 tons per hour of steam as peak generation.
The project is financed by African Development Bank (ADB).
PV electrification is best suited to those 121 villages excluded in the future plan for
electrification from the national grid. These villages have 4500 houses which needs low
power demand, constant load, dispersed nature of houses, etc. The structure of the
communities in many cases includes 20 houses each, 8 persons per family, low power
demand (700-800 Wh/Day), constant load, and dispersed nature of houses and far from
the Utility grid. Individual PV household’s kit capable of supplying around 700 Wh/day
could be an appropriate solution. The government is considering the electrification of 33
of these villages using PV systems in the Sinai pending funding support. Barriers facing
wider PV applications can be summarized as follows:
Relatively higher unit investment cost of systems.
Low income levels of rural dwellers.
Lack of people awareness
Lack of coordination between key players.
Lack of incentives and market stimulation.
Relatively limited local manufacturing capabilities to minimize system cost.
23
8.0 GREECE
Greece has a significant solar potential. According to the data from CRES, Greece’s
Center for Renewable Energy Sources, sunshine in the southern part of the country is
24
whopping 3,000 hours per year which means 8 hours per day on average. The primary
sources for electricity are lignite of low calorie value, hydro, oil, and natural gas. For last
two decades the Public Power Corporation (PPC) has been involved in several projects
designed to test the feasibility of solar energy in Greece. All signs are positive and there
is a scope of big advancement in this sector. The application of solar systems for
satisfying the needs of heating and cooling is a strategic option of great importance for
the Greek energy system and for the electricity system in particular. A very dynamic and
competitive industry concerning the manufacturing of solar systems has already been
developed in Greece. According to the EU report titled “Photovoltaic 2010” Greece has a
potential to meet one-third of its energy requirement using PV. PV technology has tripled
in last three years in Greece. Greece maintains the second-largest number of solar-
collectors in Europe. 20% of household use solar water heaters. Greece too has an
obligation under EU directive to fulfill 20% of energy needs using RES and this will
encourage the growth of solar sector. In 2002, Greece generated 47.22 billion
kilowatthours (Bkwh) of electricity, approximately 90% of which was thermal, 10% of
which was hydropower and 20% was solar. Thus solar energy is being used extensively
to fulfill the total energy needs. Due to increase in petroleum fuel prices, government is
investing heavily in R&D so as to create more favorable condition for RES. Advances in
solar and photovoltaic technology are rapid. In Greece’s island communities, solar is
more competitive than conventional energy sources, making it attractive. Government has
announced giving top priority to investing in the energy sector and 192-million Euro
investment scheme for 104 projects have been allocated out of which 44 are dedicated to
developing renewable energy sources. As shown in figure 8.0, the per capita electricity
needs of Greece have been raising steadily with respect to the major electricity
consumption countries.
25
Fig. 8.0. Electricity consumption per capita
The electricity consumption in households in GWh can be summarized as in the below
table
Few of the notable projects in solar energy are:
A 50 MW parabolic trough-type solar power plant which is a first of the large
grid-connected solar system in Crete.
DEH is planning a 100-Kilowatt PV park for the island of Gavdos where already
a PV capability exists.
In 2003, construction of first Greek PV manufacturing plant with 5 MW was
started with funding from public and private financial corporations.
26
Year Consumption (GWh)1989 91431990 90741991 100141992 106121993 104811994 109321995 115081996 122531997 124231998 127861999 134842000 14207
RAE has approved licenses for more than 1,800 MW of renewable installed
capacity.
In August 2004, ECO//SUN installed the largest rooftop solar-energy unit in
Athens located on German school and produces 33 Kilowatt which prevents the
city from emitting over 24 tons of carbon dioxide each year.
Pilot programmes in Agia Roumelli in Crete and the island of Kythnos have been
successful.
Advanced demonstration projects on island of Antikythira, Gavdos and Arki as
well as 60 other units through out the country have been successful.
PV applications have been installed for sea navigation and telecommunications
system.
Roughly 900 lighthouses in the Aegean and Ionian seas are powered by
photovoltaics.
On the island of Sifnos, a grid-connected PV plant of 60hWP was installed and
coupled onto the diesel system of the PPC.
In Mount Athos, PV installations provide energy in aesthetic harmony with the
traditional nature of the area.
The amount of RES in overall energy production has been increasing with every year.
The chart below shows the PV market share:
27
8.1 Some key figures of the Greek PV market:
• Average energy produced per installed KW: 1,300 KWh/KW
• Average cost of grid-connected systems: 9 €/W
• Average cost of stand-alone systems: 11-12 €/KW
• Average levelized cost of solar electricity: 0.6 €/KWh
8.2 Financial support for PV in Greece:
Commercial PV applications are eligible to a grant of up to 40-50% (depending on the
geographical area) under the Operational Programme “Competitiveness” of the Greek
Ministry for Development. However, there are no grants for domestic applications as yet.
Solar electricity can be sold to the Public Power Corporation (PPC). It is obligatory for
PPC to buy all energy produced by the IPPs under 10-year contracts. The current tariff,
under which PPC buys solar electricity is 0.06-0.08 €/kWh (up to 90% of the retail price
for domestic consumers).
8.3 Government Decree and Laws:
The main financial instruments for the support of RES in recent years were the
Operational Programme for Energy in the 2nd Community Support Framework (CSF II)
for Greece and the National Development Law 2601/98, while Laws 2244/94 and
2773/99 provided the legal framework for RES deployment. The legal framework
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currently governing RES electricity is Law 2773/99, which also sets the rules for the
liberalization of the electricity market in the country. Starting in February 2001, any
private investor can produce electricity, subject to the issuing of a generation license by
the Regulatory Authority for Energy (RAE). A specific mention to RES-electricity
production is included in Law 2773/99, which states that the Transmission System
Operator (TSO) is obliged to grant priority access (priority in load dispatching) to RES
electricity-producing installations. Following the successful implementation of the
Operational Programme for Energy (1994-1999), the Operational Programme for
Competitiveness (OPC) in the 3rd CSF was initiated in 2000 by the Ministry of
Development. The OPC offers financial incentives for RES investments, and is expected
to have a significant impact on the development of RETs within the next years. The total
budget of the programme for RES, cogeneration, energy efficiency and fuel substitution
by natural gas is 1,100 MEuro for a seven years period (2000-2006). An estimation of the
evolution of the installed capacity of Renewable Energy Sources in Greece is presented
in Figure 8.3, taking into consideration the existing financial support schemes and the
experience gained by the response of private investors to the public funding mechanisms
that were used in the past (OPE, National Development Law).
Fig. 8.3 Relative contribution of each RES to the Total Energy Production (2000)
8.4 PV companies Demand
HELAPCO (Hellenic Association of Photovoltaic Companies, www.helapco.gr) is a non-
profit organization established by representatives of Greek photovoltaic companies in
2002. The main demands of HELAPCO are:
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1. The public support of a “Solar Roofs” project for Greece.
2. An enhanced solar feed-in tariff (similar to the German one).
3. Soft loans for PV provided by banks.
4. Zero or reduced VAT for PV and other RES systems for the housing sector (it is
now 18%).
5. A program for installation of PV systems in public buildings.
6. A long-term strategy for PV market development based either on a “solar quota”
or a “solar tax” system.
EBHE-The Greek Solar Industry Association was created in 1978, thus solar energy
market started pretty early in Greece.
Thus there are so many projects in Greece regarding the use of solar energy. Government
as well as private sectors is currently investing highly to propel the market.
9.0 ITALY
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The Italian National Agency for New Technology (INEA) was set up in 1960 for research
into nuclear energy but now it plays a leading role in Italy’s PV program. It is helping
National Energy Plan in its strategic objective to develop PV technology for large-scale
electricity generation. Being EU member country, Italy has obligations under European
Directive 77/2001/CE to promote the use of renewable sources for the productions of
electricity. Presently the RES share is 6% of the total primary energy supply. The
cumulative installed PV power increase to a total of about 31 MW in 2004. Most of this
capacity is achieved due to the expansion of the grid-connected market in response to the
incentives committed by the Ministry of Environment and Land Protection (MATT).
Small grid connected systems amounts to 12 MW which accounts for 40% of installed
PV systems in Italy.
There are four basic primary applications for PV power systems in Italy:
1. Off-grid domestic systems were mainly promoted in early phase (1983-1990) and
given 80% incentive which provided electricity to 5000 isolated households in
rural remote areas in Southern Italy.
2. Off-grid economic industrial applications account about 25% of Italy’s
cumulative installed capacity.
3. On-grid centralized systems were being used in 1990’s but their share has
declined over the year. It was used to connect 100 kW to 3.3 MW for medium and
large size grid to the utility applications.
31
4. On-grid distributed PV systems have strong growth over last few years due to
incentives in the framework of the Italian roof-top Program and its share is 30%
of cumulative installed power.
The sector of PV plants for power generation has been boosted by the financial support
coming from the European Community, ENEA and ENEL projects and the distributed
generation is being helped by government incentives in the frame of Italian Roof-top
Program.
The total cumulative PV power installed between 1992 to 2003 can be summarized in the
following table 9.0:
Table 9.0 Cumulative PV installed capacity
At the end of 2003, European Directive 2001/77/CE has been approved and there is great
expectation in PV market for the growth.
The average module prices for PV has reached a lowest value of 3.1 €/W for reasonable
volume whereas its 3.9 €/W for small orders. A drop in system prices have also been
achieved with small 2-3 kWp grid connected system of roof mounted PV plants costing
7300 €/kWp without VAT and for larger plants of 10-20 kWp the price is approximately
6800 €/kWp.
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Overall production of PV modules has decreased from 5.1 MW in 2002 to 4.3 MW in
2003 due to market uncertainties and weak status of Italian PV firms with respect to
foreign companies. The total budget for photovoltaics was 25 million Euros for the year
2003 of which 5 million has been used for PV research and demonstration supported by
ENEA and CESI. The remaining 20 million euros have been used for market stimulation
by the ministry of Environment and the Italian Regions in the framework of the National
roof-top Programme.
9.1 Major PV projects in Italy
National Roof-top Programme:
This programme was aimed at tune programme procedures, check people consensus and
encouraging the development of small grid connected systems installed on building
structures. Since March 2001, 146 plants ranging from 1 kW to 20 kW amounting to 1.8
MW have been installed funded by about 10.3 M€ committed by the Ministry of
Environment and Land Protection (MATT). Following the great demand of more than
three times the offer, further funds of 20 M€ have been provided by MATT and Regions
to finance with fifty-fifty each. Overall with National Programme, the MATT incentives
are making active an investment of 40M€ to install capacity of 5.4MW.
Regional Roof-top Programmes:
These programmes are managed independently by the 19 Italian Regions and the 2
Autonomous Province. The purpose of the programme is to promote a wide diffusion of
building integrated photovoltaic applications all over Italy and to create a sure and lasting
market, in order to allow companies for long term investment planning. Expected long
time benefits are the decrease in price, creation of job opportunities and the local
development in unfavourite Regions.
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10.0 MALTA
The first solar electric system was connected to the grid at the Institute for Energy
Technology of the University of Malta, Marsaxlokk in October 1996. This served as a
research for the local market. Based on the results obtained from this system, two
privately owned systems were installed in the Institute. Over the past six years, the solar
system has provided 60% of the Institute's electricity needs, while the electricity grid
provided the remaining 40%. More quantitatively, the solar system has saved LM 450 in
electricity consumption and 2.65 tones of fuel oil that would otherwise have been burnt at
the power station. The resulting savings have contributed towards a better environment
by reducing fuel gas emissions by 10 tones of carbon dioxide as well as appreciable
amounts of sulphur dioxide, nitrous oxides and filterable particles. An interesting feature
of this study reveals that for each 10 m sq. of flat roof-top area occupied by solar modules
inclined at 36° to the horizontal, a mean annual electricity output of 1840 kWh may be
produced in Malta, enough to cover over 40% of an average Maltese household’s
electricity consumption. The Institute's energy efficient lights have only accounted for
10% of the building's electricity consumption. A solar water heater would further reduce
the electricity bill with a relatively short payback period.
The Institute's research concludes that based on economic measures alone and the current
cost of electricity, solar photovoltaic applications in Malta could be feasible by the year
2010 and beyond. However one would definitely find better reasons for implementing
34
solar photovoltaics today. A solar system would increase the value of the property and
could be integrated in the construction of new or renovated buildings in such a way as to
give an aesthetic and unique appearance, while benefiting from the sun's rays and
contributing towards a better environment.
Though the future use of PV systems and its feasibility has been proved with the project
at the Institute but unfortunately the local market and the government policies so far has
been lukewarm. Being a signatory to Kyoto Protocol in April 1998, Malta is supposed to
bring its green house emissions to 1990 levels by year 2010 but government has already
acknowledge that Malta will not meet the target and is already looking for less emitting
countries to buy the quota from them. Malta’s per capita contribution to carbon dioxide
emissions is high at about 8,000 kg/capita/annum, slightly lower than the European
average 9,216 kg/capita/annum, but per square km Malta has the highest emissions. The
Kyoto agreement calls on all signatories to lower overall emissions from a group of six
greenhouse gases by 2008. The three most important gases – carbon dioxide, methane
and nitrous oxide – are measured against 1990 levels.
In 1990 Malta’s per capita emissions of carbon dioxide was only 4,710 kg/capita/annum,
meaning that Malta will have to reduce emissions by a staggering 42 percent from present
levels within the next five years. The national electricity company called EneMalta has
monopoly over electricity generation and distribution but they have not invested enough
into the renewable sources. It seems all the people are waiting for a government’s policy
towards the renewable sources of electricity generation. It is expected that with the
incentives to be offered in the renewable energy strategy now being prepared by
government, private investors will be enabled to invest in this technology. Since
electricity from such sources would be more expensive than conventional energy it is
expected that the public will subsidies these initiatives.
Solar Power Ltd. was the first manufacturing facility for solar photovoltaic modules in
Malta. Although some of the modules were sold locally, most of the company’s
production was exported to Mediterranean and North African countries. A stand-alone
solar PV system was installed to provide power in an office at its premises in Qormi.
35
Some streetlights were also fixed around the company’s perimeter. There are few homes
in Malta and Gozo that produce their electricity independently by using Photovoltaic
technology. Institute for Energy Technology, University of Malta is a premiere institution
that has devoted its effort to the use of solar energy in Malta. It has invested heavily in
solar and weather monitoring stations. Under the supervision of Institute some of the
projects were carried out to find out the suitability of solar energy in the local weather
conditions. There were two significant projects carried out each in stand-alone system
and grid-connected system which provided a good insight into the future of PV market in
Malta.
10.1 Stand-Alone System:
Long-term research studies on PV solar energy applications in Malta started in July 1993,
with the testing of a 1.2 kWp standalone PV system with battery storage, used for lighting
purposes. The system was installed on the roof of the Department of Chemistry at the
University of Malta, Msida, and the stored electric energy was used to power 25 compact
fluorescent lights spread around part of the roof’s parameter. The system was dismantled
at the end of the research period of two years. The results yielded a first hand experience
of the performance of solar modules in Malta.
Picture 10.1 Stand-Alone System in Malta.
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10.2 Grid-Connected System
Since almost all the Island of Malta has been grid connected, so stand-alone system are
rarely used. Besides, they are costly and less efficient, took more maintenance. So a grid-
connected system with 1.8 kWp was constructed to test its feasibility in the Island. This
project installed the first grid-connected PV system that had facility for producing solar-
powered electricity within the institute or exporting to the grid.
Picture 10.2 Grid-connected System.
Enemalta Corporation had given its approval to operate the system and installed a
number of meters in September 1996. During past 6 years a total of 10,000 kWh has been
generated.
10.3 Grid-Connected Tracking PV System
In recent years, multi-level buildings are being built in Malta due to high cost of land,
small families and space limitation. Thus less house roof area is available for solar
installations and older buildings will have less solar view due to shading by big ones. In
such situation solar tracking will maximize the production energy from solar radiation in
a small space. Furthermore, tracking systems cost is lesser than stationary ones and less
solar modules are used. The first project to study the performance of a tracking
photovoltaic system in Malta was installed in June 2000. Six BP-Solarex® modules were
37
placed on a single-axis tracking mechanism and connected to a state of the art SMA®
SunnyBoy inverter. The tracking mechanism consists of a dc motor encapsulated in an
aluminum pipe forming part of the structure and being driven by a bi-facial solar
photovoltaic module, fixed at an angle of 75° relative to the PV array. When the sun
shines on one face of the pilot solar module, a potential difference is created and the
motor rotates the tube towards the sun. When the modules face the sun, the bi-facial pilot
solar module would be almost perpendicular to the solar beam and the potential
difference between the two facades would not be sufficient to further rotate the solar
array. As the sun moves in the sky, it will start shining on the other face of the pilot
module and as the day goes by, the tracker closely follows the sun along its path. The full
span of the tracker is about 120° from East to West Analysis of data and comparison to
the performance of the tracking system to the stationary system is underway. A
preliminary analysis showed that tracking could yield up to 67% higher outputs between
spring and autumn, and could operate at higher efficiency. This implies that in order to
produce a certain amount of electric energy, up to 40% less roof area would be needed
for a tracking system. Keeping in mind that the tracking system would have up to 1.66
times more final yield than a stationary system, one can easily conclude that for two
systems with equal annual electrical energy outputs, the total capital investment would be
about 20% lower for the tracking system that uses this type of tracking mechanism.
Within the confinements of the limited data available to date, it can be concluded that a
1.8 kWp stationary system operating in Malta would be equivalent to a 1.1 kWp tracking
system. Future long-term analysis would produce more definite answers to such queries.
Picture 10.3 Grid-connected tracking system
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The main objectives of the above projects were realized when real life installations
started rolling in all island. Now, Independent Power Producers (IPP) are allowed to
generate own power. The Malta Resource Authority has taken responsibility to ease the
legal barriers for energy sector and cut the wings of Enemalta, so it can concentrate only
on its core business of power production. Thus monopoly has been removed and it a big
step towards renewable energy uses. The notable real life projects in Malta are:
First Residential Solar PV Grid-Connected System
The first residential 1.5 kWp system was installed in May 2002 at Madliena. This solar
PV system supplies about 25% of the electric requirements of the garden, mainly
consumed by the pumps of the swimming pool.
The first industrial 3 kW PV system was installed at Baxter Ltd, in August 2002 as
shown:
39
10.4 New Initiatives in PV sector:
Formation of Malta Resources Authority with the aim of development of
renewable energy sources for the generation of Electricity.
Exemption of PV modules and their related Balance of Systems components from
VAT. Tax on solar system has been reduced to 5% from 15%.
Allowing grid connection of solar systems through introduction of legislation.
10.5 Suggestions for new initiatives:
Government should set up and publish national plan for renewable resources.
Solar energy imported or locally produced should be ensured to the international
standard.
Carbon/pollution tax should be introduced and the revenue generated should be
used for further development of RES.
Loans at less interest rates should be given and encouraged for citizen wishing to
install PV systems.
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11.0 CYPRUS
As far as Cyprus is concerned the renewable energy sources that can be used for
electricity generation are the solar, wind, biogas energy, and biomass. According to IEA,
Cyprus has committed to use 6% of energy from RES by year 2010. So government has
to concentrate on developing PV cell as Cyprus receives very good solar radiations which
can be tapped to produce electricity. The table shows the details of solar radiation in
Cyprus:
41
The national electricity producing and distributing company EAC’s policy is to
contribute towards the utilization of renewable energy sources. EAC encourages any
effort towards this matter and is willing to support interested parties in utilizing
renewable energy sources and/or cogeneration for electricity generation and will give
them access for connecting to its network. Cogeneration is a process of electricity
generation in conjunction with industrial processes by utilizing steam or thermal energy
produced or rejected during the production cycle. EAC has fixed the purchase rates for
RES generated energy so as to encourage independent producers to sell RES energy to
them.
11.1 Rates fixed by EAC for PV Systems
1. For renewable sources of energy the purchase rates have been fixed at 3.7
cents/KWh.
2. For cogeneration the purchase rates are:
1.71 cents/KWh during the daytime (07:00-23:00)
1.50 cents/KWh during the nighttime (23:00-07:00)
3. For PV installation up to 5KVA:
EAC will install a bidirectional electricity meter capable of adding/subtracting
energy consumption readings according to the direction of current flow and the
consumer will be charged with the meter reading balance at the rates specified by
the tariff applicable to them.
4. 55% subsidy for private investors and 40% for companies.
The above tariff rates have been waiting to be approved by House of Representatives.
11.2 The following terms and conditions are applied
1. Before signing an agreement with EAC, the producers of size above 5 kVA, will have
to safeguard a Permit for production of electricity from the Electromechanical Services
and an Order from The Ministry of Commerce, Industry and Tourism as per legal
42
requirements. They also have to apply to EAC for the issue of terms for connection to the
grid, giving all necessary technical details.
2. The cost of interconnection to EAC’s network, including metering and any network
reinforcement if required, will be calculated in accordance with EAC’s Connection
Charge Policy and will be charged to the producer. The small producers/customers up to
5 kVA will not be charged for connection.
3. The producer’s installations will have to be in accordance with the EAC’s technical
specifications and meet its approval on inspection. All relevant electricity regulations will
be applicable as in case of customers.
4. The producers will be responsible and EAC will ensure of the standard of quality of
electricity supplied to the network and the protection of the network and installations of
EAC as a result of the producers operations.
5. Procedures will be agreed for the operation and maintenance of the installations and
network in order to ensure the safety of personnel and the public in general, in line with
the safety rules applied by EAC.
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12.0 CONCLUSIONS
Photovoltaics have become a mature industry with world total PV sales of 390 MWp
(2001), which is more than six times as much as that of 1993. Some of the large oil
companies are now among the largest manufacturers of solar modules. The bold
programmes of the U.S.A., Japan and the E.U. to install rooftop solar systems would
further help to reduce prices. As with any other new technology, PV has also faced
similar problem, which has so far eluded it being used with its full potential in the
Mediterranean region. The recent increase in oil prices and its volatility has forced big
corporations and developed countries to look for alternative to oil and solar energy is one
of the RES systems that can be of help to them. For many years to come PV systems will
be used mostly in a hybrid power stations with other conventional resources like oil till
the technology becomes fully matured and consumers develop confidence in it. Thus the
choice is in our hands whether to join in the parade towards a better environment today or
wait for better times to come.
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13.0 REFERENCES
General information on Photovoltaics:
1. http://www.oja-services.nl/iea-pvps/pv/index.htm2. http://www.eere.energy.gov/solar
PV Scenario in MEDREC Countries:
1. http://www.ome.org/
PV Scenario in Individual Countries:
1 Algeria: http://www.ome.org/
2. Egypt: http://www.ome.org/
3. Greece: http://www.cres.gr/http://www.helapco.gr/
4. Italy: http://www.oja-services.nl/iea-pvps/countries/italy/index.htm
5 Malta: http://home.um.edu.mt/ietmalta/
6. Cyprus: http://www.cie.org.cy/index.htmhttp://www.eac.com.cy/
7. Maps: http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/europe/
45
