Philosophy of Education

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Philosophy of Education

Introductory readIngs

4th edition

William Hare and John P. Portelli, editors

Copyright © 2013 William Hare and John P. Portelli

13 14 15 16 17 5 4 3 2 1

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Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication

Philosophy of education : introductory readings / William Hare and John P. Portelli, editors. – Revised 4th edition.

Includes bibliographical references.

Issued in print and electronic formats.

ISBN 978-1-55059-445-4 (pbk.). – ISBN 978-1-55059-446-1 (epub). – ISBN 978-1-55059-468-3 (pdf). – ISBN 978-1-55059-469-0 (mobi)

1. Education – Philosophy. I. Hare, William, editor of compilation II. Portelli, John P. (John Peter), editor of compilation

LB1025.3.P53 2013 370.1 C2013-902690-8 C2013-902691-6

Produced with the assistance of the Government of Alberta, Alberta Multimedia Develop-ment Fund. We also acknowledge the financial support of the Government of Canada through the Canada Book Fund for our publishing activities.

v

Contents

Acknowledgements ix

Introduction xi

Part I: Philosophy, Theory, and Practice

1 Harold Entwistle, The Relationship between Educational Theory and Practice: A New Look 5

2 Robin Barrow, Empirical Research in Education: Why Philosophy Matters 16

3 Heesoon Bai, Philosophy for Education: Toward Human Agency 35

4 David T. Hansen, The Place of Ideals in Teaching 55

Part II: Classroom Discussions and Controversial Issues

5 Andrea R. English, Listening as a Teacher: Educative Listening, Interruptions, and Reflective Practice 71

6 Douglas J. Simpson and William J. Hull, Jr., Discussing Ethical Issues in the Classroom: Leveraging Pedagogical Moments that may Otherwise Undermine Important Discussions 89

vI • contents

7 Claudia W. Ruitenberg, “That’s Just Your Opinion!”—American Idol and the Confusion between Pluralism and Relativism 109

8 Michelle Forrest, Sensitive Controversy in Teaching to be Critical 116

9 Eugenie C. Scott, What’s Wrong with the “Teach the Controversy” Slogan? 138

Part III: Democratic Education and Social Justice

10 Laura Elizabeth Pinto, The Case for Critical Democracy 151

11 Kathy Hytten, Philosophy and the Art of Teaching for Social Justice 170

12 Emery J. Hyslop-Margison and Samuel LeBlanc, Post-Neoliberalism, Education, and the Principles of Democratic Learning 182

13 Nel Noddings, Schooling for Democracy 197

14 Trudy Conway, Strangers in our Midst: From Tolerance to Hospitality 210

Part IV: Standards, Efficiency, and Measurement

15 John P. Portelli and Ann B. Vibert, Standardization and Equity in Education 223

16 Francine Menashy, The End of Efficiency: Implications for Democratic Education 243

17 Trevor Norris, Arendt, Freire, and the Pedagogy of Possession 255

18 Harvey Siegel, High-Stakes Testing, Educational Aims and Ideals, and Responsible Assessment 271

19 Wayne Au, The Idiocy of Policy: The Antidemocratic Curriculum of High-Stakes Testing 286

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Part V: Rights, Freedoms, and Conflicts in Education

20 Frances M. Kroeker and Stephen P. Norris, An Unwarranted Fear of Religious Schooling 307

21 Dianne Gereluk, Parental Rights and the Aims of Education: Teaching Religion, Human Sexuality, and Sexual Orientation in Schools 326

22 Paul Clarke and Bruce MacDougall, Crossing the Line: Homophobic Speech and Public School Teachers 339

23 William Hare, Propaganda in the Classroom: The Keegstra Case 358

24 Dwight Boyd, Moral Education within Difference: Impediments to Appreciating the Moral Other 374

Part VI: Conceptions of Education and Teaching

25 Maxine Greene, Literacy for What? 392

26 Paulo Freire, Reading the World and Reading the Word: An Interview with Paulo Freire 403

27 Jane Roland Martin, Education Writ Large 414

28 Gert Biesta, Teacher Education for Educational Wisdom 432

Contributors 451

About the Editors 455

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Ix

Acknowledgements

It is very gratifying to see the fourth edition of this collection of essays appear on the 25th anniversary of the publication of the first edition. We are very grateful to Detselig Enterprises for publishing the earlier editions, and we are delighted that Brush Education, successor to Detselig Enterprises, has invited us to prepare this new collection. The fourth edition represents an extensive revision and includes many recent essays. The now classic essay by Harold Entwistle on theory and practice is the only one that has appeared throughout.

We wish to thank the authors for giving us permission to include their work in this collection. At every stage they have responded in a timely and helpful manner. We acknowledge the support of OISE in providing us with the assistance of a graduate student, Danielle Sandhu, whose contribution is greatly appreciated. We also thank Meaghan Craven for her meticulous work as copy editor, and Niki Hare for her invaluable help at different stages of the project.

Our thanks to Fraser Seely and Lauri Seidlitz of Brush Education, who were very enthusiastic about this project from the beginning and have supported it in every respect.

And finally, as with our other editions, we would like to dedicate this book to our families.

William HareJohn P. Portelli

July 2013

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xI

Introduction

This fourth edition, like its predecessors, is designed first and foremost to make available a collection of essays in philosophy of edu-cation that will offer preservice teachers a stimulating and accessible introduction to some of the most important issues in the field. Class-room teachers, school administrators, teacher educators, educational policy makers, graduate students, and general readers alike will also find this collection a valuable resource in connection with problems that relate to educational theory and practice. As with the earlier edi-tions, and given our intended readership, we have included contri-butions that connect philosophical reflection with current debates concerning approaches to teaching, methods of assessment, the con-tent of the curriculum, and many other practical matters that relate to schools and student learning. This reflects our belief that philo-sophical understanding is a vital aspect of professional development. We have chosen essays that will challenge readers to formulate their own views on matters that are the subject of lively discussion among philosophers and educators, and that are intended to encourage a thoughtful engagement with theories and practices that shape con-temporary education.

What kinds of philosophical problems are taken up in these selec-tions? Reflective teachers will quickly find themselves involved with difficult and important questions that clearly have great relevance for educational policy and practice. Along with our contributors, read-ers will surely wonder whether a certain kind of testing is appropri-ate, what limits there might be on a teacher’s conduct beyond the

xII • IntroductIon

classroom, if and when it might be justifiable for a teacher to take a stand on a value issue, what would make a school or classroom demo-cratic or socially just, how far we can rely on research findings about teaching, whether sensitive material should be discussed in class, what genuine dialogue involves, and so on. Such questions inevitably draw us into reflection on “common sense” views and assumptions about education and teaching that have been accepted without seri-ous debate; they focus attention on the language we use to describe education, teaching, and schooling, and its influence on the way we understand and approach our work as educators; they require us to think more carefully about our educational aims and how they can be justified; moreover, they stimulate us to look for imaginative ways in which we might attempt to pursue our ideals or resolve dilemmas that we confront in our work.

In earlier editions, we put forward the view that philosophy of edu-cation involves a critical inquiry into educational concepts, values, and practices. Philosophy of education as critical inquiry means that philosophy itself is a practice that intrinsically raises critical aware-ness, encourages self-reflexivity, and contributes to the development of intellectual and moral virtues that are essential to good teaching. Our hope is that the selections included here will bear out these claims and show that critical reflection has an important bearing on practical educational decisions.

Student teachers and others encountering philosophy of edu-cation for the first time might wonder how best to approach these essays, knowing they will meet with controversial and provocative views and theories that may well conflict with their own ideas and values. Bertrand Russell remarks that if people “have a determina-tion never to surrender certain philosophic beliefs, they are not in the frame of mind in which philosophy can be profitably pursued” (Russell, 1927, p. 299). This comment reminds us that we need to approach philosophical discussions with an open-minded outlook, ready to consider objections to our views and to revise them if we discover we are mistaken (Hare, 1979). Philosophy of education does not arrive at conclusions that all philosophers accept; philosophical ideas typically remain controversial and debatable. In the end, we must judge for ourselves, but this should come after we have given serious consideration to the best arguments we can find, and the con-clusions we reach should be held in the same open-minded way. This attitude does not mean that we lack confidence in our beliefs or that we regard other beliefs as equally acceptable but that we see our ideas

IntroductIon • xI I I

as open to revision in the light of further evidence and argument (Hare, 1993).

The topics, issues, and problems selected for inclusion in this volume are much discussed by philosophers of education today, and this has led to work of high quality that teachers and educators will find relevant and thought-provoking. Six major themes serve to organize the chapters into the various parts that comprise this collec-tion. Each part has its own introduction providing an overview of the chapters in that group and drawing attention to important questions that arise from the discussion. In each part, readers will find there are arguments, insights, and examples that prove to be helpful in thinking about problems and issues that are discussed elsewhere in the book.

• Part I offers teachers provocative and informative perspectives on philosophy, theory, and practice. A central theme concerns the way in which philosophy and educational theory influence a teacher’s outlook and independent views.

• Part II turns to certain issues that arise in classroom teaching. Attention is focused on pedagogical situations and controversial areas where teachers need to make difficult choices guided by educational principles.

• Part III takes up issues that concern democracy and social justice. These essays prompt reflection on the ideals and values embedded in these notions and what it would mean to see them reflected in education and schooling.

• Part IV deals with matters related to standards, efficiency, and measurement in education. The arguments here raise concerns about assumptions and practices prevalent in contemporary schooling that threaten to undermine our educational aims.

• Part V explores issues relating to rights, freedoms, and conflicts in education. The problem of balancing conflicting rights and freedoms is examined, and the possibility of understanding others with different values is explored.

• Part VI presents certain general conceptions of education and teaching. These discussions challenge teachers to look critically at the somewhat narrow ways in which their work is often defined and to develop a deeper understanding of their role.

There is a wealth of material for discussion and debate in these essays. Student teachers may find it useful to supplement these

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readings with case studies related to teaching and education (Hare & Portelli, 2003); those who wish to read further in philosophy of edu-cation can readily do so and references are provided below.

referencesHare, W. (1979). Open-mindedness and education. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University

Press.Hare, W. (1993). What makes a good teacher. London, ON: Althouse Press.Hare, W., & Portelli, J.P. (2003). What to do? Case studies for educators. Halifax: Edphil

Books.Russell, B. (1927). Philosophy. New York: W.W. Norton.

further readIngsBailey, R., Barrow, R., Carr, D., & McCarthy, C. (Eds.). (2010). The Sage handbook of

philosophy of education. Los Angeles: Sage.Cahn, S.M. (Ed.). (2011). Classic and contemporary readings in the philosophy of education

(2nd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.Curren, R. (Ed.). (2006). A companion to philosophy of education. Malden, MA:

Blackwell.Hare, W., & Portelli, J.P. (Eds.). (2007). Key questions for educators. San Francisco, CA:

Caddo Gap.Johnson, T.W., & Reed, R.F. (Eds.). (2012). Philosophical documents in education (4th

ed.). Boston: Prentice-Hall.Kohli, W. (Ed.). (1995). Critical conversations in philosophy of education. New York:

Routledge.Siegel, H. (Ed.). (2009). The Oxford handbook of philosophy of education. Oxford:

Oxford University Press. doi: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195312881.001.0001

1

Part I: Philosophy, Theory, and Practice

The essays in this section deal with the issue of the relationship between theory and practice in education, the value of empirical research in teaching, the role of philosophy in education, and the place of ideals in teaching. The issue of theory and practice is a clas-sic one in debates about the nature of the preparation of those in professions such as teaching. Initial teacher-education students fre-quently doubt the value of theory, including philosophy of education, given the perceived importance of practical school-based experi-ences. What is the best or most appropriate way to prepare people to become competent teachers? Should the emphasis be on theoretical and philosophical concerns or practical concerns? Should and can the two be separated or should they always be seen in tandem? Do practical matters simply involve the application of skills? Can such issues be determined on empirical grounds? Is it not worthwhile to think critically about one’s aims in teaching, and the values, prin-ciples, and ideals embedded in them? The replies to these questions will vary according to how one views the nature of theory and prac-tice and the relationship between the two, the nature of empirical work, philosophy and ideals. And, in turn, such views will impact on how one constructs the nature of professions.

The first essay by Harold Entwistle tackles the issue of the pos-sible causes for the split between theory and practice while devel-oping a notion of theory from a critical stance. In this discussion Entwistle deals with several questions that have troubled educators: Is the role of theory to dictate specific actions to practitioners or to raise a critical awareness? Can and should the gap between theory

2 • part I : phIlosophy, theory, and practIce

and practice be lessened? What is the role of theory and practice in reflective practice? Entwistle refutes the rigid, traditional notion of theory that assumed neutrality and is expected to provide detailed, specific, secure, universal prescriptions or solutions. On the contrary, he believes that educational theory (including philosophy of edu-cation), of its nature, does not offer and is not meant to offer spe-cific knowledge and skills “applicable to a given practical situation.” For him the role of theory is to “evoke judgment rather than rote obedience,” and to encourage professional autonomy, which entails developing new perspectives that help to analyze, question, and be aware of the complexities in the teaching context, and dealing with problems that arise from practice. Nonetheless, Entwistle concludes that although “learning the art of compromise” will help teachers to reduce the gulf between theory and practice, in the final analysis the gap is inevitable; struggling with this very fact will help us refine both theory and practice!

In the second essay Robin Barrow raises foundational questions about the nature and role of empirical research. To what extent can empirical research provide definitive answers to educational issues? Is it possible and meaningful for empirical research in education to mimic the nature of research in the natural sciences? Barrow argues that given the contested nature of education and educational con-cepts, as well as the fact that it is impossible to make meaningful educational claims without taking into account the unique nature of contexts that vary, it is not possible to expect exact and universal general rules that apply in a neutral manner. Expecting otherwise will limit, if not negate, the professional responsibility of teachers. For Barrow, philosophy has a crucial role in providing the clarity of educational concepts, which is needed in determining the nature of empirical research and its direction. Empirical research is inevitably based on philosophical premises and assumptions; sound empirical research needs to identify the philosophical underpinnings.

But how then should we view philosophy and its contribution to education? Is not philosophy of its very nature abstract and theoreti-cal and hence not practical? In the third essay Heesoon Bai takes up such popular questions and articulates and argues for a conception of philosophy as practice that aims primarily to develop human agency and autonomy. Without the cultivation of human agency, which is a lifelong project, Bai contends, we would fall prey to fundamentalist dogmatism, whether it is of a religious or secular nature. Building on ideas from both Eastern and Western philosophy, she articulates a view of philosophy as “life-practice and self-making.” While arguing

part I : phIlosophy, theory, and practIce • 3

against a utilitarian and positivist relationship between theory and practice, Bai offers world-making, dialogue, philosophical writing, and contemplative arts as ideal ways of cultivating human agency. Based on her experience as a university professor, Bai proposes a conception and practice of philosophy that are different from popu-lar misconceptions of philosophy: philosophy is ultimately a way of being that symbiotically incorporates a certain kind of thinking and doing.

But is there room for ideals in education? Would not ideals hinder educators from fulfilling their publicly defined obligations, which are primarily practical and, to an extent, bureaucratic in nature? Consis-tent with the nature of theory and practice as envisioned by Entwistle and Barrow, as well as the dialectical tensions involved in developing human agency as identified by Bai, in the fourth essay, David Hansen argues for a balanced understanding of ideals—one that harmo-nizes the view that teachers should have ideals that go beyond soci-etal expectations with the view that they have defined obligations. He reminds us that ideals are in fact human constructs that partly depend on contexts and, as such, deserve critical examination. Ideals are different than slogans, for while they are general and abstract they call for a critical and thoughtful enacting (rather than implementing) in the reality of life. As such, Hansen concludes that “idealism and respect for reality reinforce one another.” Applying tenacious humil-ity, according to Hansen, will greatly assist educators to navigate the productive tensions that arise between ideals and reality.

Although one may agree with the related positions developed in these essays, one may still ask, as many students have asked us: But is theory more important than practice? Are ideals more impor-tant than the actual living? The dictum of Chilean Nobel Prize win-ner Pablo Neruda helps: we need two hands to clap! Just as both hands are equally important for clapping, the same holds for theory ( ideals) and practice (actual living). There is bound to be some divi-sion and even tension between the two. From this it doesn’t follow that we should not be concerned with theory or that anything in the practice is acceptable. What matters, however, is the kind of theory and practice that we adhere to. Hence educators and teachers, as professionals, need to be careful what to expect or demand from theory, whether it is a theory developed by them or others. To avoid being unprofessional, we need to constantly remember the unend-ing dialectic or tension between what we aim for and what ensues, what we believe in and what we are allowed to do, and the contin-gent and ambiguous versus the desire for certainty and stability.

4 • part I : phIlosophy, theory, and practIce

From this perspective, while theory and practice are conceptually dis-tinct, they are also inseparable, very much like the two sides of a coin. But as Paulo Freire (1998), one of the 20th century’s most influential educators, advised, the balance or relationship between theory and practice requires critical reflection: “Critical reflection on practice is a requirement of the relationship between theory and practice. Oth-erwise theory becomes simply ‘blah, blah, blah,’ and practice, pure activism” (p. 30). Our challenge as educators at all levels is to main-tain such a relationship by finding the theoretical in the practical and the practical in the theoretical—a relationship that today is once again threatened by neoliberalism based on excessive competition, rugged individualism, blind efficiency, and extreme utilitarianism.

referenceFreire, P. (1998). Pedagogy of freedom: Ethics, democracy, and civic courage. Lanham, MD:

Rowman & Littlefield.

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1

The Relationship between Educational Theory and Practice

A New Look

Harold Entwistle*

*This is a slightly modified version of a paper presented at Mount Saint Vincent University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, March 27, 1987.

Why a new look at educational theory and practice? I have been troubled by the problem of the relationship between the theory and practice of education for more than 40 years. As a student doing my teacher training in an English college of education (or train-ing college as it was then called), I remember writing an article for the college newspaper denouncing the theoretical component of my course as being utterly irrelevant to conditions in the school as I found them on teaching practice. As a qualified teacher, I would