Phenomenological or Ideographic Research: A Multiplicity of Methods Applied to Scholarly Research in Management Professor Luiz Moutinho Foundation Chair

Phenomenological or Phenomenological or Ideographic Research:Ideographic Research:

A Multiplicity of Methods A Multiplicity of Methods Applied to Scholarly Applied to Scholarly

Research in ManagementResearch in Management

Professor Luiz MoutinhoProfessor Luiz Moutinho

Foundation Chair of MarketingFoundation Chair of Marketing

School of Business and ManagementSchool of Business and Management

University of Glasgow, ScotlandUniversity of Glasgow, Scotland

ONTOLOGYONTOLOGY

The object and subject dyadThe object and subject dyad

Scientific Research CriteriaScientific Research Criteria

RelevanceRelevance Compatibility with theoretical Compatibility with theoretical

underpinningsunderpinnings GeneralisabilityGeneralisability Reproduction/ ReplicationReproduction/ Replication PrecisionPrecision RigourRigour VerificabilityVerificability

. . . NO to second-rate . . . NO to second-rate research overloaded with research overloaded with truisms and tautologies, truisms and tautologies, lacking rigour and practical lacking rigour and practical theories . . .theories . . .

When to use a qualitative When to use a qualitative methodologymethodology

When nature of problem cannot be understood by an objective, distant approach

When little is known or understood about the topic

When complex processes of interaction are to be understood

When the researcher believes that reality is socially constructed and knowledge is neutral

When you need to ‘get close’ to participants

When you need to interpret participants’ realities and perspectives

When you want to generate an understanding which ‘fits and works’ with the substantive area

Why use a qualitative methodologyWhy use a qualitative methodology

ConstructivismConstructivism, , broadly conceived, is the thesis that knowledge can not be a passive reflection of reality, but has to be more of an active construction by an agent. Although this view has its roots in the ideas of Kant, the term was first coined by Piaget (1954) to denote the process whereby an individual constructs its view of the world.

Grounded TheoryGrounded Theory Is a phenomenological phylosophical

perspective, subjective and constructivist. Gives priority to the context and emphasises the

meaning of occurrences or events Uses inductive methods to develop theory Develops theory through the study of social

phenomena Utilises qualitative methods, undertakes a

systematic collection of data, especially through the use of semi-structured interviews

Does not start from established theories, but formulates research questions or research propositions

Any proposed a priori development of theory can contaminate the collection, analysis and interpretation of data

Grounded TheoryGrounded Theory

Purpose: to build theory that is faithful to the area under study.

The theoretical framework is developed by the researcher, alternating between inductive and deductive thought – i) inductively gains information and ii) deductive approach which allows the researcher to turn away from the data and think rationally about missing information and form conclusions based on logic. When conclusions are drawn, then he/she reverts back to an inductive approach. By reverting back to the data, deductions can be supported, refuted or modified

The constant reference to the data, helps ground the theory!

Grounded theoryGrounded theory – distinctive features: are its commitment to research and “discovery” through direct contact with the social world studied coupled with a rejection of a priori theorizing.It also encompasses “analytical generalisation”

Grounded TheoryGrounded Theory

The notion of theory as a processThe researcher should enter the

research setting with as few predetermined ideas as possible

An initial attempt to develop categories which illuminate the data

Content Analysis Grounded Theory

Bitty Go by frequency Objectivity Deductive Testing

“hypotheses” (qualitative)

Holistic Go by feel Closer to the data,

open much longer Inductive Testing out themes,

developing patterns

Differences between “content analysis” and “grounded theory”

Ethnographic ResearchEthnographic Research is not one technique but an approach which draws on a variety of techniques. Generally it seeks to see the world through the eyes of those being researched.

Ethnographic ResearchEthnographic Research

Derives from anthropology, tries to describe and interpret OR explain what people do within a particular context, through research interactions.

Specific understanding and knowledge is shared with the participants which guides behaviour with the specific context of the research (the culture of the group)

Ethnography describes the culture of a group of people

The main goal of ethnographic research is to obtain a “dense” description (complete)


Immediate perspectives of subjects – ethnographic comparison

The object of ethnography is to find a cluster of “significants” from which events, facts, actions and contexts are produced, understood and interpreted. Without these, there is no “cultural category”

It does not follow a rigid or predetermined patterns

A Radically Inductive Method . . . but induction and deduction are in constant dialogue in terms of the analytical procedure


The categories and themes selected for observation are not set a priori

At each “moment of reflexivity”, the fieldwork is altered. Data collection has its own “movement”.

Ethnographic Research encompasses a number of techniques – social research, participant observation, interpretative research, analytical research and hermeneutics research

Direct observation of a group of subjects within their “living conditions” and context


Mostly, is the study of anticipated patterns of thought and human behaviours manifested in a daily routine.

An interactive contextAn holistic approach in order to

reveal the “daily signifier” in which people act upon. The objective is to find the meaning of action.

In phenomenological research, the participant observation tries to find the meaning of the experiences of a group – object of study, from each of the many perspectives raised within the group.

Participant ObservationParticipant Observation

Technique seeking in-depth knowledge No a priori assumptions To study day-to-day activities of a group

under observation To study interpersonal dynamics of the

group/sociometrics Gets first-hand information, not intentions or

preferences of the object studied Immersed in the real environment Highly subjective measurement Data contamination. Lack of objectivity

through the investigator’s eyes . . . Better to have investigator triangulation


Non-systematic data collection. Erratic Highly context dependent. “Biases” –

context-skewed. “Acquaintance’s” meetings . . . not the crucial ones

Immersion of the researcher in the object of the study in order to better understand and document how events occur

More in-depth knowledge than survey research

Perspectives derived from the values of a community, internal relations, structures and conflicts, more through the observations of actions than normative declarations by subjects.


There are no preconceived ideas about what is important to observe

Inductive method Appropriate technique for studies of

interpersonal processes within a group Real participation – even by learning a new

language or jargon live in a particular context, etc.

Lack of objectivity Subjective measurement Possible ethical problems Contextual observation at a reduced scale

leads to “localised” and specific results. No generalisation. No external validity

Reflexive MethodologyReflexive Methodology

The development of a reflexive methodology shows how culture, language, selective perception and ideology all, in complicated ways, permeate scientific activity

Focus on the interpretative nature, politics and rhetoric of empirical research

Reflexivity in research as a complete recognition of the ambivalent relation between the researcher’s text and the investigated reality. Reflexivity means to interpret our own interpretations. Meta-interpretation

How the researcher thinks about his/her own thinking process


How the different types of linguistic, social, political and theoretical elements intertwine within the process of knowledge development, in which the empirical material is constructed, interpreted and written.

The importance of language The reflexivity orientates the attention

towards “inside” the researcher. Self-reflexivity

“The interpretation of the interpretation” . . . Active interpretation

The self-explanation, critical of one’s own interpretations and construction


Considers perceptual, cognitive, theoretical, linguistic, intertextual political and cultural circumstances

The critical interpretation of unconscious processes and ideologies

The meaning is constructed by meaningful events/acts

Metatheory The construction of social reality in which

the researchers interact with the studied agents

Hermeneutics

SemioticsSemiotics

The study of the systems of signs. A sign is an entity that is utilised to represent something. Language, gestures, documents, art, fashion are examples of systems that contain signs used to communicate a meaning

Semiotics is, therefore, also the study of the structure of meanings focused on communication from something, either directly or indirectly, within either an intentional or no-intentional format

Modern Semiotics – Ferdinand de Saussure (Semiology) – the science that studies the signs in a society. Focused on wording and language as complex systems or signs of a human nature which are learned through semiotic socialisation processes.

SemioticsSemiotics

To read the signs which transmit (organisational) discourse

Narrative structures. Cultural artefacts Ontological position – semiotics has a

perception of reality as a social construction phenomenon which is comprised by a system of signs, where language assumes an important role

This philosophy (close to structuralism) sees human beings as the creators of the structure

The systems of signs lack learning and are socially limited by a culture or context

SemioticsSemiotics

Ferdinand de Saussure characterised a sign as the relationship between a significant (word) and a signifier (object/concept). The flow of communication and its meaning is transmitted through the association of a significant to a signifier through a system of signs.

He has distinguished the study of synthagmatic relations (words’ sequence) from associative relations (choice of a work in relation to other words).

Charles Pierce introduced a third dimension in the semiotic process as a human experience – the interpreter. He has also expanded the concept of semiotics to also encompass the inclusion of a system of nonverbal signs.

SemioticsSemiotics

Roland Barthes introduced the concept of “layers of meaning” – a language is not only utilised in a denotative literal sense, but also in a conotative/symbolic sense.

Epistemological position – semiotics has, as its objective, to identify codes as well as patterns in a system of signs, in order to comprehend the construction and communication of the particular system

The existence of multiple senses. Semiotics tries to “penetrate” into the different layers of meanings. To uncover the deep structure of meaning.

Methodology: to select data representative of the problem in a “closed way” with a view to apply a synchronic (static, distinctive and self-sufficient) perspective. Uses a mapping approach as well.

SemioticsSemiotics

LimitationsLimitations

“Stuck in the middle”Positivists – how do you validate the

conclusions if you do not have a definite methodology?

Poststructuralists and postmodernists – they are too focused on finding characteristics and fixed structures. Also, it is over - formalised.

Defining the Case StudyDefining the Case Study

‘an empirical inquiry that:– Investigates a contemporary

phenomenon within its real life context: when

– The boundaries between the phenomenon and context are not clearly evident; and in which

– Multiple sources of evidence are used’

(Yin, 1989)

Case InquiryCase Inquiry is . . . . . . . . .

An object of study (Stake, 1995) ‘the case’; example

A qualitative methodology (Merriam, 1988)

An exploration of a ‘bounded system’ over time through detailed, in-depth, multiple source, contextual data’

(Cresswell, 1988)

Critique of the Case Study ApproachCritique of the Case Study Approach

Regarded as an undeveloped field

Soft research

The Easy Option

Limitations of the Case StudyLimitations of the Case Study

Gaining access (to and within organisations)

Triangulation of all dataTime-consumingLack of universality

Types of Case StudyTypes of Case Study

1. Intrinsic Case Study– Focus on uniqueness of case (inductive

approach to data analysis)

2. Instrument Case Study– Illustration of an issue (deductive, theory-

laden)

3. Collective Case Studies4. Comparative Case Studies

Case Study SelectionCase Study Selection

Case Research is not sampling research

Primary function is not to understand other cases

Case Study DemandsCase Study Demands

TimeAccess issuesEthicsOrganisation of dataFocusObjectivity and selectivityInterview skills

Eisenhardt (1989) advocates within-case analysis followed by a cross-case pattern search or explanation building. Eisenhardt suggests that this process is facilitated by the selection of pertinent categories, followed by a search for within-group similarity and inter-group differences. These categories can be those suggested by the literature or can simply be chosen by the researcher.

The major themes discovered through the cross-case analysis are then compared with both similar and conflicting literature in an attempt to build theoretical consistency. Eisenhardt refers to this stage as “enfolding literature”. This process helps to build internal validity and shape the theoretical contribution of the findings.

Cross-Cross-case case

analysisanalysis

Report Report on cross-on cross-

case case analysisanalysis

Modify Modify theorytheory

Theoretical Theoretical implicationimplication

ss

IndividuIndividual al

ReportsReports

1 1 CaseCase

Select Select CasesCases


ReportsReports


ReportsReports

2 2 CasesCases

Other Other casescases

Design Design process process of data of data collectiocollectio

nn

Design Design process process of data of data collectiocollectio

nn

Case Study Case Study ProcessProcess

Summary AssertionSummary Assertion

In social science research the case method is valid, relevant and useful.

Action ResearchAction Research

When you want to achieve understanding and change at the same time

Some important information is not obtainable unless something is given in exchange to the examined object. Social change perspective

The participation in a process of organisational change and the implementation of the change

It is the social question which orientates and legtimatises the definition and conceptualisation of the problem

Model of relationship : client-researcher

In researcher-dominated, the researcher determines the research question or hypothesis, the way data will be collected, the analytic method, and how the conclusions will be shaped. In participative research, the population to be served or helped determine these. In the former, the primary learning is achieved by the researchers and their audience; in the latter, the primary learning is achieved by the participants and their constituencies.

It is interesting that we call those people in a traditional research study “subjects”, while we use the term “participants” in action research.

The term “participant” suggests the relative proactivity and spontaneity allowed in PAR, while the term “subject” suggests the control and constraint provided in more traditional research.

In PAR, the participants, their issues, their action, and their learning are highlighted, and become the centrepiece of the action/study.

From its early origins, AR has been researcher-dominated rather than participative.

Mode 2Mode 2

Mode 1 distinguishes between fundamental and applied, a theoretical core and application / key consumer = academia

Mode 2 emphasises knowledge produced in the context of application, constant flow back and forth between the theoretical and the practical, more socially and politically accountable knowledge production process

Characteristics of Mode 2 Knowledge Characteristics of Mode 2 Knowledge ProductionProduction

Knowledge produced in the context of application

A transdisciplinary approachHeterogeneous and dynamic research

teamsA socially accountable and reflexive

processA broad range of quality controls

Mode 2 researchMode 2 research

Dual approach to knowledge production

Integrating “discipline” knowledge and world of practice

Integrating well-founded knowledge and knowledge of use

Double hurdle – embeddedness in social science and worlds of policy and practice

Five Key Features of Mode 2 Five Key Features of Mode 2 Management ResearchManagement Research

1. The research problem is framed in the context of application

2. Research is transdisciplinary3. Diffusion of outcomes occurs DURING

the process of production4. Research is undertaken by a

heterogeneous group with mixed skills and experience

5. It is a more socially accountable knowledge production process.

(After Pettigrew: 1995)

Mode 2 ResearchMode 2 Research

Objectives:i) to combine academics and practitioners in order to define the problem and methodology to adopt in a particular context. To make academic language accessible to practitioners.ii) to construct an organisational model and explicative “laws”.iii) to construct or test theory that can be replicated in time and space

Focus on how theory is tested and how this theory related to other existing theories.

Data is aggregate in a fashion to develop theories Knowledge is “consumed”subsequently to its

“Production” . . . A type of Action Research

Mode 2 ResearchMode 2 Research

Pluralistic ideology encompassing a large variety of interests as much as they exist in a specific reality.

Knowledge is transmitted in a large variety of locations and in different contexts, being simultaneously consumed and produced

The main objective is to construct a theory, methods and instruments from the interaction with reality in a particular context, involving several “agents” from different areas and backgrounds

Constant flow back from the theoretical and practical sides with implementation of results (constant recycle)

Cognitive MappingCognitive Mapping

To understand how people (in organisations) think, pattern their experience into knowledge and utilise this knowledge to organise themselves and others

Used to represent oneself, the others, the situations and (organisational) events

How action (in an organisation) is based on thinking, meaning and knowing

There is an analogy with the human brain

MEMETICSMEMETICS

MEMES are Chunks of memory – chunking Discrete or meaningful cultural units Memetics has also used mathematical

modelling Has been applied to the study of the evolution

of language, culture and human behaviour This method of analysis tries to explain the

origin, causes and functioning of cultural and mental events of human populations

The “MEME” concept is based on a neologism created by Richard Dawkins (1976) that translates any unit of cultural transmission or unit of imitation

MEMETICSMEMETICS

Memes are memory units, bits of information stored in the brain, therefore, memes affect behaviour and may help explain the human phenomenon of imitation behaviours.

Examples, of MEMES are ideas, actions, expressions, informations, thoughts, theories, practices, habits, songs, technologies, proverbs, inventions and stories

MEMES as cultural artefacts and observable behaviours. It leads to a quantitative analysis to provide a greater empirical evidence

MEMES are independent of the physical entity to which they belong (the individuals)

MEMETICSMEMETICS MEMES propagate by replication through

imitation processes (copying observed behaviours)

Words as much as discourse can be seen as MEMES. The most elementary MEME is the word. The success of any MEME is measured by the number of copies that it can achieve

MEMES are portions of information transmitted amongst individuals that as they are being replicated through time, they transform themselves. Only the best ideas survive . . .

The replication of MEMES cannot happen without their mutation

Inertia can be incremented via the transfer of MEMES through Memenomics in order to preserve the memorisation of the MEME before transmission

MEMETICSMEMETICS

MEMES are considered nodes of semantic memory

Possible methods – observation, ethnographic research and discourse analysis

Contains concepts related to the theory of Evolution. Evolutionary transfer of information based on the concept of MEME

Attempts to explain learning formats and the maintenance of cultural values (cultural evolution)

Scientific theory of conception of change or just a collection of philosophical assumptions without the production of empirical results?

Biographical History ApproachBiographical History Approach

Studies the relationship from an entity’s formation through to its represent status

Merlin (1992) outlines the process through which a biographical history may be used to capture the evolution of (for example) a company with the context of internationalisation. This method consists of a thorough examination of all the events, episodes and epochs that have contributed to a company’s evolution thus enabling the researcher to capture all key details relevant to the history and consequent outcomes of the object of study.

Research MultidisciplinarityResearch Multidisciplinarity

Research Triangulation

Theoretical / Paradigmatic

Data

(Cross-Sectional designs)

Investigators

Methodological

/ Time Frames

Sources/

4 Categories of Research Triangulation(3 reference points to check an object)

(Navigation/surveying)

Theoretical (theoriesTheoretical (theories)) - involves borrowing models from one discipline and using them to explain situations in another discipline. This can frequently reveal insights into data which had previously appeared not to have much importance.

DataData - refers to research where data is collected over different time frames or from different sources. Many cross-sectional designs adopt this type of research.

4 Categories of Research Triangulation contd …(3 reference points to check an object)

(Navigation/surveying)

Investigator(sInvestigator(s)) - is where different people collect data on the same situation, and the results are then compared. This is one of the advantages of a multi-disciplinary research team as it provides the opportunity for researchers to examine the same situation and to compare, develop and refine themes using insights gained from different perspectives.MethodologicalMethodological - the researcher uses both quantitative as well as qualitative methods of data collection. These are extremely diverse and include questionnaires, interviews, telephone surveys and field studies. Triangulation is not an end in itself, but an imaginative way of maximising the amount of data collected.

Theoretical TriangulationTheoretical Triangulation involves the use of several different perspectives in the analysis of the same set of data.

Data triangulationData triangulation attempts to gather observations with multiple sampling strategies.

Investigator triangulationInvestigator triangulation is the use of more than one observer in the field situation.

Paradigmatic triangulationParadigmatic triangulation – it is too easy for a variety of theories to represent the same paradigm, thus not providing the triangulation expected, without explicit consideration of the paradigm behind a given theory. In all of these ways – as well as through data and investigator triangulation – the researcher recognises the limitations of any given research procedure and moves towards an integration of knowledge.

Documents

Phenomenological or Ideographic Research: A Multiplicity of Methods Applied to Scholarly Research in Management Professor Luiz Moutinho Foundation Chair