Pg 39 - 48

What are enzymes? enzymes are proteins

that function as biological catalysts

a catalysts is a substance that usually speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction and is not changed by the reaction

thus enzymes speed up the rate of metabolic reactions in the cells

Enzymes work enzymes lower the minimum

amount of energy required for chemical reaction to occur (activation energy)

this allows biochemical reactions to take place at a faster rate in the cells of living organisms at body temperature which is usually low

enzymes catalyse metabolic reactions (i.e. chemical reactions that sustain life) in a cells

metabolic reactions are either breakdown reactions -catabolism or build up reactions - anabolism

Naming of Enzymes enzyme are named

according to the reaction they catalyse

a suffix – ase is usually added to the name of the substrate of the reaction catalysed by the enzyme

sometimes they are given special names such as catalase & amylase

catalase is the fastest acting enzyme

How Enzymes Work

“Lock and Key” Model each enzyme has a shape that allows it to

catalyse one reaction

reactant(s) in an enzyme – catalysed reaction is/are called substrate(s)

enzyme’s molecule has a specific shape which is complementary to that of a substrate –this is called active site

the substrate fits into the active site of the enzyme the same way a ‘key fits into a lock’ -this is called “ lock and key” model

the substrate (the ‘key’) fits exactly into the active site (the ‘key hole’) of the enzyme (the ‘lock’)

an enzyme-substrate complex is formed

the substrate undergoes a chemical change –a new substance, the product, is formed

the product is released from the active site

the free unaltered active site is ready to receive fresh substrate

General Properties of Enzymes enzymes are all Proteins enzymes are specific in

reaction they catalyse enzymes are not changed by

the reaction they catalyse i.e. they can be used again and again

enzymes are influenced by change in temperature

enzymes are influenced by change in pH

enzymes work best at particular temperature (37 oC in humans)and pH (pH 2 for pepsin & pH 7 for most enzymes)

Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity enzyme activity is

determined by measuring the rate of reaction that the enzyme catalyses

this is usually measured by measuring the products formed per unit time

enzyme activity is affected by; temperature, pH & substrate concentration

Effect of Temperature on Enzymes at low temperature (e.g. 0°C) enzyme activity is

low because the movement of molecules is slow due to low kinetic energy

the collision frequency between enzyme and substrate is therefore low

increasing the temperature, increases kinetic energy of molecules thus speeding up their movement, collision frequency between the substrates and the enzymes increases therefore enzyme activity increases

maximum enzyme activity is at 40°C – due to maximum collision frequency between enzymes and substrates molecules – this is called optimum temperature (i.e. the temperature at which the enzyme works fastest)

enzyme action decreases above 40°C because the enzymes are denatured by excess temperature (i.e. the shape of active site is altered & substrates molecules can no longer fit into it)

when all the enzymes are denatured, at 60°C, enzyme activity stops

Effect of pH on Enzymes enzyme activity is greatest within a

narrow range of pH, since all the enzymes are functioning normally because their active sites have the correct shape

this is called the optimum pH

change in pH from the optimum, alters the shape of active site thus affecting the ability of the substrates to bind to the active site & so enzyme activity decreases

a major change in pH from the optimum denatures the enzymes so enzyme action stops

from the graph, what is the optimum pH for;

enzyme X?

enzyme Y?

Investigation plan and carry out an

experiment to investigate the effect of changes in either temperature or pH on enzyme activity

systematically analyse the problem above and produce a logical plan for your investigation

identify the key variables and attempt to control them in your procedure

Observation

Hypothesis & Identification of

variables

Experiment

Raw data collection &

recording

Raw data processing &

presentation

Analysis of presented data

Conclusion

Evaluation

Research Question

Use of enzymes in: germination of seeds, biological washing products & food industry

enzymes are widely used in industry because; they work at lower temperature

than other catalysts thus reducing cost of fuel

they are not destroyed by the reaction they catalyse, thus they can be used over and over again

applications of enzymes in day –to – day life include; hydrolysis of stored food during

seed germinations use of enzymes in food industry

such as juice extraction, brewing industry to make beer

making of biological washing powders

producing antibiotic penicillin

Use of enzymes in: germination of seeds

enzymes in seeds breakdown stored food substance into soluble end products which can be translocated to growing regions

starch is broken down to maltose by the enzyme amylase

fats/oils are broken down by lipase to fatty acids and glycerol

maltose & fatty acids are respired to provide energy for germination

Production of apple juice

enzyme pectinase is added to crushed apple fruit pulp

the enzyme breaks down pectin in plant cell walls releasing more juice from the crushed apples

Use of enzymes in biological washing powders

presence of enzymes in biological washing powders increase the efficiency of the washing powder in removing stains from clothes because: stains may be protein or fat

which are not removable with detergent only

presence of lipase breaks down fat stain into fatty acids & glycerol

presence of protease breaks down protein stain into amino acids

fatty acids, glycerol & amino acids are soluble in water thus easily washed away

Controlling the temperature of the wash

temperature of the wash needs to be carefully controlled because:

high temperature denatures enzymes , so enzymes will not work

at low temperature, enzymes are inactive thus they work slowly

constant optimum temperature such as 37 oCmaintains optimum conditions for enzyme activity

Use of microorganisms & industrial fermenters to manufacture the antibiotic

industrial fermenters are large metal tanks that uses microorganisms to produce useful products such as antibiotics such as penicillin

the organism involved, fungus Penicillium is added to the tank together with nutrients such as sugar & ammonium salts (or amino acids)

penicillium produce enzymes which converts the substrate into penicillin, antibiotic used to cure bacterial infections

sugar provide energy for respiration while ammonium salt is used to produce proteins & nucleic acids

Maintaining suitable conditions in the industrial fermenters

suitable conditions such as optimum pH, optimum temperature and supply of oxygen & nutrients are required

air is bubbled through to provide oxygen for respiration

stirring using paddles keeps microorganism suspended so they always have access to nutrients & O2 and rolls the fungus into little pellets making it easy to separate liquid from the culture

water -cooled jacket maintains a constant temperature of 24 0C

probes monitor the temperature & pH in the tank - pH is maintained at 6.5 by adding alkalis where necessary

after 6 days, fermentation is complete & the mixture is drained & filtered

penicillin is then extracted

Role of the fungus Penicillium in the production of antibiotic penicillin

nutrient medium (sugars and, ammonium salts & ammonia)is placed in a bioreactor

air, to provide oxygen, is bubbled through the medium

fungus penicillium is added to the medium

paddles mix the fungus with the medium

temperature kept at 24 oC & pH kept at 6.5

fungus penicillium produces enzymes that converts the substrate into penicillin

penicillin is the antibiotic used to cure bacterial infections

Revision activity

after reading pages 39 -48 of your biology textbook and your lesson notes, attempt Revision Questions 1 - 4 on page 48.

Summary Questions:

Define the terms catalyst & enzymes

Describe an experiment you would carry out to investigate the effect of changes in temperature on enzyme activity

Describe an experiment you would carry out to investigate the effect of changes in pH on enzyme activity

Explain enzyme action in terms of the ‘lock & key’ model

Explain the effect of changes in temperature and pH on enzyme activity

Describe the role of enzymes in the germination of seeds, and their uses in biological washing products & in fruit juice production

Outline the use of microorganisms and fermenters to manufacture the antibiotic penicillin and enzymes for use in biological washing powders

Describe the role of the fungus Penicillium in the production of antibiotic penicillin

IGCSE Exam Type Question

IGCSE Exam Type Question

IGCSE Exam Type Question