PETROLEUM SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING - EOLSS

PETROLEUM SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) i


Petroleum: Chemistry, Refining, Fuels and

Petrochemicals -Volume I

No. of Pages: 289

ISBN: 978-1-78021-003-2 (eBook)

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Pipeline Engineering -Volume II

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Petroleum Engineering – Upstream -Volume III

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Petroleum Engineering – Upstream - Volume IV

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ISBN: 978-1-78021-006-3 (eBook)


Petroleum Engineering – Downstream -Volume V

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Petroleum Engineering – Downstream -Volume VI

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©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) ii

CONTENTS

Preface xxiii

VOLUME I

Petroleum: Chemistry, Refining, Fuels and Petrochemicals - Basics 1

James G. Speight, 2476 Overland Road, Laramie, WY 82070-4808, USA

1. Definitions and Terminology

1.1. Native Materials

1.2. Manufactured Materials

1.3. Derived Materials

2. Composition

2.1. Elemental Composition

2.2. Chemical Composition

2.3. Composition by Distillation

2.4. Fractional Composition

3. Properties

3.1 Physical Properties

3.2. Thermal Properties

3.3. Electrical Properties

3.4. Optical Properties

3.5. Spectroscopic Properties

3.6. Molecular Weight

Petroleum: Chemistry, Refining, Fuels and Petrochemicals – Refining 57

James G. Speight, 2476 Overland Road,Laramie, WY 82070-4808, USA

1. Introduction

2. Dewatering and Desalting

3. Distillation

3.1. Atmospheric Distillation

3.2. Vacuum Distillation

3.3. Azeotropic and Extractive Distillation

4. Thermal Processes

4.1. Thermal Cracking

4.2. Steam Cracking

4.3. Visbreaking

4.4. Coking

5. Catalytic Processes

5.1. Processes

5.2. Catalysts

6. Hydroprocesses

6.1. Hydrocracking

6.2. Hydrotreating

7. Reforming Processes

7.1. Thermal Reforming

7.2. Catalytic Reforming

7.3. Catalysts

8. Isomerization Processes

8.1. Processes

8.3. Catalysts

9. Alkylation Processes

9.1. Processes

9.2. Catalysts


©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) iii

10. Polymerization Processes

10.1. Processes

10.2. Catalysts

11. Solvent Processes

11.1. Extraction

11.2. Deasphalting

11.3. Dewaxing

12. Treating Processes

13. Asphalt Production

14. Hydrogen Production

15. Other Refining Operations

Petroleum: Chemistry, Refining, Fuels and Petrochemicals - Product Treating 99

James G. Speight, 2476 Overland Road,Laramie, WY 82070-4808, USA

1. Introduction

2. Caustic Processes

2.1. Dualayer Distillate Process

2.2. Dualayer Gasoline Process

2.3. Electrolytic Mercaptan Process

2.4. Ferrocyanide Process

2.5. Lye Treatment

2.6. Mercapsol Process

2.7. Polysulfide Treatment

2.8. Sodasol Process

2.9. Solutizer Process

2.10. Steam Regenerative Caustic Treatment

2.11. Unisol Process

3. Acid Processes

3.1. Nalfining Process

3.2. Sulfuric Acid Treatment

4. Clay and Related Processes

4.1. Alkylation Effluent Treatment

4.2. Arosorb Process

4.3. Bauxite Treatment

4.4. Continuous Contact Filtration Process

4.5. Cyclic Adsorption Process

4.6. Gray Clay Treatment

4.7. Percolation Filtration Process

4.8. Thermofor Continuous Percolation Process

5. Oxidative Processes

5.1. Bender Process

5.2. Copper Sweetening Process

5.3. Doctor Process

5.4. Hypochlorite Sweetening Process

5.5. Merox Process

6. Solvent Processes

6.1. Deasphalting

6.2. Solvent Refining

6.3. Dewaxing

7. Gas Treating

Petroleum: Chemistry, Refining, Fuels and Petrochemicals – Petrochemicals 134


1. Introduction

2. Chemicals from Paraffins

2.1. Halogenation


©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) iv

2.2. Nitration

2.3. Oxidation

2.4. Alkylation

3. Chemicals from Olefins

3.1. Hydroxylation

3.2. Halogenation

3.3. Oxidation

3.4. Miscellaneous

4. Chemicals from Aromatics

5. Chemicals from Acetylene

6. Chemicals from Natural Gas

7. Inorganic Petrochemicals

8. Chemicals from Synthesis Gas

Petroleum: Chemistry, Refining, Fuels and Petrochemicals - Petroleum Products 161


1. Introduction

2. Gaseous Fuels

2.1. Composition

2.2. Manufacture

2.3. Properties and Uses

3. Gasoline

3.1. Composition

3.2. Manufacture


3.4. Octane Numbers

3.5. Additives

4. Solvents (Naphtha)

4.1. Composition

4.2. Manufacture


5. Kerosene

5.1. Composition

5.2. Manufacture


6. Fuel Oil

7. Lubricating Oil

7.1. Composition

7.2. Manufacture


8. White Oil, Insulating Oil, and Insecticides

8.1. White Oil

8.2. Insulating Oil

8.3. Insecticides

9. Grease

9.1. Lime Soap

9.2. Soda Soap

9.3. Lithium and Barium Soap

9.4. Aluminum Soap

9.5. Cold Sett Grease

10. Wax

10.1. Composition

10.2. Manufacture


11. Asphalt

11.1. Composition


©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) v

11.2. Manufacture


12. Coke

13. Sulfonic Acids

14. Acid Sludge

15. Product Blending

Index 211

About EOLSS 217

VOLUME II

Pipeline Engineering 1

Y. Frank Cheng, Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, University of Calgary,

Calgary, Alberta, Canada T2N 1N4

1. Introduction

2. Pipeline Engineering as a Discipline

3. Understand the Pipeline Engineering

3.1. Pipeline Design and Construction

3.2. Pipeline Operations

3.3. Offshore Pipeline Operations

3.4. Material Selection, Fabrication and Joining

3.5. Pipeline Structural Integrity

3.6. Instrumentation and Control

3.7. Pipeline Maintenance

3.8. Pumps and Compressor Operation

3.9. Pipeline Geotechnical Engineering

3.10. Environmental Conservation

3.11. Coatings and Corrosion Protection

3.12. Cathodic Protection

3.13. Pipeline Stress Corrosion Cracking

4. Carbon Dioxide Pipelines

4.1. Introduction

4.2. Transportation of CO2 by pipelines

4.3. Integrity Management of CO2 Pipelines

5. Pipeline Engineering in Perspective

Pipeline Operations 44

M. Mohitpour, FASME, FEIC, President Tempsys Pipeline Solutions Inc. Canada.

Andrew Jenkins, TransCanada PipeLines, Ltd. Canada.

1. Pipeline Operation

2. Gas Pipeline Operation

2.1. Contracts and Services

2.2. Pipeline Operations

3. Liquid Pipeline Operation

3.1. Types of Liquid Pipelines

3.2. Batching

3.3. Liquid Pipeline Operational Control

Offshore Pipeline Operations 88

Marcio Martins Mourelle, Petrobras Research and Development Center – CENPES. Rio de Janeiro,

Brazil

1. Introduction


©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) vi

2. Installation and Construction

3. Types of Joints

4. Coatings and Corrosion Protection

5. Design Issues Related to Flowlines

5.1. Wall Thickness Evaluation

5.2. On-Bottom Stability

5.3. Free Spans

5.4. Thermo-Mechanical Effects

6. Design Issues Related to Risers

6.1. Risers Configurations

6.2. Extreme Loads

6.3. Wave Induced Fatigue

6.4. Vortex Induced Vibration

6.5. Interference

7. Operations and Maintenance

Steel and Pipe Mill Technology 118

Keith Leewis, Process Performance Improvement Consultants, 739 Kenwood Avenue Libertyville, IL

60048, USA

1. Background

2. Historic Pipe Making Practices

3. Rolling Mill Configurations

3.1. “U & O” Process:

3.2. Roll Forming

3.3. Spiral Pipe Process

3.4. Continuous U&O Mills

3.5. Seamless

4. Historic Seam Welding Processes

4.1. Furnace Butt Joints

4.2. Low Frequency Electric Resistance Welding (LF-ERW)

5. Current Seam Welding Processes for Straight And Spiral Welded Pipe.

5.1. High Frequency Electric Resistance

5.2. Dual Submerged Arc Welded

5.3. Laser and Electron Beam

6. Mechanical Properties

6.1, Grade

6.2. Grade Substitution Caution

6.3. Typical Mill Approaches to High Grade Pipe

7. Strengthening Mechanisms

7.1. Solid Solution Strengthening

7.2. Particle/Precipitate Strengthening

7.3. Grain boundary Strengthening

7.4. Work Hardening

8. Accelerated Cooling

9. Toughness

10. Chemistry

11. Major Alloying Constituents

12. Tramp and Residual Elements

13. Typical Microalloying Elements

14. Convenient Empirical Relationships to Avoid Weld Cracking

15. Steel Making Practices

15.1. Acid vs Basic Refractories

15.2. Open Hearth

15.3. Basic Oxygen Furnace

15.4. Electric Furnace

16. Ladle Metallurgy

16.1. Alloying and Cleanliness Control Is In the Liquid State


©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) vii

16.2. Centerline Lamination Considerations and Temperature Control

17. Solidification

17.1. Ingot Cast Steels:

17.2. Continuous Casting

17.3. Segregation Only Occurs In the Liquid State

18. Sampling QA/QC is used to ensure that acceptable pipe leaves the mill

19. Testing Line Pipe to Yield

20. Tensile Testing of In-service Pipe and the Bauschinger Effect

20.1. Result of the FBE Thermal Cycle

20.2. Mechanisms:

20.3 Practical Effects:

20.4. Note of caution

21. Variability in Pipe Properties

21.1. FBE Heating Cycle

21.2. Rolling/Alloying Variation

21.3. Parameter Variation

Pipeline Structural Integrity 163

Roman W. Motriuk, ARCUS Solutions Inc., Stn. D Calgary, Alberta, Canada T2P 2E7

1. Pipeline Structural Integrity Definition

2. Pipeline Structural Integrity throughout History and Today

3. Overview of Potential Factors Leading to Structural Integrity Breach

3.1. Internal Pressure

3.2. Stresses within the Pipe Wall

3.3. Piping Vibration

3.4. Pipe-Soil Interaction

3.5. Pipeline Material

3.6. Pipeline Corrosion and Erosion

3.7. Pipeline Weld Flaws

3.8. External Damage – Third Party

3.9. Incorrect Operation and Operating Errors

3.10. Earthquake

4. Piping Structural Integrity Evaluation

5. Integrity Management Programs

5.1. Prescriptive Integrity Programs

5.2. Performance-Based Integrity Programs

6. Pipeline Integrity Breach

6.1. Regulatory Response to Pipeline Integrity Breaches

7. Analyses Supporting Structural Integrity and Management Programs

7.1. Analysis of Threats

7.2. Regulatory Prescribed Risk Analysis

7.3. Risk Analysis Results

8. Preventing Failures

9. Pipeline Structural Integrity and Training

9.1. The Value of Training

9.2. Training Options

Pipeline System Automation and Control 210

C. Bruce Warren and Mike S. Yoon, BCT Group and Yoon Consulting, Canada.

1. Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) System

1.1 History

1.2. SCADA System Architecture

1.3. Communications

1.4. Data Management

1.5. Human Machine Interface (HMI) and Reporting

1.6. Alarm Processing


©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) viii

1.7. Remote Terminal Unit (RTU)

1.8. Security

1.9. Corporate Integration

2. Measurement System

2.1. Measurement Performance

2.2. Measurement Units

2.3. Flow Measurements

3. Station Control

3.1. Station Control System Architecture

3.2. Station Control Methods

3.3. Station Operation

3.4. Meter Station Operation

3.5. Tank Farm Operation

4. Conclusion

Pump and Compressor Operation 245

Thomas Van Hardeveld, Strategic Maintenance Solutions Inc., Canada

1. Introduction

2. Operation of Pump and Compressor Stations

2.1. General

2.2. Unit Selection

2.3. Compressor Station Layout

2.4. Pump Station Layout

2.5. Oil Terminals

2.6. Station Control Systems

2.7. Safety Systems

2.8. Compressor Station Systems

2.9. Pump Station Systems

3. Operation of Pump and Compressor Drivers

3.1. Gas Turbines

3.2. Internal Combustion Engines

3.3. Electric Motors

4. Operation of Pumps and Compressors

4.1. Centrifugal Pumps

4.2. Reciprocating Compressors

4.3. Centrifugal Compressors

5. Performance of Pumps and Compressors

5.1. Centrifugal Pumps

5.2. Reciprocating Compressors

5.3. Centrifugal Compressors

6. Maintenance of Pumps and Compressors

6.1. Asset Management

6.2. Station Maintenance

6.3. Pump and Compressor Drivers

6.4. Pumps and Compressors

7. Conclusion

Pipeline Geotechnical Engineering 318

Dharma Wijewickreme and Lalinda Weerasekara, Department of Civil Engineering, University of British

Columbia, Canada

1. Introduction

2. Typical Pipeline Materials

3. Methods of Pipeline Installation

3.1. Trenched (Open cut) Installations


©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) ix

3.2. Trenchless Installations

4. Geotechnical Engineering Considerations

4.1. Geotechnical Site Investigation Requirements

4.2. General Considerations for Pipeline Installation

5. Soil Loads on Pipelines during Construction and General Operational Conditions

5.1. Static Loads

5.2. Live loads

5.3. Buoyancy Forces

5.4. Thermal Loads

5.5. Deformation of the Pipe due to Soil Stresses in Low Pressure Pipes

5.6. Evaluation of the Structural Performance of Buried Pipelines

6. Geotechnical Hazards Impacting Pipeline Performance

6.1. Permanent Ground Deformation Hazard

6.2. Volcanic Hazards

6.3. Estimation of Permanent Ground Deformations

7. Assessment of Pipeline Performance under Permanent Ground Deformations

7.1. Structural Assessment of Pipe-soil Interaction Problem

7.2. Representation of Soil-pipe Interaction under Relative Lateral Soil Movements

7.3. Response to Longitudinal Ground Movements

7.4. Response to Vertical Uplift and Downward Bearing

8. Protection of Pipelines from Geotechnical Hazards

9. Field Monitoring and Testing of Pipeline Performance

10. Conclusion

Environmental Conservation Practices for Pipelines 362

Tamara Petter and Dean F. Mutrie, TERA Environmental Consultants, Calgary, Alberta, Canada

1. Introduction

1.1. Pipeline Construction in Brief

2. Environmental Conservation through Pipeline Route Selection

3. Soil Conservation

3.1. Potential Impacts

3.2. Timing of Construction

3.3. Construction Techniques

4. Aquatic Ecosystem Conservation




5. Wetland Conservation




6. Native Vegetation Conservation




7. Wildlife Conservation




8. Heritage Resources Conservation




9. Conservation of Lands used for Traditional Purposes




©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) x


10. Environmental Protection Plans and Environmental Inspection

10.1. Environmental Protection Plan

10.2. Environmental Inspection

11. Environmental Conservation during Operations

12. Concluding Remarks

Cathodic Protection of Pipelines 394

William J.D. Shaw, Department of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering, Schulich School of

Engineering, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada

1. History

2. Understanding of corrosion protection applications to pipelines

3. Principles of cathodic protection

3.1. Corrosion principles

3.2. Galvanic interactions and effects

3.3. Potential measurements

3.4. Pourbaix diagrams

3.5. Evans diagrams

4. Pipeline coating types and characteristics

4.1. Coating selection considerations

4.2. Coating failures

4.3. Coating types

5. Soil conditions and electrical interaction

5.1. Soil resistivity measurement

6. Potential measurement methods and criteria

6.1. Potential surveys

6.2. Protection criteria

7. Design of pipeline cathodic protection systems

7.1. Impressed current cathodic protection systems

7.2. Sacrificial cathodic protection systems

8. Cathodic protection equipment

9. Stray currents and interference

10. Overcathodic protection

11. Stress corrosion cracking protection

12. Economics of CP systems

Index 429

About EOLSS 437

VOLUME III

The Petroleum Upstream Industry: Hydrocarbons Exploration and Production 1

P. Macini and E. Mesini, Department of Civil, Environmental and Materials Engineering, University of

Bologna, 40131 Italy

1. Oil and Gas Reserves

1.1. Origin and Migration of Petroleum Fluids

1.2. Geological Traps

1.3. Reservoir Rock

1.4. Phase Behavior and Reservoir Distribution of Petroleum Fluids

2. Oil Well Drilling Engineering and Formation Evaluation

2.1. Well Classification

2.2. Oil Well Drilling Techniques

2.3. Well Logging

2.4. Well Testing


©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xi

3. Reservoir Engineering

3.1. Estimation of Oil and Gas Volumes

3.2. Reservoir Drive Mechanisms

3.3. Reservoir Fluids Displacement

3.4. Numerical Models of Hydrocarbon Reservoirs

3.5. Enhanced and Assisted Oil Recovery Processes

4. Production Engineering

4.1. Well Completion

4.2. Artificial Lift

4.3. Surface Treatment of Natural Gas

4.4. Surface Treatment of Crude Oil

5. Unconventional Hydrocarbons

5.1. Unconventional Oil

5.2. Unconventional Gas

5.3. Methane Hydrates

6. Conclusions

Geophysical Prospecting: Dynamic Reservoir Characterization and Time-Lapse Multicomponent

Seismology for Reservoir Monitoring 77

Steven L. Roche, CGGVeritas, Multicomponent Processing & Technology Group, USA.

Thomas L. Davis, Colorado School of Mines, Department of Geophysics, USA.

1. Multicomponent Seismology – Part I

1.1. Rock Physics / Reservoir Processes

2. Multicomponent Seismology - Part II

3. Integration

3.1. Multicomponent Seismic Data Acquisition

3.2. Multicomponent Seismic Data Processing

3.3. Integration with Well Control and Reservoir Production

4. Key Results – Dynamic Reservoir Characterization

4.1. Vacuum Field 4.2. Weyburn Field

4.3. Rulison Field

5. Conclusions

Petroleum Geochemistry 111

Giovanni Martinelli, ARPA, Environmental Protection Agency of the Emilia Romagna Region, Reggio

Emilia, Italy.

1. Introduction

2. Geochemical Analytical Techniques Utilized in Petroleum Geochemistry

3. Oil Composition and Origin

4. Insoluble Organic Material - Kerogen

5. Soluble Organic Material

6. Source Rocks and Depositional Environment

7. Maturity Indexes and Biodegradation Processes

8. Age of Oil and Migration Processes

9. Geochemistry of the Reservoir

10. Modeling of the History of Reservoir

11. Metals in Petroleum

12. Oilfield Waters

13. Selected data on Inorganic Geochemistry of Petroleum and of Oilfield Waters

14. Stable Isotopes

15. Noble Gases Geochemistry

16. Natural Gas

17. Hydrocarbon Generation from Coal

18. Inorganic Hydrocarbon Generation

19. Surface Prospecting


©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xii

Petrophysics and Reservoir Characteristics 134

P. Macini and E. Mesini, Department of Chemical, Petroleum, Mining and Environmental Engineering,

University of Bologna, 40131 Italy

1. Laboratory Samples Preparation

2. Fluid Saturation

2.1. Laboratory Measurements

2.2. Indirect measurements

3. Wettability


4. Interfacial Tension

5. Capillary Pressure

6. Fluids Distribution in the Reservoir

7. Porosity


7.2. Indirect Measurement

8. Permeability

8.1. Effective and Relative Permeability


8.3. Indirect Measurements

The Role of Well Logging in Formation Evaluation 177

Zaki Bassiouni, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge,

Louisiana, USA

1. Introduction

2. Concepts of Open Hole Logs

Drilling Engineering 188

P. Macini, Department of Civil, Environmental and Materials Engineering, University of Bologna, 40131

Italy

1. Introduction

2. Drilling rig

2.1. Hoisting System

2.2. Rotation System

2.3. Circulation System

2.4. Power Generation and Distribution System

3. Drilling Fluids

3.1. Water-Base Drilling Fluids

3.2. Non-Water-Base Drilling Fluids

3.3. Gaseous Drilling Fluids

4. Drill string

4.1. Drill String Accessories

4.2. Downhole Mud Motors

5. Drill bits

5.1. Roller Bits

5.2. Fixed Cutters Bits

6. Casing and Cementing Operations

7. Wellhead and Safety Systems

7.1. Wellhead

7.2. Safety Equipment

8. Drilling Problems

8.1. Well Control

8.2. Hole Problems

8.3. Fishing Operations


©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xiii

Horizontal and Multilateral Well Technology 254 Sada Joshi, Joshi Technologies International, Inc., Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA.

1. Introduction

1.1. Field Development Plans

1.2. Application

1.3. Reasons for Drilling Horizontal Wells and Productivity Improvement

1.4. Enhancement of Reserves

1.5. Economic Reasons

2. Drilling Methods

3. Completion of Horizontal Wells

3.1. Open Hole Completions

3.2. Slotted Liners

3.3. External Casing Packers (ECP)

3.4. Cemented and Perforated Liners

4. Horizontal Well Productivity

4.1. Steady State Productivity of a Horizontal Gas Well

4.2. Important Parameters for Horizontal Well Productivity

5. Multilateral Wells

5.1. Multilateral Completion Types

5.2. Productivity of Multilateral Wells

6. Horizontal Well Planning

Artificial Lift 301

Augusto Podio, Department of Petroleum and Geosystems Engineering, University of Texas at Austin,

Austin, Texas, USA

1. Introduction

1.1. Inflow Performance Relation

1.2. Vertical Lift Performance

1.3. Artificial Lift Objectives

2. Lift Systems

2.1. Selection Process

2.2. General Characteristics and Operational Parameters of Pumping Systems

2.3. General Characteristics and Operational Requirements of Gas Lift Systems

3. Pumping

3.1. Positive Displacement Pumps

3.2. Dynamic Displacement Pumps

4. Gas Lift

4.1. Continuous Rotating Gas Lift

4.2. Intermittent Gas Lift

5. Plunger Lift

Index 347

About EOLSS 353

VOLUME IV

Enhanced Oil Recovery Using Aqueous Phase Chemicals, Miscible Gas Injection, and Thermal

Means 1

A. R. Kovscek, Stanford University, Energy Resources Engineering, Stanford, CA 94305-2220 U.S.A.

1. Introduction

2. Oil Recovery

3. Mobility Alteration and EOR

3.1. Thermal Oil Recovery


©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xiv

3.2. Miscible Gas Injection

3.3. Chemical Flooding

3.4. Hybrid Processes

4. Example EOR Field Projects

Mathematical Modeling of Petroleum Extraction Processes 20 Y. Cheng, Department of Petroleum & Natural Gas Engineering, West Virginia University, USA

1. Introduction

2. Mathematical model of single-phase flow – slightly compressible fluids (liquid)

2.1. Derivation of the diffusivity equation

2.2. Analytical solution to the diffusivity equation for slightly compressible fluid

3. Mathematical model of single-phase flow –compressible fluid (gas)


3.2. Analytical solution to the diffusivity equation for compressible fluids

4. Mathematical model of oil-water two phase flow


4.2. 1D linear oil-water two phase flow – Buckley-Leverett model

5. Mathematical model of oil-gas two phase flow


5.2. Solution to the diffusivity equation for oil-gas two phase flow

6. Mathematical Model of Multiphase Flow


6.2. Solution to the diffusivity equation for three phase flow

Reservoir Simulation 68

Y. Cheng, Department of Petroleum & Natural Gas Engineering West Virginia University, USA

1. Introduction to Reservoir Simulation

2. Finite Difference Model for Single-phase Slightly Compressible Fluid

2.1. Discretization

2.2. One-dimensional finite difference

2.3. Solution of one-dimensional finite difference equation

2.4. Stability of solution

2.5. Extension of solution to two dimensions and three dimensions

3. Finite Difference Model for Single-phase Compressible Fluid

3.1. Nonuniform gridding system

3.2. Solution of one-dimensional finite difference equation

3.3. Transmissibility coefficient between gridblocks

3.4. Initial condition

3.5. Boundary conditions


4. Finite Difference Model for Multiphase Flow

4.1. Capillary pressure and relative permeability

4.2. Basic equations for one-dimensional problems

4.3. IMPES method

4.4. Transmissibility of gridblocks

4.5. Production term


Offshore Drilling and Production 98

J.C. Delgado, J.J. Schubert and C. Teodoriu*, Department of Petroleum Engineering, Texas A&M

University, USA.* Also Institute of Petroleum Engineering of TU Clausthal, Germany

1. Introduction

2. Offshore Development Systems

2.1. Fixed Systems


©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xv

2.2. Floating Systems

2.3. Subsea Systems

3. Offshore Production

3.1. Topsides

3.2. Fluid Processing and Treatment

3.3. Subsea Processing

3.4. Flow Assurance

3.5. Early Production Systems (EPS)

4. Offshore Drilling and Completion

4.1. Drilling the Well

4.2. Well Control

4.3. Problems associated with Deepwater Drilling

4.4. Completing the Well

5. Well Intervention

6. Summary and Conclusions

Petroleum Economics 139

A. Clô, Dept. of Economic Sciences, University of Bologna, Italy

L. Orlandi, RIE Srl, Energetic and Industrial Research, Bologna, Italy.

1. Basic Conditions for Petroleum Economics

1.1. High Capital Intensity and Risk Factor

1.2. Level and Structure of Oil Production Costs

1.3. Economies of Scale, Interdependences, Specificity

1.4. The “Time Factor”

1.5. The Demand Function

2. Market Structure and Price Dynamics in Twentieth Century

2.1. From the Pioneers to the American Oil Industry: 1859-1900

2.2. From American to International Industry: 1900-1940

2.3. Concentration and Coordination: 1940-1970

2.4. Inertial Stability and Evolutionary Processes

2.5. Towards a New Equilibrium

3. The New Oil Era: An Unprecedented Price Escalation

3.1. Structural Determinants

3.2. The Financial Determinants

3.3. World Recession in the Second Half of 2008: Back on Fundamentals

3.4. OPEC Policies and the Risks of Cheap Oil

Environmental Aspects of Oil and Gas Production 190

J. O. Robertson, Earth Engineering, 3708 La Canada Road, Fallbrook, CA 92028, USA

G. V. Chilingar, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Southern California,

Los Angeles, USA

L. F. Khilyuk, Russian Academy of Natural Science, U.S.A. Branch, USA

B. Endres, 101 S. Windsor Blvd., Los Angeles, CA 90004, USA

1. Subsidence associated with fluid (gas, oil and water) production

1.1. Mechanics of subsidence

1.2. Models of subsidence

1.3. Measurement of subsidence

1.4. Rate of subsidence

1.5. Stress and strain distribution in subsiding formations

1.6. Surface fissures caused by subsidence

2. Migration of gas through porous media

2.1. Migration of gas

2.2. Discontinuous-phase migration of gas

2.3. Continuous-phase gas migration

2.4. Paths of gas migration

2.5. Sources of free gas available for migration


©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xvi

2.6. Environmental hazards of gas migration

2.7. Gas storage hazards

2.8. Surface gas leakage

2.9. Mitigation systems

2.10. Relationship between seismic activity and production

2.11. Production-induced seismic activity

3. Hazards of toxics in migrating gas

3.1. BTEX Environmental hazards

3.2. Hydrogen sulfide environmental hazards

4. Conclusions

Hydrogeology of Petroleum Engineering 233

Hillel Rubin, Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Technion – Israel Institute of Technology,

Haifa 32000, Israel

1. General Introduction

2. Single Fluid Phase Hydrogeology

2.1. Groundwater Flow

2.2. Transport of Dissolved Contaminants in Groundwater

3. Environmental and Human Health Aspects

3.1. Introduction

3.2. Classification and Risks of Petroleum Products

4. Hydrogeological Characteristics of Multiphase Fluids

4.1. Contamination of Soils and Aquifers

4.2. Remediation of Soils and Aquifers

4.3. Barriers

5. Quantifying Petroleum Hydrogeological Characteristics

5.1. Basic Formulas

5.2. Numerical Modeling

5.3. Approximate Evaluation Methods


History of Petroleum and Petroleum Engineering 285

P. Macini and E. Mesini, Department of Chemical, Petroleum, Mining and Environmental Engineering,

University of Bologna, Italy

1. The pre-industrial period: from antiquity to Drake’s well

2. From Drake’s well to the 1920s

3. Well construction technology from antiquity to early 1900

4. Captain Lucas and the discovery of the new Century

5. The birth of petroleum engineering and petroleum geology

6. The systematic development from the 1920s to the end of World War II

6.1. Oilwell Engineering

6.2. Reservoir Engineering

6.3. Exploration and Geophysics

7. Petroleum Engineering after World War II

7.1. Oilwell Engineering

7.2. Offshore Technology

7.3. Reservoir Engineering and Geophysics

Hydrates of Natural Gas 327

Yuri F. Makogon, Texas A&M University, College Station, USA

1. Introduction

1.1. A Brief History of the Discovery of Natural Gas Hydrates

1.2. Characteristics and Morphology of Gas Hydrates

2. Natural Gas Hydrates – Hydrates Formed in Nature without Engineering

2.1. The Location of Gas Hydrate Zones


©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xvii

2.2. Characteristic of Gas Hydrate Deposits (GHD)

2.3. Composition of Natural Gas Hydrates

3. Methods to Develop Gas Hydrate Deposits

3.1. General Characteristic of the Messoyakha Gas Hydrate Field

4. Conclusions

Index 351

About EOLSS 359

VOLUME V

Fluid Mechanics and Multiphase Flow in Pipelines 1

Antonio C. Bannwart, State University of Campinas, Brazil

1. Introduction

2. Mathematical Tools

2.1. Displacement Speed of a Surface

2.2. Leibniz Rule

2.3. Gauss-Green Theorems

2.4. Transport Rates

3. Single-Phase Flow

3.1. Integral Instant Balance Equations

3.2. Local Instant Balance Equations and Constitutive Relations

3.3. One-Dimensional Channel Flow Equations and Constitutive Relations

4. Two-Phase and Multiphase Flow

4.1. Integral Instant Balance Equations

4.2. Local Instant Balance Equations and Jump Conditions

4.3. One-Dimensional Channel Flow Equations

4.4. Introduction to Multiphase Flow Modeling

5. Conclusion

Phase Behavior in Petroleum Fluids: A Detailed Descriptive and Illustrative Account with

Emphases on Heavy Organics 44

G. Ali Mansoori , Departments of BioEngineering, Chemical Engineering & Physics, University of

Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60607-7052 USA

1. Introduction

1.1. Naturally Occurring Petroleum Fluids

2. Components of Petroleum Fluids

2.1. Impurities in Petroleum Fluids

2.2. Heavy Fractions in Petroleum Fluids

3. Phase Behaviors in Petroleum Fluids

3.1. Temperature Effect on Petroleum Fluids Phase Separation:

3.2. Pressure Effect on Petroleum Fluids Phase Separation:

3.3. Theory of Phase-Transitions

3.4. Phase-Transition Points

4. Discussion

Surface Petroleum Operations 74

H. K. Abdel-Aal, National Research Center, Cairo, Egypt

1. Introduction

2. Gas-Oil Separation

2.1. Background

2.2 Mechanism of Separation

2.3. Functional Components of a Gas-oil Separator and Control Devices


©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xviii

2.4. Methods and Equipment used in Separation

2.5. Design Equations for Sizing Gas-Oil Separators

3. Emulsion Treatment and Dehydration of Crude Oil

3.1. Fundamentals

3.2. Forms of Water Associated with Produced Oil: Emulsion Formation

3.3. Treating the Emulsions

4. Desalting of Crude Oil

4.1. Background

4.2. Description of Desalting Process

5. Stabilization and Sweetening of Sour Crude Oil

5.1. Introduction

5.2. Process Description

6. Conclusions

Natural Gas Storage Engineering 95

Kashy Aminian and Shahab D. Mohaghegh, Petroleum & Natural Gas Engineering, West Virginia

University, Morgantown, WV, USA.

1. Introduction

2. Inventory

3. Deliverability

4. Containment

5. Inventory Analysis

5.1. Volumetric Method

5.2. Pressure-Content Method

5.3. Inventory per Pound Method

Gases to Liquids (GTL) 109

H. K. Abdel-Aal, NRC, Cairo, Egypt

1. Introduction

2. Exploitation of Remote Reserves of Natural Gas

2.1. Overview

2.2. Available Technological Options

3. GTL Technology

3.1. Thermodynamic Background

3.2. GTL Concept: Overall Assessment

4. GTL Using Fisher Tropsch Process

4.1. Introduction

4.2. Generation of Synthesis Gas

4.3. Chemical Reactions and Process Design

4.4. Reactors and Other Equipment

4.5. Operating Data for F-T Reactors

4.6. Hydro-Processing

5. Trends of Developments in GTL Technology

5.1. Syngas Manufacturing Technology

5.2. Fisher Tropsch Technology

6. Commercial Applications

7. Up-Grading of Heavy Crude Oils Using GTL

8. Benefits of GTL to the Environment

9. Conclusions

Natural Gas Processing 130

H. K. Abdel-Aal, National Research Center (NRC), Cairo, Egypt

1. Introduction

2. Description of a natural gas processing system: an overview


©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xix

3. Sweetening of sour natural gas

3.1. Overview and Methods Used

3.2. Chemi-sorption Sweetening Processes (Amines)

3.3. Physical Methods

3.4. Other Methods

3.5. Conversion of H2S Gas to Elementary Sulfur(Claus Process)

4. Gas Dehydration

4.1. Fundamentals

4.2. Predictions of Conditions Leading to Hydrate Formation

4.3. Dehydration Processes using Liquids (by Absorption)

4.4. Dehydration Processes using Solid Desiccants (by Adsorption)

4.5. Dehydration by Condensation (Cooling)

4.6. Chemicals for Hydrates Inhibition

4.7. Comparison of Dehydration Methods

5. Recovery and Extraction of NGL

5.1. Introduction

5.2. The Cryogenic Expansion Process

5.3. The Absorption Process

6. Natural Gas Liquid (NGL) Fractionation

7. Conclusions

Automotive Fossil Fuels: Characteristics, Evolution and Environmental Constraints 153

Leandro Henrique Benvenutti, Ford Motor Company Brasil, Ltda

1. Introduction to Fuels

2. Introduction to Petroleum Based Fuels

2.1. Environmental Constraints of Petroleum Based Fuels

3. Diesel Fuel

3.1. Diesel Fuel Components

3.2. Diesel Fuel Properties

4. Gasoline

4.1. Gasoline Development

4.2. Gasoline Properties

5. Natural Gas and Liquefied Petroleum Gas

5.1. Natural Gas

5.2. Liquefied Petroleum Gas

Petrochemicals 179

William L Leffler, Venus Consulting, Houston, Texas, USA

1. Introduction

1.1. Industry Structure

1.2. Manufacturing Facilities

1.3. The Chemistry of Petrochemicals

2. Base Chemicals

2.1. Olefins plants

2.2. Ethylene

2.3. Propylene

3. Aromatics, benzene, toluene, and xylenes

3.1. Benzene

3.2. Toluene

3.3. Xylenes

4. Butylenes and butadiene

4.1 Butadiene

5. Cyclohexane

5.1. Manufacturing

5.2. Commercial Aspects

6. Cumene, Phenol, and Acetone


©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xx

6.1. Cumene

6.2 Phenol and Acetone Manufacture

6.3 Commercial Aspects

7. Ethylbenzene and styrene

7.1. Ethylbenzene

7.2. Styrene

8. Ethylene dichloride and vinyl chloride

8.1. Manufacturing Process


9. Ethylene oxide and ethylene glycol

9.1 Manufacturing processes

9.2 Commercial Aspects

10. Propylene oxide and propylene glycol

10.1. Manufacturing Processes


11. Synthesis gas

11.1. Manufacturing Process

12. Alcohols

12.1 Methanol

12.2. Ethyl Alcohol

12.3 Isopropyl Alcohol

12.4 Normal Butyl Alcohol

12.5 Secondary and Tertiary Butyl Alcohols

12.6 1,4-Butandiol

13. Aldehydes

13.1 Formaldehyde

13.2. Acetaldehyde

14. Ketones

14.1. Acetone

14.2. Methyl Ethyl Ketone

14.3. Methyl Isobutyl Ketone

15. Acids

15.1. Acetic Acid

15.2. Adipic Acid

15.3. Phthalic acids

16. Acrylonitrile, acrylic acid, and acrylates

16.1. Acrylonitrile

16.2. Acrylic Acid and Acrylates

16.3. Methacrylates

17. Maleic anhydride

17.1. Manufacturing


18. Alpha olefins

18.1. Manufacturing


19. Polymers

19.1. Manufacturing


19.3. Fibers and Foam

Environmental Impacts of the Oil Industry 226

Jacqueline Barboza Mariano, Energy Specialist at National Petroleum Agency of Brazil

Emilio Lèbre La Rovere, Professor at Energy Planning Program, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro,

Brazil

1. Introduction

2. Oil and Gas Production Activities and Environmental Issues

3. Petroleum Refining Activities and Environmental Issues


©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxi

3.1. Air Emissions

3.2. Water Effluents

3.3. Solid Wastes

4. Environmental Risks of the Oil Industry

5. Conclusions and Recommendations

A Modern Survey of World Oil: Realities and Delusions 260

Ferdinand E. Banks, Department of Economics, Uppsala University, Sweden

1. Introduction

2. The bottom line in the peaking dispute

3. Remembering the oil price future

4. Economic Theory and OPEC

5. Some OPEC development economics

6. Long and short term concerns and speculation

7. Final remarks and conclusions

Index 291

About EOLSS 301

VOLUME VI

Analytical Methods and Techniques Applied To Crude Oil and Petroleum Products 1


1. Petroleum Analysis

1.1. Introduction

1.2. History

1.3. Analysis and Specifications

1.4. Sampling

1.5. Measurement

1.6. Accuracy

1.7. Precision

1.8. Method Validation

2. Chemical Composition

2.1. Elemental (Ultimate) Composition

2.2. Chemical Composition

3. Classification

3.1. Classification Systems

4. Physical Properties

4.1. Elemental (Ultimate) Analysis

4.2. Metals Content

4.3. Density, Specific Gravity, and API gravity

4.4. Viscosity

5. Thermal Properties

5.1. Volatility

5.2. Liquefaction and Solidification

5.3. Carbon Residue

5.4. Aniline Point

5.5. Specific Heat

5.6. Heat Content (Enthalpy)

5.7. Pressure-Volume-Temperature Relationships

5.8. Heat of Combustion

5.9. Critical Properties

6. Electrical and Optical Properties


©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxii

6.1. Electrical Conductivity

6.2. Dielectric Constant

6.3. Dielectric Strength

6.4. Dielectric Loss and Power Factor

6.5. Color

6.6. Refractive Index

6.7. Optical Activity

7. Spectroscopic Properties

7.1 Infrared Spectroscopy

7.2. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

7.3. Mass Spectrometry

7.4. Ultraviolet Spectroscopy

7.5. X-Ray Diffraction

8. Functional Group Analysis

9. Fractional Composition

9.1. Distillation

9.2. Atmospheric Pressure

9.3. Reduced Pressure

10.Solvent Treatment

10.1. Asphaltene Separation

10.2. Fractionation

11.Chromatographic Analysis

11.1. Gas Chromatography

11.2 Simulated Distillation

11.3. Adsorption Chromatography

11.4. Gel Permeation Chromatography

11.5. Ion-Exchange Chromatography

11.6. High-Performance Liquid Chromatography

11.7. Supercritical Fluid Chromatography

11.8. Thin Layer Chromatography

12.Structural Group Analysis

12.1. Physical Property Methods

12.2. Spectroscopic Methods

12.3. Methods for Heteroatom Systems

13.Molecular Weight

13.1. Vapor Pressure Osmometry

13.2. Freezing Point Depression

13.3. Boiling Point Elevation

13.4. Size Exclusion Chromatography

13.5. Mass Spectrometry

13.6. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy

14.Petroleum Product Analysis

14.1. Natural Gas, Liquefied Petroleum Gas, and Refinery Gas

14.2. Naphtha

14.3. Gasoline

14.4. Kerosene

14.5. Diesel Fuel

14.6. Distillate Fuel Oil

14.7. Residual Fuel Oil

14.8. Lubricating Oil

14.9. Grease

14.10. Wax

14.11. Asphalt

14.12. Coke

15.Use of the Data


©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxiii

Relation Between Biofuels Versus Fossil Fuels 269

Luís Cortez, Faculty of Agricultural Engineering – FEAGRI, State University of Campinas – UNICAMP,

Brazil.

Rogério Cezar de Cerqueira Leite, Interdisciplinary Center for Energy Planning – NIPE, State University

of Campinas – UNICAMP, Brazil

1. Introduction

2. Increase of the Greenhouse Effect and Atmospheric Temperature

3. History of the Technology and the Use of Biofuels

4. Possible Alternatives to Mitigate Carbon Dioxide Emissions

5. Photosynthesis and Biofuels

6. Productive Cycle of Biofuels

7. Production of Ethanol

7.1. Production of Ethanol from Sugarcane

7.2. Production of Ethanol from Corn

8. Second Generation of Ethanol: Hydrolysis and Fischer-Tropsch Technologies

8.1. Hydrolysis

8.2. Fischer Tropsch Process

9. Production of Biodiesel

9.1. Raw Material

9.2. Comparison of Biodiesel with Diesel Oil

9.3. Process of Industrial Production of Biodiesel

10. Bio-oil Production by Pyrolysis

11. Points to Consider on Biofuels Production

11.1. Sustainability Aspects

11.2. Competition between Biofuels and Food Production

11.3. Producing Biofuels While Preserving Fragile Ecosystems

11.4. Producing Biofuels While Creating Jobs

12. Final Considerations on the Production and Use of Biofuels

13. Fossil fuels versus Biofuels

14. Conclusion

Future Technology in Heavy Oil Processing 304

Jorge Ancheyta and Mohan S. Rana, Instituto Mexicano del Petróleo, Eje Central Lázaro Cárdenas Norte

152, Mexico City, Mexico

1. Introduction

1.1 The problem of processing heavy petroleum

1.2. Properties of Heavy Petroleum

1.3 General Classification of Processes for Upgrading Heavy Petroleum

2. Description of Processes for Upgrading of Heavy Petroleum

2.1. Technologies Based on Carbon Rejection

2.2. Technologies Based on Hydrogen Addition

2.3. Emerging Technologies

3. Comparison of Technologies


Index 347

About EOLSS 355

Documents

PETROLEUM SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING - EOLSS