PERFORMANCE OF UNPAVED LATERITE ROAD TREATED WITH

CHEMICAL ADDITIVES AND WASTE TIRE

SAYYED YAGHOUB ZOLFEGHARI FAR

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA

PERFORMANCE OF UNPAVED LATERITE ROAD TREATED WITH

CHEMICAL ADDITIVES AND WASTE TIRE

SAYYED YAGHOUB ZOLFEGHARI FAR

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the

requirements for the award of the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy (Civil Engineering)

Faculty of Civil Engineering

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

SEPTEMBER 2015

iii

To my beloved parents, brothers, sisters, all my past and present teachers, and the

almighty who courage and compassion have taught me humility.

iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMET

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisors Prof. Dr. Khairul

Anuar Kassim, Prof. Dr. Mohd Rosli Hainin, and Dr. Amin Eisazadeh of the faculty

of civil engineering UTM and Assoc. Prof. Dr. Anuar Ahmad from faculty of

geoinformation and real estate for their support, kindness and tolerance throughout this

research. Thanks are also extended to all the supporting laboratory technical staff at

UTM, especially geotechnics laboratory, highway laboratory and Ibnu Sina Institute.

I owe my largest debt to my family and words are not enough to thank my parents,

especially my father Haj Sayyed Javad Zolfegharifar who had left us in deep sorrow,

for his love and support over the years. I also would like to thank my mother Hajiyeh

Sayyedeh Maryam Avazzadeh for her support, endurance and patience.

Also, I would like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their valuable

suggestions and comments, which shaped my work and reach the current destination.

Special thanks to all my friends who have been helping me and stood my side during

the hard days of my life.

Last but not least, I would like to praise the almighty ALLAH for giving me the

strength to face different challenges in life.

v

ABSTRACT

Lateritic unpaved roads are widely spread in Malaysian territory. These red-yellow

lateritic layers normally have poor engineering properties such as large settlements, low

shear strength and bearing capacity. Major difficulties may arise during the construction

of a lateritic layer which are deterioration and diffusion of dust on the road surface, and

also durability problems associated with cyclic loading repetition. Waste tires are

encountered all over the world in increasing numbers. Shredded scrap tires and crumbs-

soil mixtures are currently used in a wide range of civil engineering structures like

lightweight fills for slopes, retaining walls, embankments etc. This thesis presents and

discusses the condition of lateritic soil stabilized by using the shredded tires, tire crumbs

and traditional active additive materials such as cement and lime for unpaved road

application. Experimental tests such as X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron

microscope (SEM), california bearing ratio (CBR), consolidated undrained (CU) triaxial,

permeability, and highway accelerated loading instrument (HALI) tests were carried out

to evaluate the microstructures, elements, durability and geotechnical strength properties

of tropical laterite soils. These tests were conducted to determine the influence of

stabilizers on the surface of the lateritic soil layers in terms of loading cycles, and short

term behaviour. The quick undrained triaxial and CBR tests were carried out on samples

at different curing times to establish the optimum mix design. The strength parameters

were determined from CU triaxial tests on unsoaked samples. The HALI test was used to

study the strength, durability and deformation after determination of the best formulation

for each stabilizer in combination with laterite soils under accelerated trafficking load,

simultaneously. The close range Photogrammetry technique was also used to capture

images of deformed untreated and treated surface. The camera data were analysed using

software known as Australis, and Surfer 10 were used to evaluate the performance of

unpaved road stabilization with traditional active additives and waste tires. After eliciting

of results and data and use of the comparison curves, the behaviour of stabilized soil with

different combination were determined. The highest and lowest permeability were STc

(soil and tire crumbs) and SC (soil and cement) at 14 days, respectively. The highest CBR

values occurred for SC on unsoaked condition in 14 days. The HALI test shows that the

highest reduction in settlement was exhibited by SL (soil-6%lime) after 14 days curing.

Also, the experimental results show that 6% of lime/cement and 6% of shredded tires/tires

crumbs changed the soil strength, durability, and permeability properties of the lateritic

soil for unpaved road applications. The results indicate that the shredded scrap tire and

crumbs mixed with active additive had reduced the settlement significantly and also had

increased the strength. The analysis of data by close range Photogrammetry technique

shows a close approximation to the data obtained from LVDT’s equipment (less than 4.5%

variance). The numerical simulation results carried out using ABAQUS 6.11 show a

noticeable similarity to the results obtained by full scale HALI model and it is

recommended using ABAQUS to simulate the unpaved road behaviour under cyclic

loading to save time and cost.

vi

ABSTRAK

Terdapat banyak jalan laterit tidak berturap di Malaysia. Lapisan-lapisan laterit merah-

kuning biasanya mempunyai ciri-ciri kejuruteraan yang lemah seperti pemendapan yang besar,

dan kekuatan ricih dan keupayaan galas yang rendah. Masalah utama yang mungkin timbul

semasa pembinaan lapisan laterit termasuk kemerosotan dan resapan debu pada permukaan

jalan, dan juga masalah yang berkait dengan pembebanan berkitar. Bilangan sisa tayar di

seluruh dunia semakin meningkat. Sisa tayar tercincang dan campuran remah-tanah kini

digunakan dalam pelbagai struktur kejuruteraan awam seperti isian ringan untuk cerun,

tembok penahan, benteng dan banyak lagi. Tesis ini membentangkan dan membincangkan

keadaan tanah laterit yang distabilkan dengan menggunakan sisa tayar tercincang, remah tayar

dan bahan tambahan aktif seperti simen dan kapur untuk kegunaan jalan tidak berturap. Ujian

seperti pembelauan X-ray (XRD), mikroskop pengimbas elektron (SEM), nisbah galas

california (CBR), ujian terkukuh taktersalir tiga paksi (CU), kebolehtelapan, dan ujian HALI

telah dijalankan untuk menilai struktur mikro, elemen-elemen, ketahanan dan sifat-sifat

kekuatan geoteknik tanah laterit tropika. Kajian ini telah dijalankan untuk menentukan

pengaruh penstabil pada permukaan lapisan tanah laterit dari segi kitaran beban, dan kelakuan

jangka pendek. Ujian ujian terkukuh taktersalir tiga paksi dan ujian CBR telah dijalankan ke

atas sampel-sampel pada berbeza umur untuk mendapatkan rekabentuk campuran yang

optimum. Parameter-parameter kekuatan ditentukan daripada ujian terkukuh taktersalir yang

dijalankan ke atas sampel-sampel tidak terendam. Ujian HALI telah digunakan untuk

mengkaji kekuatan, ketahanan dan perubahan bentuk selepas pengenalpastian formulasi

terbaik bagi setiap penstabil bersama gabungan tanah-tanah laterit di bawah beban trafik

terpecut, secara serentak. Teknik fotogrametrik jarak dekat juga digunakan untuk mengambil

imej permukaan takterawat dan terawat. Data-data kamera telah dianalisis dengan

menggunakan perisian-perisian yang dikenali sebagai Australis dan Surfer 10 untuk menilai

prestasi penstabilan jalan tidak berturap dengan bahan tambah aktif dan sisa tayar tercincang

dan remah. Selepas memperolehi keputusan dan data serta penggunaan keluk perbandingan,

kelakuan tanah stabil dengan kombinasi yang berbeza dapat diperolehi. Kebolehtelapan

tertinggi dan terendah adalah STc dan SC berumur 14 hari masing-masing. Nilai CBR tertinggi

berlaku pada SC yang tak terendam berusia 14 hari. Ujian HALI menunjukkan bahawa

pengurangan pemendapan tertinggi telah berlaku pada SL (tanah-6% kapur) pada redaman 14

hari. Selain itu, keputusan ujian menunjukkan bahawa 6% kapur/simen dan 6% sisa tayar

tercincang/remah tayar telah mengubah sifat kekuatan tanah, ketahanan, kekuatan dan

kebolehtelapan tanah laterit untuk aplikasi jalan tidak berturap. Keputusan menunjukkan

bahawa campuran sisa tayar tercincang dan bahan tambah aktif telah mengurangkan

pemendapan secara signifikan dan juga telah meningkatkan kekuatan. Analisis data dengan

teknik fotogrametrik jarak dekat menunjukkan nilai yang amat hampir dengan data yang

diperoleh dari alat LVDT (kurang dari 4.5% varians). Keputusan simulasi numerikal yang

dilakukan dengan menggunakan perisian ABAQUS 6.11 menunjukkan persamaan yang ketara

dengan keputusan yang diperolehi menerusi model skala penuh HALI dan adalah disarankan

untuk menggunakan ABAQUS bagi mensimulasikan kelakuan jalan tidak berturap di bawah

kitaran beban bagi menjimatkan masa dan kos.

vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

DECLIRATION ii

DEDICATION iii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS iv

ABSTRACT v

ABSTRAK vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS vii

LIST OF TABLES xiii

LIST OF FIGURES xvi

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xxiii

LIST OF APPENDICES xxviii

1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background of the Study 1

1.2 Statement of the Problems 3

1.3 Objectives of the Study 6

1.4 Importance of Local Unpaved Roads 7

1.5 Scope of and Limitation the Study 7

1.6 Significance of the Study 8

1.7 Thesis Organization 9

2 LITERATURE REVIEW 11

2.1 Introduction 11

2.2 Laterite Residual Soils in Tropical Area 15

2.2.1 Chemical Composition and Mineralogy of

Laterite Residual Soil 18

viii

2.2.2 Residual Soil Physical Properties 21

2.2.3 Geotechnical Properties of Laterite Soils 23

2.2.3.1 Density 24

2.2.3.2 Compressibility 25

2.2.3.3 Permeability 25

2.2.3.4 Shear Strength 28

2.3 Clay Characteristics 34

2.3.1 Clay Minerals 34

2.3.1.1 Kaolinite 37

2.3.1.2 Montmorilinite 37

2.3.1.3 Illite 40

2.3.2 Clays from Tropical Regions 40

2.3.3 Clay-Water Interaction 42

2.4 Soil Stabilization With Active Additive and Polymer 45

2.4.1 Lime Stabilization 50

2.4.2 Cement Stabilization 54

2.4.3 Stabilization Using Polymers 60

2.4.3.1 Scrap Waste Tire 61

2.4.4 Stabilization Using a Proprietary

Cementitious Stabilizer 69

2.4.5 Soil Sample Storage and Preparation 69

2.4.6 Laboratory Sample Production and Extraction 70

2.5 Type of Traffic Loading Test on Stabilized Unpaved

Road 74

2.5.1 Static Loading Test 74

2.5.2 Actual Pavements Traffic Test 77

2.5.3 Accelerated Pavement Loading Test 78

2.5.3.1 Axle and Wheel Loads 79

2.5.3.2 Tyre Pressures 81

2.5.3.3 Accelerated Repetitions 81

2.5.3.4 Calibration of Full-Scale Accelerated

Pavement Testing Data Using Long-

Term Pavement Performance Data 81

ix

2.5.4 Existing Accelerated Pavement Loading Test 84

2.5.4.1 Dynamic Loading Test 85

2.5.4.2 RUB-Strap 86

2.5.4.3 Heavy Vehicle Simulator 88

2.5.4.4 Newcastle University Rolling Load

Facility 88

2.5.4.5 Accelerated Pavement Test Facility 90

2.5.4.6 Model Mobile Load Simulator 91

2.5.4.7 Accelerated Pavement Testing of

Unpaved Road Model 92

2.5.4.8 Highway Accelerated Loading

Instrument 94

2.5.5 Using the Photogrammetry Close Range

Technique 99

2.6 Numerical Analysis Modelling 104

2.7 Summery 106

3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 108

3.1 Introduction 108

3.2 Research Design and Procedure 111

3.3 Material Specification 114

3.3.1 Tropical Laterite Residual Soil

Characterization 114

3.3.2 The Lime, Cement and Scrap Tire as

Stabilizers 120

3.3.3 Water Quality 124

3.4 Laboratory Full-Scale Mix Design Preparation 125

3.4.1 Lime and Cement Content 125

3.4.2 Compaction Characteristics 125

3.4.3 Sample Preparation 126

3.5 Sample Characterization 128

3.5.1 Micro-Structural Characterization 129

3.5.1.1 X-ray Diffraction 129

x

3.5.1.2 Field Emission Scanning Electron

Microscopy & X-ray Spectrometry 131

3.6 Chemical Properties Analysis 133

3.6.1 Cation Exchange Capacity 133

3.6.2 PH Measurement 134

3.7 Strength and Durability Properties Analysis 135

3.7.1 Standard Proctor Compaction Test 135

3.7.2 Unconfined Compressive Strength 138

3.7.3 California Bearing Ratio Test 140

3.7.4 Permeability Test 142

3.7.5 Shear Strength Test (CU Triaxial

Compression Test) 145

3.7.5.1 Saturation Triaxial Condition 146

3.7.5.2 Triaxial Consolidation 146

3.7.5.3 Consolidated-Undrained Triaxial

Compression 147

3.8 HALI Test and Instrument Design 148

3.8.1 Highway Accelerated Loading Instrument

(HALI) 149

3.8.2 Calibration of HALI 151

3.8.2.1 Loading Applied to Wheel 151

3.8.2.2 Speed f Mobile Carriage 156

3.8.2.3 Tyre Pressure 156

3.8.3 HALI Performance Monitoring 156

3.8.3.1 Construction of Test Pavement 157

3.8.3.2 Procedures of Accelerated Trafficking

Test 165

3.8.3.3 Rut Depth and Permanent

Deformation Measurement 165

3.8.3.4 Using Photogrammetry Technique to

Measure Deformation 167

3.9 Numerical Model 171

xi

3.9.1 Material Properties and Their Constitutive

Models 172

3.9.2 Loading and Boundary Conditions 173

4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 178

4.1 Introduction 178

4.2 Material Properties 180

4.2.1 Chemical and Mineralogical Investigations 183

4.2.2 Supplementary Tests 185

4.2.2.1 Compaction Test Results 185

4.2.2.2 Undrained Compression Strength

(UCS) Test Results 192

4.2.2.3 The Effect of California Bearing Ratio

(CBR) Test in Stabilized Soil 195

4.2.2.4 The Effect of Permeability in

Untreated and Treated Laterite Soil 201

4.2.2.5 The Triaxial Test Results 203

4.3 HALI Results 205

4.3.1 The Density, Permeability and Moisture

Content Material Control 205

4.3.2 The Effect of Additive Materials on the

Settlement under Cyclic Loading 208

4.3.3 The Effect of the Cycling Loading on the

Settlement Based on the Various Additive

Materials 221

4.3.4 Cross Sectional (Transverse) Deformations

Of The HALI Material Under Cyclic Loading

Based on the Various Additive Materials 223

4.3.5 Cross Sectional Deformations of the Unpaved

Road Under Cyclic Loading Based on the

Various Cyclic Loading 233

xii

4.3.6 Longitude Sectional Deformations of The

Unpaved Road Under Cyclic Loading Based

on the Various Additive Materials 237

4.3.7 Longitude Sectional Deformations of the

Unpaved Road Under Cyclic Loading Based

on the Various Cyclic Loading 241

4.3.8 Two-Dimensional and Three-Dimensional

View of Deformed Simulated Full Scale

Unpaved Road 242

4.4 Comparison Between Photogrammetry Technique

and LVDT’s Equipment Results 248

4.5 Numerical Modelling 250

4.5.1 Compression Between Experimental and

Finite Element Settlement Rut Results For

Various Cyclic Loading 255

4.5.2 Comparison Between the Measured and

Predicted Settlements 257

4.5.3 Treated Soil Settlement Improvement (%)

After Various Cycles Loading 260

4.5.4 Validation of Numerical Models 262

4.6 Summery 262

5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 267

5.1 Introduction 267

5.1 Conclusions 267

5.2 Recommendations 270

REFERENCES 272

Appendices A-I 283-316

xiii

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE

2.1 The physical and chemical properties of the natural

laterite clay (Eisazadeh, 2010) 18

2.2 Amount of major elements (%) of some residual soils in

Malaysia 20

2.3 Chemical composition of the eastern nigerian laterite soils

(Nnadi, 1988) 20

2.4 Physical properties of residual soils from various places

in Malaysia 22

2.5 Percentages of soil components based on particle size in

some area of Malaysia 23

2.6 Physical properties of laterite soils in Eastern Nigeria

(Nnadi, 1988) 23

2.7 Engineering properties of some granite residual soils in

the Peninsular of Malaysia) 25

2.8 In-situ and compacted permeability of some tropical

laterite soils (Nnadi, 1988) 27

2.9 Values of physical indices of granitic residual soils from

various places in the peninsular of Malaysia 28

2.10 Shear strength parameters of compacted laterite soils

(Ogunsanwo, 1989) 29

2.11 Representative values of technical properties of tire shreds

(Edeskär, 2004) 64

2.12 Values of permeability of tire shreds (Edeskär, 2004) 65

2.13 Result from triaxial testing of five different tire products

without protruding steel cord (Edeskär, 2004) 66

2.14 Shear strength of different size tire shreds (Reddy &

Marella, 2001) 68

xiv

2.15a Association matrix of test procedures for preparing and

curing test specimen using cement, lime and polymer

stabilizers (Geiman, 2005). Part 1 72

2.15b Association matrix of test procedures for preparing and

curing test specimen using cement, lime and polymer

stabilizers (Geiman, 2005). Part 2 73

2.16 Typical maximum single axle loads (Shackel, 1994) 79

2.17 Standard axle loads (Shackel, 1994) 80

2.18 Summary of finite element analysis 106

3.1 The number of tests performed according to test types 113

3.2 The mix design of research activities 114

3.3 Elemental composition of soil samples using XRF 118

3.4 The geotechnical properties of the natural residual soil

samples 118

3.5 Chemicals values content and pH of Skudai granite

residual soil 119

3.6 Amount of major elements (%) in Skudai residual soil 119

3.7 The physical and chemical composition of the hydrated

lime 122

3.8 The physical, mechanical and chemical properties of

cement 122

3.9 Chemical components of shredded and crumbs scrap tire 124

3.10 Correlation chart for estimating soil properties (modified

from Koerner, 1994) 142

3.11 The categories of permeability values 144

3.12 Typical permeability coefficients for different soils 145

3.13 HALI samples characterisations 160

3.14 The varied of Cu and E of empirical formulations in weak

subgrade soil 175

3.15 Correlation equations to calculate the compression Index,

Cc (Widodo and Ibrahim, 2012) 175

4.1 Values of physical indices of granitic residual soils from

various places in the Peninsular of Malaysia 181

4.2 Percentages of soil components based on particle size 181

xv

4.3 Engineering properties of some granite residual soils in

the Peninsular of Malaysia 182

4.4 Values of chloride, sulphate, carbonate, organic contents

and pH of some granite residual soils in the Peninsular of

Malaysia 182

4.5 Amount of major elements (%) in some granitic residual

soils 183

4.6 The result of soil solution pH tests in addition of lime and

cement 184

4.7 Compositions of sample mixtures by percentage of

sample dry weight 198

4.8 The CBR test result of unsoaked and soaked sample with

curing age 199

4.9 The consolidated undrained triaxial results (CU) at 14

curing days 203

4.10 Density and moisture content of treated and untreated soil

for HALI and standard laboratory compaction test 207

4.11 Permeability of treated and untreated soil for HALI and

laboratory compaction test 208

4.12 The ratio of settlement deferential to number of loading

cycles deferential 239

4.13 Material engineering and geotechnical properties 253

xvi

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE

2.1 Typical weathering profiles of residual soils (Rahardjo et

al., 2004) 16

2.2 Influence of water content on shear strength at constant

density (Nnadi, 1988) 31

2.3 Effects of water contents on soaked samples at constant

density (Nnadi, 1988) 32

2.4 Influence of microstructure on shear strength and

volume change characteristics (Nnadi, 1988) 33

2.5 Basic sheet arrangements of aluminium octahedral, silica

tetrahedral and synthesis pattern of clay minerals

(Mitchell and Soga, 2005) 36

2.6 Structure and morphology of kaolinite (McBride, 1994) 38

2.7 Structure and morphology of montmorilinite (McBride,

1994) 39

2.8 Structure and morphology of illite (McBride, 1994) 41

2.9 Some possible mechanisms of water adsorption by clay

surfaces: (a) hydrogen bonding, (b) ion hydration, (c)

attraction by osmosis, and (d) dipole attraction (Mitchell

and Soga, 2005) 43

2.10 Distribution of ions adjacent to a clay surface according

to the concept of the diffuse double layer (Mitchell and

Soga, 2005) 44

2.11 Textural modifications due to the changes in the

thickness of diffuse double layer (Little, 1995) 44

2.12 Texas department of transportation selection of optimum

lime content (Chou, 1987) 53

2.13 Effect of modification on grain size distribution content

immediately after laterite mixing (Osula, 1996) 57

2.14 Variation of OMC and MDD with lime and cement

content immediately after laterite mixing (Osula, 1996) 57

xvii

2.15 Variation of LL, PL and PI with modifier content

immediately after mixing (Osula, 1996) 58

2.16 Variation of MDD with elapsed time after mixing

(Osula, 1996) 59

2.17 Variation of OMC with elapsed time after mixing

(Osula, 1996) 59

2.18 The plate load test setup (Panda and Ghosh, 2002) 75

2.19 Layout of CPB units in test panels (Emery and Lazar,

2003) 76

2.20 Schematic diagram of compression test rig (Emery and

Lazar, 2003) 77

2.21 The typical distributions of truck axle loads (CMAA,

1997b) 80

2.22 The rutting profile (VdM Steyn et al., 2012) 82

2.23 The average deflections on LTPP section 83

2.24 The Stiffness trends at different depths (VdM Steyn et

al., 2012 84

2.25 The rut correlation example (VdM Steyn et al., 2012) 84

2.26 Laboratory setup showing the testing apparatus and the

CPB laid in the herringbone pattern (Vanderlaan, 1994) 86

2.27 Schematic of the RUB-StraP (Koch, 1999) 87

2.28 Full scales drawing of test bed with designation of point

of origin and dimensions (Koch, 1999) 87

2.29 Some possible mechanisms of water adsorption by clay

The accelerated pavement test facility (Ryntathiang et

al., 2005) 90

2.30 The Accelerated pavements testing of unpaved road

model (Yang et al., 2012) 93

2.31 The accelerated pavement test of unpaved road design

(Yang et al., 2012) (Nnadi, 1988) 93

2.32 The highway accelerated loading instruments 94

2.33 Measurement of pavement model deformation using the

dial gauges (Chai, 2008) 96

2.34 The 3-D model of concrete block pavement on the HALI

full scale prototype (Saleh, 2011 97

2.35 The comparison of concrete block pavement using

different percent of cement on the HALI full scale

prototype (Saleh, 2011) 97

xviii

2.36 The deformation of concrete block pavement by using

6% cement on the HALI full scale prototype (Saleh,

2011) 98

2.37 The HALI machine scheme with different grade of slope

(Saleh, 2011)) 98

2.38 The spraying scheme for pavement (Saleh, 2011) 99

2.39 Schematic diagram the experimental and

photogrammetric set-up (Heng et al., 2010) 100

2.40 Foundation under loadings and the profile for the

displacement under stress (Vesic, 1973) 101

2.41 The photogrammetry targets in the pavement surface on

the HALI test (Saleh, 2011) 102

2.42 Fixing the cameras on HALI (Saleh, 2011) 102

2.43 The Positioning of cameras and taking the photographs

from both sides of each part of sample (Saleh, 2011) 103

2.44 The 3-D Model of the pavement deformation from surfer

8 software (Saleh, 2011) 103

3.1 The research flow chart 110

3.2 The soil sample and its location in Malaysia 116

3.3 Micrographss showing kaolinitic and halloysitic flakes

using FESEM 117

3.4 The scrap tire crumbs 123

3.5 The shredded waste tire 124

3.6 The compaction analysis equipment 126

3.7 Prepared samples for various laboratory testing 128

3.8 Diffraction from crystal planes according to Bragg’s

Law (Mitchelland Soga, 2005) 130

3.9 X-ray Diffractometer 131

3.10 Field emission scanning electron microscope 133

3.11 The pH measurement equipment 135

3.12 (a) Cylinder mold stand and special hammer dimensions

for compaction, (b) cylinder mold stand (left) and special

hammer (right) 137

3.13 The triaxial loading frame, ADU, and the processing unit 138

3.14 The Universiti Teknologi Malaysia CBR equipment 142

3.15 The highway accelerated loading instrument (HALI) 149

3.16 The unpaved road designed by HALI instrument 151

3.17 Load cell and data logger 152

xix

3.18 The general layout of axisymmetric subgrade model 154

3.19 Relationship between contact pressure and tire pressure 154

3.20 Dimension of tire contact area 156

3.21 The performance neoprene cover by plastic sheet on

HALI test bed 158

3.22 The equipment to mixing, compact samples and to

measure deformation 159

3.23 The specimens’ placement in the HALI box 160

3.24 The preparation the first samples layer 161

3.25 The preparation the second sample layer 162

3.26 The samples compaction process 162

3.27 Five soil stabilization samples with different

composition of lime, cement and waste tire crumbs as

stabilizers 163

3.28 Six soil stabilization samples with different composition 164

3.29 Marking the samples after compacted and cured 164

3.30 The schematics of acquisition equipment on highway

accelerated loading machine 167

3.31 The HALI sample preparation and grid marking 168

3.32 The performance close range photogrammetry after

HALI test 168

3.33 Fixing the cameras 169

3.34 Positioning of cameras 169

3.35 Taking the photographs from one side 170

3.36 Taking the photographs from both sides of each part of

sample in HALI 170

3.37 The photogrammetry data collection process and data

analysis 171

3.38 The general layout of axisymmetric subgrade model 171

3.39 Drucker-Prager elasto-plastic relationship and the

direction of plastic strains 173

3.40 Possible reinforcement functions unpaved road: (a)

lateral restraint, (b) bearing capacity increase, and (c)

wheel path rut 177

4.1 The XRD of untreated and treated soil samples 185

4.2 The effect of compaction on unsterilized soil and

stabilized with lime 187

xx

4.3 The effect of compaction on unsterilized soil and

stabilized with cement 188

4.4 The effect of compaction on unsterilized soil and

stabilized with shredded and crumbs scrap tires 191

4.5 The UTM unconfined compression strength (UCS) test

instrument 192

4.6 The effect of UCS test on natural laterite soil 193

4.7 The unconfined compression strength (UCS) failure

values of unsoaked lime stabilized natural soil 194

4.8 The unconfined compression strength (UCS) failure

values of unsoaked cement stabilized soil 194

4.9 The effect of UCS on unsoaked lime stabilized laterite

soil 195

4.10 Field emission scanning electron microscope 196

4.11 The california bearing ratio (CBR) test 197

4.12 The CBR test result of unsoaked and soaked sample with

curing age, (a) 14 days, (b) 7 days, (c) swell 200

4.13 The falling head permeability test 201

4.14 The falling head permeability test result of samples at

different curing periods 203

4.15 The falling head permeability test result of samples at

different curing periods 203

4.16 The consolidated undrained triaxial results (CU) at 14

curing days (a) cohesion, (b) internal friction angle 204

4.17 Sand cone and permeability tests sampling 205

4.18 Comparison of cyclic loading- settlement curves

between untreated and treated soil by tire crumbs 209

4.19 Cyclic load-settlement curve for untreated soil 210

4.20 Comparison of cyclic loading- settlement curves

between untreated and treated soil by tire crumbs 211

4.21 Comparison of cyclic loading- settlement curves

between untreated and treated soil by tire crumbs 212

4.22 Comparison of cyclic loading- Settlement curves

between untreated and treated soil by cement 213

4.23 Comparison of cyclic loading- settlement curves

between untreated and treated soil by cement and tire

crumbs 214

4.24 Comparison of cyclic loading- settlement curves

between untreated and treated soil by cement and

shredded tire 216

xxi

4.25 Comparison of cyclic loading- settlement curves

between untreated and treated soil by lime 217

4.26 Comparison of cyclic loading- settlement curves

between untreated soil and treated soil with lime and tire

crumbs 218

4.27 Comparison of cyclic loading- settlement curves

between untreated and treated soil by lime and shredded

tire 219

4.28 Comparison of cyclic loading-settlement curves between

untreated and treated soil 220

4.29 The compression of settlement improvement (%) in

treated soil by various additives 221

4.30 Accumulated average settlement depth of untreated and

treated HALI material up to 400 load repetitions 222

4.31 Accumulated average settlement rut depth of S up to 400

load repetitions 224

4.32 Accumulated average settlement rut depth of STc up to

400 load repetitions 225

4.33 Accumulated average settlement rut depth of STm up to

400 load repetitions 226

4.34 Accumulated average settlement rut depth SC up to 400

load repetitions 227

4.35 Accumulated average settlement rut depth of SCTc up to

400 load repetitions 228

4.36 Accumulated average settlement rut depth of SCTm up

to 400 load repetitions 229

4.37 Accumulated average settlement rut depth SL up to 400

load repetitions 230

4.38 Accumulated average settlement rut depth SLTc up to

400 load repetitions 231

4.39 Accumulated average settlement rut depth SLTm up to

400 load repetitions 232

4.40 Transvers sections for various HALI material settlement

after 10 cyclic load 234

4.41 Transvers sections for various HALI material settlement

after 100 cyclic load 235

4.42 Transvers sections for various HALI material settlement

after 200 cyclic load 236

4.43 Transvers sections for various HALI material settlement

after 400 cyclic load 237

xxii

4.44 Average of accumulate Longitude sectional

deformations of the unpaved road under cyclic loading

based on the various cyclic loading 238

4.45 The ratio trend of settlement deferential to numbers of

loading cycles deferential 239

4.46 Average of accumulate longitude sectional deformations

of the unpaved road under cyclic loading based on the

various cyclic loading 240

4.47 Comparison of cyclic loading-settlement curves between

untreated and treated soil 242

4.48 3D view of settlement rut path after various load

repetitions for model 1 244

4.49 2D view of settlement rut path after various load

repetitions for full-scale model1 245

4.50 3D view of settlement rut path after various load

repetitions for model 2 246

4.51 2D view of settlement rut path after various load

repetitions for full-scale model 2 247

4.52 Comparison of settlement measured by LVDT's

equipment and photogrammetry technique under 100

load cycles 248

4.53 Percentage of settlement differences measured by

LVDT's equipment and photogrammetry technique

under 100 load cycles 249

4.54 3D view of model1 parts in finite element modelling 250

4.55 3D view of boundary condition of model1 in finite

element modelling 250

4.56 3D view of model1 meshing in finite element modelling 251

4.57 3D view of model1 in finite element modelling 252

4.58 3D view of finite element result contours for model1 (a)

settlement (b) stress (c) 254

4.59 The comparison between variation of experimental and

finite element settlements results under 10, 100, 200 and

400 cyclic loading repetition 256

4.60a Prediction of SC settlement using FE analysis for

different cycles 258

4.60b Prediction of SC settlement using FE analysis for

different cycles 259

xxiii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AAS - Atomic absorption spectrophotometer

ADU - Data acquisition unit

AEC - Anion exchange capacity

Al - Aluminum

Al3+ - Aluminum cation

Al(OH)3 - Aluminum hydroxide

Al2O3 - Aluminium Oxide

APH - Aluminate phosphate hydrate

AlPO4 - Aluminum phosphate

ASTM - American society of testing material

AT - Acid treated

Ba - Barium

Ba2+ - Barium cation

BaCl2 - Barium Chloride

BET - Brunauer emmett and teller

BS - British standard

c - Constant

Ca - Calcium

Ca2+ - Calcium cation

CaCO3 - Calcium carbonate

CAH - Calcium aluminate hydrate

CaO - Calcium oxide

Ca(OH)2 - Calcium hydroxide

CASH - Calcium aluminate silicate hydrate

CaSO4 - Calcium sulphate

xxiv

CEC - Cation exchange capacity

Cl - Chloride

CSH - Calcium silicate hydrate

Cs - Concentration adsorbed on soil surfaces

Ce - Concentration in water

CO2 - Carbon dioxide

cps - Counts per second

Cu - Copper

d - Distance of interplanar spacing as function of θ

D - Dielectric constant of medium

DTA - Differential thermal analysis

DTG - Derivative thermal gravimetric

e - Electronic charge

EDAX - Energy dispersive x-ray analysis

EE - Equilibrium extraction

F - Fluoride

Fe - Iron

Fe2+ - Iron (II) cation

Fe3+ - Iron (III) cation

Fe2O3 - Ferric Oxide

FESEM - Field emission scanning electron microscopy

FTIR - Fourier transform infrared

GB - Green Bentonite

H - Hydrogen

H+ - Hydrogen cation

HCL - Hydrochoric acid

H2O - Water

H3PO4 - Phosphoric acid

H3PO3 - Phosphorous acid

HPO3-2 - Phosphonate ion

ICL - Initial consumption of lime

ICP - Inductively coupled plasma

K - Potassium

xxv

K+ - Potassium cation

k - Boltzmann constant

KBr - Potassium bromide

kdes - Desorption rate

kads - Adsorption rate

LC - Laterite Clay

LL - Liquid limit

LOI - Loss on ignition

LT - Lime treated

LVDT - Linear variable displacement transducer

MAS - Magic angle spinning

MDD - Maximum dry density

mEq - milliequivalents

Mg - Magnesium

MgO - Magnesium oxide

MM - Mercury microporosimetry

M - Months

n - Order of diffraction

n0 - Eelectrolyte concentration

Na - Sodium

Na+ - Sodium cation

Na2O - Sodium oxide

NH4 - Ammonium ion

Nm - Number of molecules

NMR - Nuclear magnetic resonance

NO3 - Nitrate

O - Oxygen

OC - Organic content

(OH) - Hydroxide ion

OMC - Optimum moisture content

P - Phosphorous

Pb - Lead

PI - Plasticity index

xxvi

PL - Plastic limit

P2O5 - Phosphorus oxide

PO4-3 - Phosphate ion

ppm - parts per million

PS - Pink Soil

Pt - Platinum

S - Soil

SC - Treated soil with cement

SCTc - Treated soil with cement and tire crumbs

SCTm - Treated soil with cement and shredded tire

sec - Seconds

SEM - Scanning electron microscope

Si - Silicon

SiO2 - Silica

SL - Treated soil with lime

SLTc - Treated soil with lime and tire crumbs

SLTm - Treated soil with lime and shredded tire

SO4 - Sulfate

SSA - Specific surface area

Su - Sulfur

T - Temperature

STc - Treated soil with tire crumbs

TEM - Transmission electron microscopy

TG - Thermal gravimetric

TGA - Thermal gravimetric analysis

STm - Treated soil with shredded tire

UCS - Unconfined compressive strength

UT - Untreated

ν - Volume of gas adsorbed per unit weight of clay at a pressure

νm - Volume of gas adsorbed for monolayer coverage

WK - White Kaolin

XRD - X-ray diffraction

XRF - X-ray fluorescence

xxvii

Zn - Zinc

1/k - The effective thickness of the diffuse layer

ν - Cation valence

ε0 - Permittivity of vacuum

ε - Strain

μ - Micro

λ - Wave-length

θ - Critical angle of incidence of the x-ray beam on the crystal

plane

xxviii

LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX TITLE PAGE

A BSCS sub-group classification of soils on the basis of

grading and plasticity chart (BS 5930:1999) 283

B The typical of XRD test results 284

C The typical micrographs showing kaolinitic and halloysitic

flakes for untreated residual laterite soil using FESEM.

285

D The triaxial test analysis results of samples 286

E The EDAX analysis of residual laterite soil 291

F The calibration of PH meter 298

G Deformation of simulated full scale treated and untreated

unpaved road under HALI model 1 299

H Deformation of simulated full scale treated and untreated

unpaved road under HALI model 2 307

I Deformation results of simulated full scale treated and

untreated unpaved road under HALI model measured by

photogrammetry technique 315

CHAPTER 1

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Roads have a very important role in the progress and promotion of a country.

Transportation and public services can be done based on the availability and

performance of the roads. Therefore, maintenance and quality of them is a key for

every country. The roads are classified to be paved and unpaved based on their

pavement characteristics. Unpaved roads and low-type paved roads are usually used

for the low volume traffic. They serve as access roads and play a very important role

in the rural economy, resource industries (forest, mining, and energy), and the

transportation for military purposes. Furthermore, the rural and forest roads are basic

elements in the economic progress and also for the social promote procedures of

health, income, facilitate future development, technology transfer, and education

potential of the communities of remote areas. Based on the fast growing development

of Malaysia, it is essential to establish low cost remote access roads to gain the natural

or less populated areas. These roads are built to provide faster and better access to local

villages or uninhabited areas from main roads or major cities. In most cases the

unpaved roads have to be constructed on a soft foundation soils where large

deformations can occur this increases the maintenance cost and lead to interruption of

traffic service.

In Malaysia, a large amount of the residential tropical unpaved roads are built on

the lateritic soil (Newill and Dowling, 1969). Eisazadeh et al. (2010) reported that the

2

tropical lateratic soils with high moisture contents are one of the most available soils

in Malaysia. A number of difficulties has always limited the use of lateritic soil as a

good subgrade during the construction such as their workability, field compaction, and

strength.

The wheel tires are composed of rubber and synthetic polymer materials. They

have low unit weight, and other unique properties such as high permeability,

insulating, tensile strength, flexibility, and high friction resistance. The mechanical

properties of whole tires remain even after its ordinary life as a car wheel element has

expired. Reusing the waste whole tire is known as a good solution for saving the

environment by preventing burning and stockpiling of old tires. The use of waste tire

crumbs stabilizer material reduces the sand mining which helps to achieve a more

sustainable construction. In most countries including Malaysia, scrap tires are used for

various purposes such as facing elements of backfills and retaining walls. Huat et al.

(2008) stated that the application of waste tires crumbs for reinforcement requires a

good understanding of both the physical and mechanical strength properties. In

addition, the durability of the tires is a key issue. Currently, there is little information

and not even suitable testing standard or guideline to test the tensile strength of scrap

tire for such applications.

Ingles and Metcalf (1972) stated that the soil stabilization is a chemical, thermal,

and mechanical process in which some of undesirable properties of soil can be

overcome. In real engineering practice, the main properties of soils that may require

improvement are strength, permeability, and durability. One of the most widely

recognized form of stabilization methods is the compaction technique, which can

improve the mechanical stability of soil. However, the compaction method alone is

often insufficient to improve the behaviour of fine-grained soils.

The stabilization of clayey soils by incorporation of calcium based stabilizers such

as lime is widely used throughout the world. In this method, the combination of high

pH grouts will provide natural pozzolans in order to have sufficient pozzolanic

reactions. However, in some cases involving soils with high sulfate contents, treatment

with conventional calcium-rich additives has led to excessive swelling and heaving

3

(Hunter, 1988; Kota et al., 1996; Mitchell and Dermatas, 1992; Rollings et al., 1999).

In addition, the improper use of chemical stabilizers may led to loss of millions of

dollars (Wiggins et al., 1978).

Huat et al. (2008) studied on the required additive types and quantities, the

magnitude of strength improvement and the relative strength improvement by

unconfined compressive strength (UCS). Gow et al. (1961) performed California

Bearing Ratio (CBR) tests to compact the treated soil sample in both soaked and

unsoaked conditions in order to demonstrate the effectiveness of stabilizer. The

highway accelerated loading instrument (HALI) was recently developed for the

assessment of concrete block and asphalt pavement deformed during their lifetime in

Technology University of Malaysia (UTM). It was designed to ensure that a full-scale

life cycle assessment of the paving materials could be achieved. The examination of a

pavement's durability is permitted since the design guidelines allow the evaluation of

different base and surface materials.

Hence, there is a need to initiate a study to improve knowledge on stabilization

techniques. An available solution for the stated problems is to improve the construction

materials such as using active additives and/or waste polymer as the natural soil

stabilizer for unpaved roads. The main aim of this study is to perform and improve the

geotechnical and serviceability condition of unpaved roads by treated with proper

mixtures of cement, lime, and waste tire crumbs. This experimental research was

evaluated the durability and geotechnical strength properties of tropical laterite soils.

The behaviour of treated laterite specimens were assessed to determine their impact

on the improvement of unpaved roads constructed on the tropical climate. The study

also focused on determination of soil rate durability, strength achievement, protection

against weather conditions, and also providing long term sustainability.

4

1.2 Statement of the Problems

The response of geotechnical engineers to the growth in developmental projects,

the difficulty in understanding soil conditions and the failures associated with tropical

soils, and the need to address these failures and the related problems in the tropics, has

led to the apparent increase in research on the tropical soil types and their engineering

properties. The importance of laterite tropical soils cannot be more emphasized as they

are being used as construction and engineering material for roads and airfield sub-

bases and sub-grades in the tropics. In many regions, it is the dominant soil type. The

research on the laterite soil significantly increased (Gogo-Abite, 2005). There is a

strong intention for geotechnical engineers to adopt soil classification, testing

methods, and preparing recommendations for temperate regions in order to classify the

laterite soils in the tropical conditions. The reported testing methods presented for the

temperate region soil classification often failed to predict the field performance of

lateritic soils accurately. This is because the index tests are not usually reproducible

for the lateritic soils (Tuncer and Lohnes, 1977). In addition, the environment in which

the soil is located influences largely the development of soil texture, structure, and

mineralogy (Gidigasu and Kuma, 1987; Nnadi, 1987; Skempton, 1953).

Tropical lateratic clays with high moisture contents is one of the most common

soils in Malaysia particularly in Malaysian peninsular along the west coast at Johor

and Malacca. The laterite deposits are formed under the tropical weathering conditions

where precipitation is relatively high, and there is a good drainage to ensure leaching

of cations and iron from acidic granitic rocks. The use of laterite soil, however, as

subgrade are limited by a number of difficulties in construction such as their

workability, field compaction, and insufficient strength.

During the past few decades, due to the fast growing economy, there has been an

increasing demand in road transportations. This has forced governments to build more

roads and interstate highways. On the other hand, the presence of weak clay deposits

at various sites and the need for their replacement with a superior material has imposed

great costs on the construction projects. In such problematic soils, chemical

stabilization techniques have proven to be very effective (Eisazadeh et al., 2010). Van

5

Herreweghe et al. (2002) reported that laterites are defined broadly as a group of soils

that have undergone advanced weathering, with the leaching out of silica and a

resultant increase in iron and alumina content. Most of the laterites, when plotted on

the Casagrande plasticity chart, are close to the A-Line. Also, they tend to have high

maximum dry density and low optimum moisture content. The engineering properties

of laterites such as liquid limit and shear strength vary with depth (Van Herreweghe et

al., 2002).

The rural and/or forest roads are important elements in the economic progress of

every country. It will help to promote procedures for health, income, facilitate future

development, technology transfer, and education potential of the communities. Based

on the fast growing development of Malaysia, it is essential to establish remote access

roads on the natural or less populated areas. Almost all of the remote access roads are

built to provide faster and better access to local villages or uninhabited areas from

main roads or major cities. However, problems may arise during the construction of

unpaved roads. Some of the major weakness of unpaved road are deterioration of the

road surface, diffusion of dust on the road, and serviceability problems of these roads

during the wet and dry seasons. The mentioned weakness become a source of problem

even for a low traffic flow road and their maintenances and repairs is very costly.

An available solution for the stated problems is to improve the construction

materials. The used construction materials through the construction of the unpaved

roads could be stabilized by using various stabilization techniques. The supplies of

lime and polymer in the mix form of hydrated lime and different types of polymers are

relatively high in Malaysia. These mix forms can make lime and some polymers

economically viable option for the treatment of tropical soils. However, due to an

extensive variability in the amount of impurities dictated by extreme weathering

conditions, for instance the high amounts of iron and aluminium oxides present in the

laterite clays, the success of lime treatment technique has been rather conflicting.

Furthermore, the acidic nature of tropical soils has raised doubts about the efficiency

of soil-lime reactions in a low pH environment and hence the long term improvement

(Kassim and Chern, 2004).

6

The implementation of lime, cement, shredded tire and waste polymers crumb as

a soil stabilizer in an actual field project requires standard laboratory test on untreated

and treated samples. The mentioned laboratory tests should be prepared under

controlled conditions where it can be used to predict its potential effectiveness in

modifying the engineering properties of tropical soils. This research study is focused

on the unpaved roads constructed on the laterites in Skudai, Johor, Malaysia. It is

related to pavement performances including design, construction specifications,

maintenance procedures, and pavement management techniques. These items were

reviewed in an effort to identify causes for early pavement deterioration in order to

hopefully reduce the further maintenance costs. Substantial geotechnical testing were

also performed to correlate the observed paving distress to existing unpaved road

conditions.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The aim of this research is to performance of unpaved laterite roads treated with

chemical additives and waste tyre to ensure that the long-term geotechnical properties

of treated material are sufficient to provide the structural capacity required over their

design life’s span particularly in Malaysia. The objectives of this research are:

1) To determine guideline for the basic geotechnical properties and

physicochemical behaviour of stabilized lateritic soil with waste tire crumbs,

lime and cement used in unpaved roads applications.

2) To estimate the optimum amount of stabilizer for the laterite soils to provide the

necessary strength and geotechnical properties when it is used for unpaved

roads.

3) To evaluate the structural performance and physicochemical behaviours of the

treated laterite soils subjected to full-scale highway accelerated loading

instruments (HALI) test at different loading cycles.

7

4) To carry out numerical simulations of the performance of the treated unpaved

laterite road and compare with the results of laboratory tests using HALI.

5) To use close range photogrammetry technique as an easy and fast new method

of surface measurement for unpaved roads.

1.4 Importance of Local Unpaved Roads

Unpaved roads are common in Malaysia across the rural and plantation areas. A

familiar sight in rural communities, unpaved roads offers a sense of timelessness,

helping residents connect with the days of cart paths and carriage roads. The unpaved

roads often narrow and bordered by stone walls and mature shade trees. It is also often

following an alignment parallel to streams and brooks. It will offer a scenic escape

from the realities of concrete and pavement. The preservation of unpaved roads is

important to the character of the landscape. Aside from their value as a scenic and

often historic resource, unpaved roads have several advantage comparing to the paved

roads such as; (i) lower construction costs, (ii) it requires less equipment and skilled

operators, and (iii) it generate lower speeds than their paved counterparts. Yet, like

paved roadways, dirt and gravel roads require regular maintenance to keep them

passable and safe. Well-maintained dirt and gravel roads can serve traffic

appropriately. Thereby, they are considered as a legitimate road surfacing option, not

just something a community grudgingly maintains while it waits for paving.

1.5 Scope and limitation of the Study

The scopes of this research are:

Tropical natural laterite soils collected from two different locations in Johor,

Malaysia.

The hydrated lime, cement, waste tire crumbs used as the stabilizers.

8

Strength and geotechnical tests that they are performed with Unconfined

Compression Strength (UCS), California Bearing Ratio (CBR) and HALI tests.

The research also investigated the chemical and mineral composition of

stabilized soils.

Soils cured at 14 days under control room temperature of 27±2°c.

Preliminary tests that carried out were: natural water content, particle size

distribution, Atterberg limits, moisture-density relationship using standard

Proctor effort, organic content, sulfate content, and mineralogy of the soil.

The UTM geotechnics, highway, mechanic laboratories and Ibnu Sina institute

were used further experimental investigation.

1.6 Significance of the Study

The unpaved roads constructed on the laterite soils are usually facing with many

problems such as swelling, shrinkage, cracking, and may even be subject to

waterlogged condition. Therefore, it is important to develop appropriate techniques to

construct and/or repair old roads using chemical stabilizers. In this study, lime and

cement were used as traditional stabilizer and the shredded and crumbs of scrap tire

were introduced as a very low cost waste material that can be used to improve the

strength and geotechnical properties of the laterite soils. Current study is also an effort

to find the best active additive materials in order to reduce the construction cost of the

new unpaved roads and their maintenances in the humid tropical climate. Comparison

were finally made to find the most suitable combination of active additive and waste

tire crumbs as stabilizer that could effectively improve the strength stabilized lateritic

soil.

As stated earlier, the unpaved roads have the advantage of lower construction costs

than paved roads, it require less equipment and skilled operators, and generate lower

speeds than their paved counterparts. Yet, like paved roadways, dirt and gravel roads

require regular maintenance to keep them passable and safe. Well-maintained dirt and

gravel roads can serve traffic very satisfactorily, and should be considered as a

9

legitimate road surfacing option, not just something a community grudgingly

maintains while it waits for paving.

1.7 Thesis Organization

This thesis aims to investigate the structural performance of stabilized unpaved

road using chemical active additives mixed with mechanically scrap polymer

materials. This is to ensure that the long-term durability of stabilized material is

sufficient to provide the structural capacity required over the design life on different

weather conditions encountered in Johor Malaysia.

In Chapter 1, a generally brief background on the role of physicochemical

stabilization in soil improvement and the necessity to understand the mechanisms

associated with this process is presented. The research philosophy divided into five

main sections namely; ‘problem statement’, ‘objectives of study’, ‘scope of study’,

‘importance of local unpaved roads’, and ‘significance of the study’.

In Chapter 2, the fundamentals of laterite soil mineralogy are presented. This was

essential as it helps to better understand and elucidate the sophisticated soil-

physicochemical reactions. Different physicochemical stabilization techniques were

reviewed, thereafter, followed by the hypothesized mechanisms suggested on the

formation of reaction products. In addition, there is outline for the laboratory strength

and geotechnical tests, full scale modelling techniques and methodologies employed

in the previous studies. Finally, based on the current scientific knowledge on the soil

stabilization a suitable research framework was obtained.

Chapter 3 provides a comprehensive description on the research methodology and

laboratory experiments exercised for this research. It describes the physicochemical

and geotechnical analysis, the basic data collection, and the conducted methods for

this research. In addition, the microstructure analysis of untreated and treated soils are

also explained in this chapter. The laboratory experiments that was performed to

10

determine the geotechnical and strength properties of the soil was according to the

British Standard Institute. Furthermore, the characterization study of the stabilized soil

using various spectroscopic and microscopic techniques were carried out based on the

available standards and published papers. Moreover, it is stated that the numerical

simulations were carried out based on the performance of the treated unpaved laterite

road and compare with the results of laboratory tests using HALI and using close range

photogrammetry technique as an easy and fast new method of surface measurement

for unpaved roads.

Then, the obtained results from these tests are presented and discussed in detail in

Chapter 4. Finally, Chapter 5 concludes the outcome of this study and highlights areas

where further research can be carried out.

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