Perceived school environments, perceived discrimination, and school performance among children of Mexican immigrants

27 (2005) 51–66

www.elsevier.com/locate/childyouth

Perceived school environments, perceived

discrimination, and school performance among

children of Mexican immigrants

Susan Stone*, Meekyung Han

School of Social Welfare, University of California at Berkeley, 120 Haviland Hall, #7400,

Berkeley, CA 94720-7400, United States

Available online 15 September 2004

Abstract

This secondary analysis of 578 Mexican-American adolescents participating in the Children of

Immigrants Longitudinal Study examined the relative influence of several correlates of perceived

discrimination. It finds that perceptions of school climates are strongly and consistently related to

perceptions of discrimination and school performance. These findings are consistent with a growing

body of educational literature that highlights the protective benefits of supportive teaching climates.

D 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: School environment; School performance; Mexican immigrants

1. Introduction

An accumulating body of literature focuses on correlates of perceived discrimination

among minority adolescents (Szalacha et al., 2003). A feature of this research is its

focus on individual psychological processes. Notably, this emphasis is loosely coupled

with current ecological conceptualizations of developmental processes of minority

youth (Garcı́a Coll et al., 1996). The influence of environmental factors, particularly

those related to school, have been overlooked despite their developmental salience

(Helms, 2002, 2003; Steinberg, 2001) and a growing body of research that links

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Children and Youth Services Review

see front matter D 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

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onding author. Tel.: +1 510 643 6662; fax: +1 510 643 6126.

ress: [email protected] (S. Stone).

S. Stone, M. Han / Children and Youth Services Review 27 (2005) 51–6652

perceptions of discrimination or the threat of discrimination within school environments

to school attachment and performance (Ogbu, 2003; Rumbaut, 1994; Steele, 1997;

Weinstein, 2002).

The current study utilizes an ecologically based framework to integrate findings in the

literature by simultaneously exploring the influences of individual, family, and environ-

mental factors on perceptions discrimination and school-related competencies among a

large sample of Mexican and Mexican-American youth. Specifically, we ask:

(1) To what extent do youth reports of their school environments relate to perceptions of

discrimination, net of other key correlates identified in the literature?

(2) Do perceptions of school environments and discrimination relate to future school

related competencies, including grades and continued school attachment?

Three key rationales for studying perceived discrimination exist. First, it is a relatively

common phenomenon among minority youth and young adults. Second, it is a powerful

correlate of psychological well being, especially in breal-lifeQ (versus experimental)

settings (Szalacha et al., 2003). Sellers and Shelton (2003), in their longitudinal study of

perceived discrimination among African-American college students, find that perceived

discrimination occurred prior to and predicted elevated scores on the Center for

Epidemiological Studies Inventory, an effect explained through stress reaction (Sellers,

Caldwell, Schmeelk-Cone, & Zimmerman, in press). Similar relationships have been

found—albeit mostly with cross-sectional studies—with younger and more racially/

ethnically diverse samples and using other measures of psychological distress and well-

being (Brown et al., 2000; Fisher, Wallace, & Fenton, 2000; Rumbaut, 1994; Simons et al.,

2002; Szalacha et al., 2003). Perceived discrimination has also recently been linked to

violent behavior (Caldwell, Kohn-Wood, Scheelk-Cone, Chavous, & Zimmerman, 2004)

and substance use (Gibbons, Gerrard, Cleveland, Wils, & Brody, 2004) in African-

American youth. Third, understanding relations between perceptions of discrimination and

school performance has been identified as a key priority in both developmental and

education literatures (Helms, 2002, 2003). In summary, perceptions of discrimination are

linked to or thought to be related to various psychological and academic competencies

among minority youth.

2. Conceptual framework

Cynthia Garcı́a Coll and her colleagues (1996) articulate a framework for studying

developmentally related outcomes of minority youth. Based in part on Bronfenbrenner’s

(1979) ecological theory, this framework explicitly attempts to consider the influence of

six domains of factors on youth competencies. These domains include variables related to

(1) social position (e.g., race, class and gender), (2) social stratification (e.g.,

discrimination), (3) promoting or inhibiting environments (e.g., school), (4) adaptive

culture and current demands (e.g., migration and acculturation experiences, current

stressors), (5) youth characteristics (e.g., age, psychological characteristics), and (6) family

(e.g., structure, functioning). Garcia-Coll and her colleagues argue that a hallmark of this

S. Stone, M. Han / Children and Youth Services Review 27 (2005) 51–66 53

framework is its inclusion of and emphasis on social stratification and environmental

variables. These are classes of variables particularly salient for minority youth. We draw

on this conceptual work to organize and assess the influence of variables in each of these

key domains.

3. Defining perceived discrimination

Dion (2003) underscores the importance of clearly distinguishing the difference

between perceptions of discrimination and actual discrimination. Despite the conceptual

significance of distinguishing these constructs, it is important to note that both are

thought to be salient experiences for minority group members. As Dion and Kawakami

(1996, p. 1) note,

Whether such perceptions can be taken as the brealQ or actual amount of

discrimination experienced by different ethnic groups and their members is

controversial and presently difficult, if not impossible, to answer. Perceptions of

discrimination do, nevertheless, represent an important psychological reality for

immigrants and ethnic minority group members, regardless of their status or

adequacy as social indicators of bactualQ discrimination or intolerance.

4. Correlates of perceived racial and ethnic discrimination

Previous research on perceived discrimination among adolescents and youth identifies

several groups of correlates. These correlates may be classified as sociodemographic,

developmental, psychological, and identity-related, and socialization-based.

4.1. Sociodemographic correlates

Perceptions of discrimination have been linked to gender (Sellers & Shelton, 2003),

racial/ethnic background (Romero & Roberts, 1998), and socioeconomic status (Phinney,

Madden, & Santos, 1998). Male, African-American, and less socioeconomically

advantaged youth perceive higher levels of discrimination. Romero and Roberts (1998)

suggest that socioeconomic status is theoretically salient given that social identity theory

posits that socioeconomic status differentials provide strong clues about environmental

inequalities.

4.2. Developmental processes

Some research also suggests that there may be a strong developmental component

underpinning a youth’s ability to perceive discrimination. Developmental theory would

suggest that a complex set of cognitive skills, prior experiences, and attribution processes

shape these perceptions (Szalacha et al., 2003). Romero and Roberts (1998), in fact, find

that perceptions of discrimination are positively correlated with age.


4.3. Psychological processes

Certain psychological characteristics may make adolescents more likely to perceive

discrimination. Some researchers speculate that levels of depression/anxiety may

precede (Phinney et al., 1998) or be circularly related to (Szalacha et al., 2004)

perceived discrimination, although results were obtained from cross-sectional designs.

Interestingly, Sellers and Shelton’s (2003) longitudinal study of African-American

college students did not find associations between prior psychological distress and

perceived discrimination, but did find that distress was related to respondent’s reports

of being bothered by discrimination. Findings such as these suggest that a key

mediator of the relationship between perceived discrimination and psychological well

being may be stress-associated with these perceptions.

4.4. Racial/ethnic identity processes

Perhaps one of the most well-developed lines of research in this area has focused

on interrelationships between racial/ethnic identity processes and perceived discrim-

ination. Jean Phinney and her colleagues conceptualize and find support for a

bidimensional ethnic identity process for adolescents. The first dimension involves the

degree of belongingness and identification with a particular ethnic group (i.e.,

baffirmationQ). The second dimension involves the level of identity-related exploration

(Roberts et al., 1999). Romero and Roberts (2003) found negative associations

between perceived discrimination and ethnic affirmation and exploration. That is, youth

with stronger ethnic affirmation and exploration perceived higher levels of discrim-

ination. A path analysis further revealed that strong affirmation related to higher levels

of self-esteem.

A key theme that has emerged from this line of research is that these identity

processes are likely multidimensional and complex (Romero & Roberts, 2003; Sellers

& Shelton, 2003). Depending on the ethnic identity dimension under study and other

individual differences, interrelationships with perceived discrimination may be quite

varied. A related construct includes perceptions a person has of dominant cultural

group members. Phinney et al. (1998) found that higher levels of intergroup

competence were associated with lower levels of perceived discrimination. Romero

and Roberts (2003) speculate that assimilation and acculturation processes among

immigrant youth may also have complex relationships with perceptions of

discrimination.

4.5. Family socialization practices

Developmental theorists argue that the degree to which minority adolescents received

race-based socialization may buffer them from negative impacts of discrimination

(Helms, 2002; 2003; Phelan, Locke Davidson, & Yu, 1993). In a sample (n=88) of

African-American youth, Scott (2003) found that youth whose parents provided high

degrees of race-based socialization were likely to use more effective strategies to cope

with perceived discrimination.


5. Salience of school environments

Interestingly, the literature on perceived discrimination among adolescents and young

adults does not overlap with education literature that seeks to explain persistent

achievement gaps between certain subgroups of minority adolescents. From the

perspective of the Garcı́a Coll et al. (1996) framework, the literature on perceived

discrimination places relatively less emphasis on the potential influences of promoting and

inhibiting environments. Anthropologist John Ogbu (1993) argued that youth from

binvoluntaryQ minority groups may develop boppositionalQ identities if they perceive that

their efforts in school are unlikely to pay off within a racist society. Steele’s experimental

work finds that African-American youth are likely to underperform on tests if they

perceive that testers hold race-based stereotypes (Steele, 1992, 1997; Steele & Aronson,

1995). Verkuyten and Brug (2003) find that perceived discrimination is positively related

to disengagement from school among ethnic minority youth in The Netherlands.

There is also a growing body of evidence that links the academic and relational climate

of school environments to student achievement. School and classroom environments,

which are orderly and combine high expectations for all students with requisite academic

supports, are associated with higher levels of student engagement and achievement (Lee &

Smith, 1999; Weinstein, 2002). These kinds of school environments may be especially

protective for minority and immigrant students (Eccles & Roeser, 1999; Valenzuela, 1999).

6. Perceived discrimination, school environments, and Mexican and Mexican-

American youth

The last two decades have witnessed enormous growth in the Latino student population

(Orfield, 2002). Recent estimates find that the Latino drop-out rate is four times larger than

that of White and twice as large of that of African-American students (United States

Department of Education, 2003). This is especially true for Mexican-origin students, who

constitute the majority of the Latino student population (Ruiz de Velasco & Fix, 2000).

While not focused specifically on perceived discrimination, there is an accumulating

literature that suggests Latino youth experience marginalization in schools—especially

related to relationships with teachers—that may contribute to poor academic attachment,

persistence, and performance (Valenzuela, 1999).

In summary, theoretical and empirical research in this area suggests that school-related

perceptions of discrimination may be especially salient in understanding the experience

and academic performance of Mexican-origin youth. Moreover, Romero and Roberts

(1998) argue that inattention to the experience of immigrant youth constitutes a major gap

in the literature on perceived discrimination.

7. Overview of the present study

Capitalizing on a secondary data analysis of a longitudinal study, which included

multiple measures of discrimination as well as multiple indicators of key correlates of


perceived discrimination, the current study has three major aims. First, it hopes to advance

research on perceived discrimination by simultaneously considering the relative influence

of multiple correlates of perceived discrimination. Most existent research considers the

influence of relatively small sets of psychological variables, which tends to overlook

influences of both social stratification and proximal environments such as schools.

Second, this study draws on a developmental framework to organize these multiple and

multilevel variables. In other words, it attempts to integrate findings generated separately

in the psychological and educational literatures that both appear to have relevance to the

study of perceived discrimination. Finally, it explores these questions using a sample of

early and mid-adolescent children of Mexican immigrants.

8. Method

8.1. The children of immigrants longitudinal study

This study is a secondary analysis of the Children of Immigrants Longitudinal Study

(Portes & Rumbaut, 2001). This study targeted bsecond-generationQ eighth and ninth gradechildren of foreign-born parents in San Diego, CA, and Miami/Fort Lauderdale, FL

(n=5262). Adolescents were either born in or immigrated early to the United States. Data

collection occurred in two waves—1992 and 1995—coinciding with these youths’ entry

into and pending graduation from high school. Follow-up surveys were completed with

approximately 82% of the original sample. The authors did not find any serious response

bias, although panel members are slightly more economically advantaged. Interviews were

also conducted with parents of a random subsample of about half of the adolescent

respondents.

8.2. Sample and sample selection

We confined ourselves to Mexican-origin, San Diego participants in both waves of data

collection. We focused on the San Diego subsample because it had a large enough

subsample of children of Mexican-born parents (n=578) to facilitate analyses.

8.3. Measures

All descriptive statistics on measures are included in Appendix A.

8.3.1. Perceived discrimination

There are a variety of approaches used in the literature to measuring perceived

discrimination, ranging from single-item indicators to composite measures (e.g., Landrine

& Klonoff, 1996). The CILS asked adolescents about discrimination directly, using yes–no

response formats. At both Wave 1 and Wave 2 of data collection, surveys ask students to

respond byesQ or bnoQ to the question bHas (respondent) been discriminated against?Q Thesurvey also asks about the reasons for discrimination. In analyses not reported here, we

found that the reasons given were overwhelmingly related to racial or ethnic background.


If adolescents answered byesQ to the above question, they were also asked if they ever

experienced discrimination by teachers, students, school counselors, and white Americans.

Adolescents were also asked, at Wave 2, about their future expectations: bNo matter how

much education I get, people will still discriminate against meQ (four response categories

ranging from very true to not true at all).

We utilize two separate measures of discrimination in the present study. Using Dion’s

(2003) conceptualization of perceived discrimination, our measures reflect race- or ethnic-

based discrimination in an actual and anticipatory circumstance. Our first is a dummy

variable coded b1Q versus b0Q if student reports s/he has been discriminated against by a

teacher as a proxy for actual discrimination. Second, we collapse the item assessing future

expectancies for discrimination into a dummy variable [very true and partly true (coded 1)

versus not very true and not true at all (coded 0)].

We classify the remaining predictors in terms of the conceptual framework proposed by

Garcı́a Coll et al. (1996).

8.3.2. Social position

We include two salient sociodemographic background variables: a dummy variable

indicating if the respondent is female and a SES composite available from the original

data set.

8.3.3. Promoting or inhibiting environments

We include two variables capturing student perceptions of their school environment at

the second wave of data collection. The first, perceived poor school quality at Wave 2,

captures the overall quality of the teaching supportive climate based on 4 items (a=0.75).Higher numbers indicate that students disagreed with the following statements bTeachingis GoodQ, bTeachers are Interested in StudentsQ, bDiscipline is FairQ, and bStudents are

Graded Fairly.Q These four items were standardized and summed to create the measure.

The second, School Interracial Harmony, is based on student response to a single-item

indicator bFights Occur Between Racial and Ethnic GroupsQ (the four-response categoriesrange from agree a lot to disagree a lot).

8.3.4. Adaptive culture and current demands

Given previous literature that has explored associations between immigration and

acculturation processes and experiences and perceived discrimination, we include dummy

variables for length of stay (less than 5 and 5–9 years) versus being American born or

having a length of stay greater than 9 years. We also include three indicators for non-

English (i.e., Spanish) language use: Whether a student speaks English at home, whether s/

he speaks Spanish with friends, and whether s/he prefers English use. To measure current

demands, we include dummy variables indicating whether the student perceives at Wave 2

that the family’s situation has improved or worsened (versus stayed the same) since the

first interview.

8.3.5. Child characteristics

We include grade at Wave 1. In addition, several indicators of ethnic identity were

available at the Wave 1 data collection period. For ethnic identity, we include a dummy


variable signaling whether the respondent uses an American ethnic identifier (1) versus a

non-American identifier (0). We also include two Wave 1 composites capturing

psychological well being created by the developers of the data set. The first is a measure

of self-esteem derived from Rosenberg’s self-esteem scale (a=0.82 for this subsample).

The second is a measure of depression derived from the Center for Epidemiological

Studies Depression Study (a=0.74 for this subsample). Additionally, we include two

measures of adolescent reports of their affiliation with bAmericanQ host culture in the

second wave of data collection. The first is student response to a single item indicator bIprefer (always to never) the American way.Q Higher scores indicate less of a preference.

The second is student response (strongly disagree to strongly agree) to the item bThere isno better country than America.Q Finally, transcript-based grade point averages and

standardized reading and mathematics test scores are included to control for school

performance at Wave 1.

8.3.6. Family

We include a dummy variable indicating whether the family structure is other than

the two-parent family (the predominant form is two-parent families within this

sample). Previous research has implicated family process variables (e.g., race-based

socialization) as a factor related to perceived discrimination among students.

Unfortunately, these surveys do not include items capturing this construct. We include

a family cohesion composite available in the original data set as well as parent

response to the item bIn your neighborhood, how much of a problem (not a problem,

somewhat of a problem, a big problem) is different racial/ethnic groups who are in

conflict with each other?Q as proxies for functional family process and awareness of

race-based conflicts.

8.3.7. Social stratification processes

Finally, we include measures of student perceptions of stratification-based processes.

Non-racist context (a=0.82) combines four items assessing whether students agree

(strongly disagree to strongly agree) that bThere is racial discrimination in the United

States,Q bThere is much conflict between races in the US,Q bNon-whites have equal

opportunitiesQ and bAmericans feel superior to other groups.Q Items were standardized and

summed to create composites. Higher scores indicate more perceived interracial harmony.

For each measure of discrimination at Wave 2, we include corresponding measures of

discrimination at Wave 1.

8.3.8. School outcome measures

Two Wave 2 academic outcomes are included: student grades obtained from school

transcripts and a dummy variable indicating that the student is boff-trackQ (a drop-out or

enrolled in an alternative/remedial program).

8.3.9. Other measurement notes

There were negligible amounts of missing data (less than 1%) in these surveys. To

preserve sample size, we imputed variable means for missing cases. For every dummy

variable used in analyses, the excluded or b0Q category represents the modal category.


8.4. Analytic model

Depending on the level of measurement of the dependent variable, analyses were

conducted using a combination of logistic and linear regression techniques. All variables

were entered in a single block.

9. Results

9.1. Current discrimination by teachers

The first column of Table 1 presents logistic regression results predicting whether a

student perceives being discriminated by teachers at Wave 2, controlling for prior

perceptions of discrimination at Wave 1. Student perceptions of poor school quality were

associated with increased odds of perceiving discrimination by teachers. Prior self-esteem

and parent perceptions of neighborhood discrimination were also positively associated with

this perception. On the other hand, lengths of stay of 5–9 years and a non-racist larger social

context were associated with decreased odds of perceptions of discrimination from teachers.

9.2. Future discrimination despite educational attainment

The second column of Table 1 presents results for future expectations of discrim-

ination. Females are less likely to expect future discrimination. Non-preference for the

American way of life is associated with increased odds of expecting discrimination. A

non-racist larger social context was associated with decreased odds of expecting future

discrimination.

9.3. School outcomes

Tables 2 and 3 examine the extent to which perceptions of school environments and

discrimination are related to grades and being off-track, respectively. Net of perceptions of

teacher discrimination or future discrimination, perceptions of poor school environments

are associated with lower grades and increased odds of being off-track.

10. Discussion

The overall purpose of this study was twofold. It sought to examine whether

Mexican-origin youth reports of their school environments relate to perceptions of

discrimination, net of other key correlates identified in the literature. In addition, it asked

whether perceptions of school environments and discrimination mattered to later school

performance.

The findings indicate that the prior literature has overlooked the potential impact of

both perceived social stratification and environmental variables on certain domains of

racial/ethnic discrimination. Unlike individual psychological correlates previously

Table 1

Logistic regression results correlates of school-related measures of perceived discrimination

Experienced

discrimination by

teachers, Wave 2

Expects discrimination

in the future, despite

educational attainment

Odds ratio SE Odds ratio SE

Social position

Female 1.17 0.23 0.65* 0.20

Socioeconomic composite 1.06 0.20 0.93 0.18

Promoting or inhibiting environments

Perceived poor school quality, Wave 2 1.19*** 0.04 1.00 0.03

School interracial harmony, Wave 2 1.02 0.11 0.83** 0.10

Adaptive culture and current demands

Length of stay less than 5 years 0.84 0.40 0.73 0.33

Length of stay 5–9 years 0.46* 0.37 0.86 0.29

Speaks English at home 1.00 0.31 1.38 0.28

Speaks Spanish with friends 0.84 0.24 1.06 0.21

Prefers English 1.29 0.25 0.92 0.22

Family situation improved 1.51 0.24 1.17 0.21

Family situation worsened 1.58 0.32 1.12 0.29

Child characteristics

Grade in school, Wave 1 0.90 0.23 1.13 0.20

American identification 0.79 0.24 0.97 0.21

Self-esteem, Wave 1 1.66* 0.51 0.91 0.21

Depression, Wave 1 1.22 0.20 1.17 0.16

Does not prefer American way 1.02 0.17 1.39* 0.16

Agrees there is no better country than US 0.83 0.17 0.99 0.10

GPA, Wave 1 0.96 0.15 0.99 0.13

Reading, Wave 1 1.00 0.01 1.01 0.01

Math, Wave 1 1.00 0.01 1.00 0.00

Family

Non-two-parent family 1.03 0.32 1.49 0.28

Family cohesion 0.90 0.11 0.87 0.10

Parent perceives race conflict 1.50* 0.20 0.74 0.19

Social stratification processes

Non-racist context 0.86*** 0.04 0.87*** 0.04

No discrimination perceived

by teachers, Wave 1

0.68 0.23

Discrimination (any) only in Wave 1 0.19*** 0.34

Discrimination (any) only in Wave 2 1.04 0.25

Never perceived (any) discrimination 0.37*** 0.31

* pV0.05.** pV0.01.*** pV0.001.


Table 2

Multiple regression results predicting grade point average at wave 2

B SE B SE

Social position

Female �0.03 0.06 0.08 0.06

Socioeconomic composite 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.05


Perceived poor school quality, Wave 2 �0.02* 0.01 �0.02* 0.01

School interracial harmony, Wave 2 0.05* 0.03 0.05* 0.03


Length of stay less than 5 years �0.16* 0.09 �0.16* 0.09

Length of stay 5–9 years 0.00 0.08 �0.00 0.08


Speaks Spanish with friends �0.00 0.06 0.00 0.06

Prefers English �0.03 0.06 �0.02 0.06

Family situation improved �0.13* 0.06 �0.13* 0.06

Family situation worsened �0.17* 0.08 �0.16* 0.08


Grade in school, Wave 1 0.13* 0.06 0.14* 0.06


Self-esteem, Wave 1 0.01 0.06 0.03 0.05

Depression, Wave 1 �0.07 0.05 0.03 0.06

Does not prefer American way 0.01 0.04 0.01 0.03

There is no better country than US 0.00 0.01 �0.00 0.03

GPA, Wave 1 0.53 0.54 0.53*** 0.04

Reading. Wave 1 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Math, Wave 1 0.01* 0.00 0.01* 0.00

Family


Family cohesion 0.07* 0.03 0.07* 0.09

Parent perceives race conflict �0.06 0.05 �0.05 0.05


Non-racist context 0.00 0.01 �0.00 0.01

No discrimination by teachers, Wave 1 �0.01 0.06

No discrimination by teachers, Wave 2 �0.09 0.06

Future discrimination despite attainment �0.01 0.06

Discrimination (any) only in Wave 1 0.18* 0.09

Discrimination (any) only in Wave 2 �0.04 0.08

Never perceived (any) discrimination �0.00 0.09

Adjusted R2=0.39 Adjusted R2=0.39

* pV0.05.*** pV0.001.


identified in the literature, these two classes of variables appear to be consistently related

to perceptions of school-related discrimination. These results are consistent with

anthropological findings that suggest that youth perceptions of their immediate environ-

ments and larger social–cultural context are associated with their perceptions of

Table 3

Logistic regression results predicting off track status at Wave 2

Odds ratio SE Odds Ratio SE

Social position

Female 1.36 0.26 1.43 0.26

Socioeconomic composite 0.47** 0.21 0.54** 0.25


Perceived poor school quality, Wave 2 0.91* 0.04 0.92* 0.04

School interracial harmony, Wave 2 1.01 0.02 1.04 0.12


Length of stay less than 5 years 1.58 0.40 1.78 0.41

Length of stay 5–9 years 1.19 0.37 1.17 0.37


Speaks Spanish with friends 1.25 0.26 1.25 0.26

Prefers English 0.97 0.33 1.06 0.28

Family situation improved 0.74 0.26 0.74 0.27

Family situation worsened 0.85 0.36 0.82 0.37


Grade in school, Wave 1 1.68* 0.25 1.74* 0.25


Self-esteem, Wave 1 0.61 0.25 0.63 0.25

Depression, Wave 1 1.20 0.20 1.22 0.20

Does not prefer American way 0.70 0.18 0.70 0.25

There is no better country than US 1.07 0.12 1.05 0.12

GPA, Wave 1 0.50*** 0.17 0.49*** 0.17

Reading, Wave 1 1.00 0.01 1.01 0.01

Math, Wave 1.00 0.01 1.00 0.01

Family


Family cohesion 0.81 0.12 0.82 0.12

Parent perceives race conflict 1.07 0.25 1.19 0.25


Non-racist context 0.94 0.04 0.93 0.05

No discrimination by teachers, Wave 1 0.52* 0.27

No discrimination by teachers, Wave 2 1.02 0.25

Future discrimination despite attainment 1.20 0.26



Never perceived (any) discrimination 2.34* 0.35

* pV0.05.** pV0.01.*** pV0.001.


discrimination and their performance in school (Ogbu, 1993; Valenzuela, 1999).

Additionally, the findings of this study are consistent with a growing body of research

that suggests the protective impact of supportive teacher–student relationships and school

climates that support these relationships (Weinstein, 2002). Students who perceived poor-


quality school environments had lower grades and were more likely to be boff-trackQ intheir schooling, controlling for their prior characteristics and experiences. It is important to

note that perceptions of poor school quality were positively related to perceptions of

discrimination, suggesting that perceptions of discrimination may have indirect effects—

through perceptions of school quality—on school performance.

These findings were generated specifically among Mexican-origin youth living in San

Diego. It is unclear how these results may generalize to other minority and immigrant groups

of youth. This study is also limited in that it relied almost exclusively on student reports and

had relatively few indicators of the rich dimensions outlined by Garcı́a Coll et al.’s (1996)

framework. It is also unclear whether these findings are generalizable to more contemporary

cohorts of Mexican-origin youth. Despite these important limitations, this research suggests

that perceptions of settings—including school climates and the overarching social climate—

are important predictors of perceived discrimination and school performance of Mexican

youth. It also lends credence to Garcia-Coll et al.’s contention that proximal and distal

environmental factors are central to understanding functioning of minority youth.

Appendix A. Description of measures and descriptive statistics

M SD

Social position

Female 0.55 0.49

Socioeconomic composite �0.65 0.60


Perceived poor school quality, Wave 2 �0.23 3.09

School interracial harmony, Wave 2 2.67 1.00


Length of stay less than 5 years 0.12 0.33

Length of stay 5–9 years 0.15 0.35

Speaks English at home 0.20 0.40

Speaks Spanish with friends 0.36 0.48

Prefers English 0.45 0.50

Family situation improved 0.43 0.50

Family situation worsened 0.15 0.35


Grade in school, Wave 1 8.39 0.49

American identification 0.33 0.47

Self esteem, Wave 1 3.18 0.52

Depression, Wave 1 1.66 0.63

Does not prefer American way 2.82 0.67

There is no better country than US 2.83 1.01

GPA, Wave 1 2.30 0.83

Reading 28.37 23.04

Math 34.32 25.45

(continued on next page)

Appendix A (continued)

M SD

Family

Non-two-parent family 0.13 0.33

Family cohesion 3.71 0.99

Parent perceives race conflict 1.37 0.52


Non-racist context �0.14 2.94

No teacher discrimination, Wave 1 0.40 0.49

No teacher discrimination, Wave 2 0.42 0.49



Never perceived (any) discrimination 0.16 0.37

Future discrimination 0.39 0.49

Outcomes

Grade point average, Wave 2 2.32 0.84

Off-track status, Wave 2 0.17 0.37


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Documents

Perceived school environments, perceived discrimination, and school performance among children of Mexican immigrants