Penguin ConservationJuly, 1998 vol. 11, no. 2

In this issue

News & Announcements 1

SeaWorld California penguin handrearing protocol 2

Oceans without fish 10

Preserving Antarctic marine ecosystems 14

Little blue penguins at the Adelaide Zoo 16

New vitamin supplement tested with rockhoppers 19

phone: 541/899-1114fax: 541/899-1131e-mail: editor@faunapub.org

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Penguin Conservation

Publication information:ISSN # 1045-0076Indexed in: Zoological Record, Biological Abstracts, and Wildlife Worldwide (successor to Wildlife Review, produced by

BiblioLine/lnterNIC, online [www.nisc.com] & on CD)Serials librarians, please note:

Previous title was SPN: Spheniscus Penguin Newsletter. Volume numbering continued from previous title.Printed on recycled paper.

Penguin Conservation is published three times per year. Subscription is free, to those with a serious interest inpenguin conservation and research.

Contributions toward printing and production costs are welcome: please make checks payable to "ConservationPublications, Inc.," and send to the Editor at the address below. Checks from outside the US must have, printed onthe check, the name of a US bank with which the foreign bank is affiliated.

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Advertising is accepted; please contact the editor for rates.The drawing which serves as our cover logo is reproduced by kind permission of the artist, Ann MUIlson.Instructions for Authors: Articles submitted for publication should be typed, double-spaced; in addition, text and

data may be sent on a disk (preferably Macintosh). Initial submission may be by fax or e-mail, prior to sending finalcopy. When presenting the results of research, please follow standard format. When graphs are used, a separate sheetshould be included, giving the data used to generate the graph, as well as sending a copy of the graph itself. Photo­graphs and figures should be labelled with figure number and brief description on the back; captions should be on aseparate page. Include scientific name in the first mention of each animal or plant. For citations and reference lists,please follow the bibliographic format used in this issue.

This journal also welcomes more informal articles, brief notes, and anecdotal reports, of interest to our readers.Articles for the next issue must be received by September 1, 1998.Please address all correspondence to:

Cynthia Cheney, EditorPenguin Conservation8060 Upper Applegate Rd.Jacksonville, Oregon 97530USA

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While Penguin Conservation is free to professionals working with penguins, contributions andsubscription payments do help support the costs of the journal. If you wish to become a paidsubscriber, or have your institution subscribe, please photocopy and fill out the form below. Formalinvoices are available for institutions requiring them.

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Protective laws forthe Galapagos

The Ecuadorian government hasapproved a series of measures for theGalapagos Islands which have beenhailed as the biggest milestone towardtheir conservation in the last halfcentury. The Galapagos ConservationLaw-signed by Ecuadorian PresidentFabian Alarcon despite strong opposi­tion- establishes extensive protectivemeasures for the islands made famousby the work of Charles Darwin.

It strengthens protection of theislands by expanding the protectedwaters around the archipelago from 15miles to 40 miles; banning industrial­scale fishing within protected waters;limiting permanent resident status toEcuadorians who have been on theislands for five years or more; approv­ing the island's first inspection andquarantine system to combat"invader" species such as rats andgoats which threaten native speciesand degrade the habitat; and mandat­ing that 50 percent of tourist dollarssupport island conservation. (40% tothe Galapagos National Park Service

Penguin photos wanted

Colour photographs of Galapagosand Humboldt Penguins are requiredfor a forthcoming book.

Would anyone who has suitablephotographs please contact me byFax: (+ 500) 21960 (Falkland Islands)or E-mail: mbingham@horizon.co.fk-Michael Bingham, EnvironmentalResearch Unit, Falkland Islands

Our thanks toThe New England Aquarium,

Boston, Massachusetts

The Conservation and CollectionManagement Committee

of the Columbus Zoo,Columbus, Ohio

The Baltimore, MarylandChapter of the

American Association ofZooKeepers

and our readers,for their generous contributionstoward the publication expenses

ofPenguin Conservation

Exploratory oil drilling begins in the Falklands

Air Force captainhonored for penguinrehab work

The first exploratory drilling for oiltook place in June off the Falkland Is­lands, in one of the world's lastunexplored sedimentary basins.

The "Borgny Dolphin" semi­submersible drilling rig was towedfrom Europe, a 72-day trip, and arrivedon April 16. Several companies are us­ing the rig, in turn, to drill in theirassigned areas. The first well wasdrilled in early June by Amerada Hess,and was reportedly unsuccessful­traces of hydrocarbonb were found butnot in commerciaJ quantities-but ex­perts pointed out that over a dozenwells were dril1ed in the North Sea be­fore finding oil there. Some estimatethe chances of striking it big off theFalklands at about one in ten.

The prospect of major oil develop­ment, on and around this island

Penguin Conservation July 1998

group with a p pulation of 2,400people and hundreds of thousands ofpenguins, is a daunting one. Threatsto the wildlife include displacementand disturbance due to shoreline de­velopment, as welJ as pollution of thewater by oil from wells, from trans­shipping and processing facilities,and from the passage of many moreships through the area.

The islanders have commissioned astudy outlining various levels of de­velopment, from keeping all theinfrastructure for processin& etc., off­shore, to allowing much of it onshore.

Four species of penguin breed inthe Falklands. The island group in­cludes the two main islands of Eastand West Falkland and about 200small islands, with a total area ofabout 12,170 sq km (4699 sq miles).

Public relations officer CaptainMariette Hopley, of the YsterplaatAir Force Base in South Africa,recently became the first recipient ofthe Wouter van Hoven trophy, anaward to honor air force members foroutstanding services to environmen­tal conservation.

Hopley was awarded the floatingtrophy named for Professor Woutervan Hoven of the Center for WildlifeManagement at the University ofPretoria, for her management of pen­guin rehabilitation after the 1994Apollo Sea and, particularly, the 1996St Croix Island oil disasters.

Hopley undertook the St Croixproject when the South African

contmue

1

SeaWorld California penguin hand-rearing guidelines

IntroductionOver the last five years, SeaWorld

California has made significantchanges to its penguin chick hand­feeding diet and hand-rearingguidelines for small penguin species.These protocols have been used suc­cessfully to raise gentoo, Adelie,chinstrap, macaroni, Magellanic, andHumboldt penguins.

We have distributed these newmaterials as people have requestedthem. We are now submitting them toPenguin Conservation to ensure a widerdissemination of the infonnation.

The most noticeable change to thepenguin chick "fish milkshake," orformula is the absence of hal f and hal fcream. This ingredient was removedfrom the formula in 1993. There wassome concern initially that removingsuch a high fat and high calorie com­ponent of the formula would result inlower weight gains in the chicks. Thisproved not to be the case. Weightgains have been equal to or greaterthan those of first generation chickswhich were raised on the originalformula. Chinstrap penguins haveshown a marked improvement onthis formula, fledging at twice theweight of the first two hand-rearedfirst-generation chinstrap penguinchicks.

In all species, there has been, asexpected, a decrease in gastro­intestinal problems since removingdairy products from the diet. Withoutthe half and half cream, the formulacan now be warmed to a slightly highertemperature which is more easilyaccepted, especially by younger chicks.

Wendy A. Turner, Curator of BirdsLori Plutchak, Assistant Supervisor of

BirdsSea World California500 Sea World DriveSan Diego, CA 92109-7995 USAemail:Wendy. turner@Anheuser-Busch.comLori.plutchak®Anheuser-Busch.com

2

San Diego, USA

In 1995, we began adding fishpieces to the chicks' diet when theirmorning weight was 100 g or more,instead of at 200 g AM weight as hadbeen done previously. When chicksare healthy and vigorous, this changehas worked well. In a few cases,where a chick is progressing moreslowly than normal or is ill, we havehad to delay the introduction of fish.After the first or second fish feeding,it should become clear-throughmonitoring of feces production andbehavior-whether the chick is ableto process the fish.

There has also been a major proce­dural change in feeding technique,since the last published guidelines("Hand-rearing Guidelines for theHumboldt Penguin," SpheniscusPenguin Newsletter, August, 1991: 2-6).We do not now tube-feed healthychicks. After the feeding responsebegins, the syringe is placed in theopen mouth with the tip at the back ofthe mouth and the formula is squirtedin (see description under section Ill.2).Two and one-half centimeter-longcatheter tube extensions are used for6 cc and 12 cc syringes, for ease offeeding with these wider diametersyringes.

The following are procedures cur­rently in use at SeaWorld Californiafor hand-rearing penguins. They areintended to be used as guidelines.Depending on the physical plant,availability of products and materials,and the individual needs of chicks,modifications to these guidelinesmight be necessary.

WENDY A. TURNER

LORI PLUTCHAK

I. EggsAdelie, chinstrap, and gentoo eggs

are incubated at 96.5° F (35.8° C) drybulb, 81-82° F (27.2-27.8°C) wet bulb(52% relative humidity). Macaroni,Magellanic and Humboldt eggs areincubated at 96.so F (35.8° C) dry bulb,82-83° F (27.8-28.3° C) wet bulb (55%relative humidity). This may need tobe adjusted, depending on type ofincubator, local humidity, altitude,number of eggs in incubator, etc.

Pip-to-hatch interval for Adelie andchinstrap eggs is approximately 24-48hours; for gentoo eggs it is usuallyless than 24 hours, for macaroni eggsapproximately 24-72 hours, and forMagellanic and Humboldt eggsapproximately 36-60 hours.

II. Chick husbandry1. Hatchlings and young chicks

Once hatched, chicks are allowed todry in the hatcher. Check for yolk sacabsorption and closure of the seal.If the yolk sac is not properlyabsorbed and / or the umbilical open­ing is not properly closed, beextremely careful handling the chick.Swab the umbilicus with a sterilepovidone-iodine swab by rolling theswab gently over the area. Continuethis at each feeding until the umbili­cus is completely dry /healed.

Chicks should not be moved fromthe hatcher for their first water feed­ing until at least 12-24 hours afterhatching. They are then placed in abrooder with a heat source (such as a250-watt infrared heat lamp). Thoseunder 7 days of age tend to wanderaway and get lost from heat; a rolledtowel that functions as a barrier cankeep them near the proper heat range.

Chicks younger than 14 days of ageshould be kept at approximately 80­90° F (26.7-32.2° C), depending onage, weight, and thermoregulatoryneeds. Chicks older than 14 days areusually kept at approximately 70-80°F (21.1-26.7° C), again depending on

Penguin Conservation July 1998

the individual chick's needs, as wellas the species.

Chicks are usually ready to bemoved from the brooder to the bin at400-500 g first morning weight. Donot crowd the chicks. For example,1-3 young chicks fit comfortably inthe brooder described below. A maxi­mum of 5 young chicks should be inthe brooder at one time.

The brooder used atSeaWorid is anopen-topped and open-bottom,plexiglas frame measuring 16 in. (40.6em) wide, 33 in. (83.8 em) long, 15 in.(38.1 em) high, set 36 in. (91.5 em)above the ground on a paintedwooden cabinet. The plexiglas frameis removable for cleaning. Othermaterials, such as painted and sealedplywood, or plastic storage containerswithout lids, may also be used for abrooder.

It is important that the brooder beopen-topped rather than an isolette­type, closed baby incubator. Penguinchicks require the lower humidityand good air circulation allowed bythe open-topped brooder.

2. Brooder hygieneThe brooder is cleaned thoroughly

and completely twice a day (at earlymorning and mid/late afternoonfeedings). During cleaning, chicks arep laced in a clean, dry, disinfectedplastic container with a cotton/terrytowel and heat source. The brooder isscrubbed clean with Betadine® surgi­cal scrub (see Appendix C for productlist), rinsed, and dried; then twolayers of clean towels, without holesor frayed areas, are placed down onthe bottom. Frayed towels may catcha chick's toenails. A layer of Dri-dek®(see Appendix C) may be placedunder the towels to give chicks bettertraction.

At those feedings when a completecleaning is not done, the sides of thebrooder should be wiped clean offecal matter and the soiled towel (toplayer) removed, leaving the chicks ona clean towel.

Penguin Conservation July 1998

3. BinsWhen bins (see description below)

are in use they too are thoroughlycleaned twice a day. Chicks areplaced either in an empty, clean sec­tion of the bin or in another holdingarea with towels during cleaning. Thebin is scrubbed clean with Betadinesurgical scrub, rinsed with a hose,sprayed with Pro-Clean 200™ disin­fectant (an Iodophore, see AppendixC), and wiped dry.

Clean mats (feItlike, indoor /outdoor matting cut to size for bins)and towels are placed on top. Rook­ery rocks-river rocks approximately1.5 in. (3.8 cm) in diameter-andtowels are also sometimes used in thebins. Towels need to be changed atevery feeding or more often if exces­sively soiled or wet.

When chicks start to become warmin the bins, ice or ice packs may beadded to a section of the bin. Ice is notplaced on mats or towels because theyget wet as the ice melts. Ice packs areplaced under or wrapped in towels toavoid slipping. Note: Ice is not usedfor Spheniscids.

The bins used at SeaWorld arewooden-sided with Ampligrip 20FM(a metal grate-like surface, seeAppendix C) on the bottom. Twosheets of Ampligrip with approxi­mately 1 in. (2.5 em) holes areoverlapped thereby making the holesin the bottom of the bin approxi­mately 0.25 in. (0.64 em). Bins areraised on legs approximately 6 in.(15.2 em) above ground for drainage.They are 8 ft (2.4 m) long, 4 ft (1.2 m)wide and 2 ft (0.6 m) deep, withwooden partitions which are used todivide the bin into quarter- or half­sections as needed.

Once they are ready, chicks aremoved to a larger holding area withmore space to move around and poolaccess. Cleaning of this area followsthe same basic procedure as bin clean­ing. Whenever mats are placed onsolid flooring, Dri-dek® should beplaced beneath the mats for drainage.

4. Heat lampsWhen setting up or adjusting a heat

lamp, always make sure that the lampis secured, and that wires are nottouching the lamp. Heat lampsshould be placed no closer than 3 ft(0.9 m) to chicks, or other surfaces,otherwise severe burns may result.The temperature in a brooder or a binwith a newly installed heat lampshould be stabilized for several hoursbefore putting in a chick.

5. Temperature regulationThe temperature is lowered in

brooders as chicks approach 500 g.They will begin to appear warm inbrooders and may be moved to a binand a much cooler environment atthis time, i.e. a refrigerated/coolspace at ~60° F (15.60 C).

Spheniscids may stay in a warmerenvironment, Le. room temperatureof ~65-70°F (18.3-21.1 0 C), with a fanto circulate the air.

At approximately 1000 g, the tem­perature is reduced further as needed.Then, as chicks approach completionof first maul t, they are given access toa pool. We begin introducing chicksto the exhibit at this time, initiallywith keeper supervision.

Always be aware of the possibilityof over /under heating in the chicks.Overheating may be indicated by anyof the following: a spread out posture,with feet and flippers extended and/or very warm to the touch; panting;lethargy; dehydration (see below);and disinterest in food. If under­heated, the chick may shiver, huddleagainst the side of the brooderdirectly under the heat lamp, havefeet and flippers drawn in and/orcool to the touch, and be slow torespond to feeding stimulus.

Many of the above signs can also beindicators of illness in a chick. Keep­ers should be on the lookout for anybehavior or physiological sign thatdeviates from normal. Be conserva­tive and wary; problems are oftenmuch easier to solve if caught early.

-conTinue on page 4

3

SeaWorld California penguin hand-rearing guidelines ..continued from page 3

6. Overfeeding/underfeedingEven though a chick is being fed

according to stated guidelines, over­or underfeeding is still a potentialconcern. This problem is best caughtby careful evaluation of the chick'sweight gains. Generally, expectedweight gain could range from 10%­15% per day (individual variation willoccur) until the chick reaches approxi­mately 1000-1500 g, at which time,depending on the individual chickand species, growth rate will slow.Behavioral signs of overfeedingmight be indicated by the chickrefusing food, being lethargic, spit­ting-up repeatedly, etc.

When giving a normal, healthyfeeding response, a chick should beeagerly swallowing the food andstretching up to reach it. When givinga poor feeding response, a chick willnot open its bill to eat and will oftenmove its head away from the feeder'shand to avoid food.

7. HydrationHydration should be monitored

carefully throughout the chick'sdevelopment and particularly as thechick begins eating fish pieces/wholesmall fish. The morning is a criticaltime to check hydration. To deter­mine hydration, we use a four-pointsystem:

a) skin-tent test: pinch skin up atthe top of the chick's back-the skinshould immediately fall back intoplace. The longer the skin stays"tented" up, the more dehydrated thechick is.

b) eyes: eyes should appear bright,wide, and moist (not runny)--if theyare dry or "drawn" around the edges,the chick could be dehydrated.

c) feet: the skin on the feet will havenormal scaling associated with rapidgrowth, but it should appear soft andsmooth; if skin is "shriveled" and/orappears dry, the chick could be dehy­drated.

d) feces: thick or pasty feces mayalso indicate dehydration.

4

8. FecesIt is important to examine a chick's

feces routinely. A normal young chick(on formula, not fish) will have slightlyrunny feces that "squirt out" a gooddistance during defecation, with anorange /brown color (orange resultingfrom the krill and vitamins in the for­mula). Reddish oil droplets in the fecesare also normal if krill is in the diet. Anolder chick which is eating fish willhave slightly thicker feces, but stillquite soft in appearance.

Feces should not be pasty, dry,pellet-like, excessively green, black, oryellow, or contain blood-any of theseindicate a problem.

In a young chick (first few days oflife), all defecations should berecorded.

It is normal for a chick to defecate atleast once between every feeding­often while being fed. If any doubtexists as to whether a chick is defecat­ing normally, it should be stimulated todefecate by gently massaging thecloaca with a wet finger. If a chick issuspected of being ill, it should beisolated from other chicks; this waydefecations can be positively identified.

9. SafetyChicks should not left on a high

surface (Le. counter, table, scale) unat­tended, even in a container.

10. HandwashingKeepers' hands should be washed

with Betadine surgical scrub or otherbactericidal/virucidal hand wash be­fore feeding or handling any chick.

11. RecordkeepingComplete records for each chick are

of utmost importance. Record theamount fed, the quality of the feedingresponse, activity level and otherbehavioral observations at each feed­ing. Important information regardingthe chick's development should alsobe recorded in its file (e.g. recordwhen the chick's eyes first open, thestages of moult and the date when thebird is 100% moulted).

12. WeighingChicks are weighed at least once

daily, before the first feeding of theday, until being moved into theexhibit permanently after moult. Werecommend that young chicks beweighed with the scale in the brooderso that they do not get cool. If thereare special concerns about whether avery young chick is processing food,a chick can be weighed prior to eachfeeding until it reaches approximately400 g morning weight.

Once the chick is left in the exhibitfull-time and is eating well it isweighed every 5 days, unless morefrequent weighing is indicated.Weighing continues until the bird isjudged to be acclimated to the exhibitand its weight has stabilized. Eachbird is evaluated on an individualbasis. If at any time there is a concernregarding the health of a bird, morefrequent weighing is resumed.

III. FeedingPenguin hand-rearing diet

The recipe for the formula, or"SeaWorld Fish Shake" is given inAppendix A.

1. Preparation and hygieneAll utensils, containers, etc., used to

prepare formula are thoroughlywashed in dish-soap and hot water,soaked in Pro-Clean 200™, rinsed inhot water, and air-dried before use.Unheated formula should be refriger­ated until use and will remain freshfor approximately 24 hours.

The formula to be fed is heated bysetting the container in hot wateruntil the temperature reachesapproximately 95° F (35° C). For veryyoung or finicky chicks, formula mayneed to be heated to 98° F (36.7° C).Formula must be stirred continuallyduring the heating process to preventcurdling. If curdling occurs, disposeof that formula. Do not boil. Do notreheat. The unused portion of heatedformula should be discarded. Whenfeeding several chicks, the formula

Penguin Conservation July 1998

Never force a chick to eat.

Evaluate each chick individually and then

determine cause for inappetence.

container is placed in a warm waterbath to maintain temperature.

The consistency of the formula isimportant. If it is too watery, chicksolder than 3-4 days may regurgitateduring or after feeding. When madeproperly, formula shouJd be the con­sistency of a thick milkshake. Forchkks from 3 days of age to 400 g AM

weight, stir in 1 pinch of ground vita­min B1 per 100 cc of formula prepared,just prior to feeding. (See Appendix Bfor Vitamin Regime.)

Each chick should be fed with itsown syringe. The size of the syringeused is increased as the chick grows:e.g. 1 cc, 3 cc, 6 CC, 12 cc, 60 cc withcatheter tip.

Syringes need not be affixed withfeeding tubes. However, it is oftenconvenient, when using the 6 cc and12 cc syringes to affix a section-nolonger than 1 in. (2.5 cm)---of feedmgtube. For this purpose, use size 12 or14 french,(4.o-4.7 mm). Glue the feed­ing tube to the syringe with instantbonding glue to prevent the tubefrom coming off and being swal­lowed by the chick.

Syringes are washed, soaked indisinfectant (Wavicide-Ol ®, seeAppendix C), rinsed, and air-driedbetween each feeding. Syringes donot need to be dipped in disinfectantbetween each drawing up of formula;the feeder can wipe the yringe withtissue or a towel to remove residue.Separate containers of formula areused to feed from for each "group" ofchicks (chicks living in the samebrooder or bin).

Chicks are fed from younge. t tooldest so that the youngest chicks re­ceive the warmest formula. Theexception is in the case of an ill bird,which is fed last to avoid contaminat­ing the feeding area.

2. Early FeedingWe give 5 feedings per day, every 3

hours. For the very first feeding it isrecommended to feed water only.This allows determination of the

Penguin Conservation July 1998

chick's initial vitality, and introducesthe chick to feeding from the syringe.

Young chicks should be fed in aclean, warm, draft-free area. All feed­il.1g materials should be preparedbefore bringing a chick out to feed. Itis preferable to feed chicks in thebrooder or bin to minimize handling.

To elicit a feeding response, thefeeder should hold the syringe filledwith the specified amount of formulain one hand, then extend the first andsecond fingers of the other hand in aninverted "V"-shape over the chick'sbill and Wiggle the fingers. The chickshould respond with a feedingresponse by opening its bill and push­ing into the "V", at which time thesyringe should be placed in thechick' mouth and the formula fed.

The rate at which formula is fedand the amount fed at a "bout" willdepend on the age of the chick andhow quickly the chick is swallowing.The feeder should continually lookdown the chick's throat while feed­ing, to ensure that formula is notbeing fed too quickly. A long as thechick is swallowing, the trachea isclosed and formula can be fed. Thechick should be standing uprightduring feeding, and the feeder shouldcontinue to elicit a feeding responsefor a few seconds follOWing feeding,to ensure that all formula has beencompletely swallowed.

A feeding response should not beeljcited until the feeder is ready tofeed immediately, as giving a pro­longed feeding response will tend tounduly tire a young chkk. The feederhould also take care to have the tip of

the syringe or extension tube at theback of the chick's mouth, and takecare not to go too far down the chick'sthroat and not touch the inside of the

chick's mouth or throat with thesyringe or tube.

General Intake GuidelinesFeeding is based on a calculated

percentage of the morning weight ofthe chick before the first feeding, asfollows (but treat chicks individually,based on information previouslydiscussed; the range in amounts forthe first 3 days is due to chicks vary­ing in weight from 60 g - 120 g):

Day 1: 50:50 formula/water, withthe total intake per feeding totalling1-5 g (cc), but notto exceed 10% of themorning weight (AM wt).

(1 g formula = 1 cc formula.)

Note: Day 1 here is defined as thefirst day of feeding; this may differfrom the chick's age where day 1equals day of hatch. In these earlydays, the chick may still be absorbingyolk sac. This is an important factor injudging intake for young chicks; it isall right to be conservative.

Day 2 :75:25 formula/water-notto exceed 4-8 g (cc) total intake perfeeding. This wilJ depend on thechick's AM weight.

Day 3: Introduce straight formula­not to exceed 4-10 g total intake perfeeding. If not well accepted, go bilCkto 75:25 formula/water.

Day 4 & 5: Try 10% of AM weighttotal intake per feeding of straight for­mula -do not exceed this amount.Use 10% of AM weight as a guide foreach feeding's total intake. When thechick reaches 100 g AM weight, beginadding fish to the diet as describedbelow.

con tinued on page 6

5

SeaWorld California penguin hand-rearing guidelinescontinued om page 5

3. tOO-500 g chick weightBegin fish when the chick reaches

100 g first morning weight. We intro­duce fish using herring (Clupea spp.)fillets cut into 1-1.5 in. (2.5-3.8 cm) x0.25 in. (0.6 cm) pieces, then use wholesmall silversides (Atherinidae) as thechick is able to swallow them whole(this may not occur until the chick isapproximately 300 g). We limit silver­sides to less than 50% of the total fishintake, due to the belief that silver­sides may not contain enough iron tomaintain adequate nutrition long­term in penguins. Dip the fish or fishpieces in formula or warm water justprior to feeding. This hydrates thefish, warms it a little, and makes iteasier for the chick to swallow.

Gentoos usually begin fish at slightlygreater than 100 gAM weight (approxi­mately 110-115 g AM weight) due totheir larger hatch weights. Neverthe­less, their first day on fish should not beany earlier than their first or secondday of straight formula.

The guidelines for the amount offish fed are as follows:

tOO g AM weight:1st day on fish: 3 g fish given once

a day (SID) for the first day, at the firstAM feeding. Fish is given withfonnula, and the total intake (fish plusformula) per feeding is not to exceed10% of AM weight.

2nd day on fish: a maximum of3-5 g fish given twice a day (BID),with formula, at the (first) morningand mid-afternoon feedings. The totalintake per feeding must not exceed10% of AM weight.

3rd day on fish: 3-5 g fish maxi­mum given at every other feeding,with formula so that the total intakeper feeding equals 10% of AM weight.

4th day on fish: 3-5 g maximum fishgiven every feeding.

5th day on fish: 5-7 g maximum fishgiven every feeding.

6th day on fish: 7-10 g maximumfish given every feeding.

300 g AM weight: 10-15 g fish maxi­mum every feeding with formula,not to exceed 10% of AM weight perfeeding.

6

400g AM weight: Fish is 50% maxi­mum of total intake every feeding incombination with formula, the totalnot to exceed 10% of AM weight perfeeding. Begin vitamin supplementsat this time. (25 mg B1 BID.)

Note: Heating formula to the fuJi95° F (35°C) becomes less critical as achick is consuming a higher percent­age of cold fish.

500 g chick's first morning weight:Decrease the number of feedings to

4 per day (QID), every 4 hours, atapproximately 500 g first morningweight.

Let the chick's appetite guide you.Although the number of feedings

has been reduced to 4, the chickshould still be receiving the sameamount of food as it would be gettingif fed 5 times per day. This is calcu­lated by multiplying 10% of chick'sAM weight x 5 and dividing that totalby 4 to get the amount to feed at eachof the four feedings. This "boosted"feeding protocol will last until thechick is approximately 800 g at whichtime chicks don't seem to gain extraweight even on more food. Then thechick can go to 10% of AM weight fedat each feeding QlD.

Humboldts: This "boosted" feed­ing protocol does not apply toHumboldt penguin chicks whousually go directly, at 500 g morningweight, to 10% of AM weight fed ateach feeding QlD.

4. 600 g first morning weightAfter the chick reaches approxi­

mately 600 g or greater and has beendoing well on the 50:50 fish/formula+ water regimen, then the feedingschedule may be altered to increasethe percentage of fish in the diet: 30 ccformula, plus fish to equal 10% of AM

wt. Water may be given as needed.The size of fish given can usually be

increased at this time, with a mixtureof one-half capelin (Mallotus villosus)and one-half small or cut herringreplacing silversides. Keep in mind

tha t herring is a dense-fleshed fish,and may be difficult for younger birdsto process whole. Do not feed morethan 30 cc of formula per feeding.

5. tOOO g or greater chick's firstmorning weight

Chicks may start to "wean them­selves" from formula by refusing tofeed from a syringe. This may begin tooccur as the chick approaches 1500­2000 g first morning weight. Formulamay be red uced to 15 cc QlD.

Formula is eventually reduced to30 cc once a day (at the first feeding ofthe day, when the chick is most hun­gry), then eventually eliminated fromthe diet altogether.

Once chicks are off formula, the fatintake needs to be replaced by a fishwith a high fat content such as her­ring. At least 50% of the fish fedshould be a high fat fish.

Fish fed to chicks which are notreceiving formula should be dippedin water or hydrated by injectingwater into the fish just prior to feed­ing. If this is not enough to hydratethe chicks, an electrolyte replacementsolution should be used.

Although chicks may be on QlDfeedings, they may not eat the fullamount of fish offered at each feed­ing, especially at the fourth feeding ofthe day. Feeders should be thinking interms of "daily intake" and whetherchicks are maintaining the properweight gains.

An additional reduction of thenumber of feedings per day may alsobe indicated at around 1500 g. Chicksthat are not hungry at the secondfeeding for several days are probablyready for three feedings per day, ev­ery 6 hours or so.

When chicks go to three times a day(TID) feedings, start with 10% of AMweight per feeding, then adjust asneeded to achieve the desired weightgain. Chicks should be eager to eat ateach feeding. As chicks start to moult,they may not eat the full amountoffered. Once chicks have completedmoult, are in the exhibit full-time, andhave reached a good, stable weight,

Penguin Conservation July 1998

fish may be fed on demand, or on thesame schedule as the other birds inthe exhibit.

Appendix A

SeaWorld California-Penguin formula - Dec. 1997(see Appendix C for product list)

Whole Batch

Quarter Batch

Blend ingredients thoroughly. Strain through large colander. Refrigerate for­mula, mark with date and time; use within 24 hours. Warm formula to 95 0 F(35 0 C) before serving.

Note: for chicks 3 days of age to 400 g am weight: just prior to feedingformula, stir in 1 pinch of ground BI per 100 cc formula prepared for feeding.

As chicks progress through variousfeeding stages, they will responddifferently. Keep in mjnd the aspectspreviously discussed. Sometimeschicks will not eat all the food itemsoffered at all feedings. Never force achick to eat. Evaluate each chick indi­vidually and then determine thecause for inappetence.

There are two stages at which mostchicks become finicky: at 500 g for aday or two, and at 1000 g for severaldays. They may refuse food at onefeeding or not eat full amounts at eachfeeding. Check for overheating.Evaluate the environment. If lowappetite continues for more than afew days, it is a cause for concern, notjust a phase. The chick may be ilt.

In writing out these guidelines, theauthors have endeavored to be clearand to provide all necessary informa­tion. These are meant to be used asguidelines only, not a strict regimen.Should there be questions, either of uscan be contacted for clarification andadditional information. We wouldalso appreciate hearing from peoplewho use these guidelines about theirexperience.

AcknowledgmentsThe authors wish to thank the

Aviculture staff of the SeaWoridCalifornia Penguin Encounter fortheir work in raising many penguinchicks. The staff's accurate anddetailed record keeping on the hand­rearing of penguin chicks hasprovided the data upon which wemonitor the success of these hand­rearing guidelines and initiatechanges. We would also like to recog­nize the pioneering work of FrankTodd, Frank Twohy, and ScottDrieschman, whose vision for pen­guins and development of the earlierchick diet made our work possible. ~

440g

440 g

800ml8 ea550mg1 ea

4 ea1200 i.u.2ml

Half Batch

220g

220 g

400ml4 ea275mg"2+1/2lb"

26OOi.u.1 ml

110g

110g

200 mI2 ea150mg"1+1/4Ib"

1300 i.u.1/2 ml

5-7 in. (12.7-17.8 cm) whole herring (w /head, tail, fins& skin removed)Krill (squeeze water out after defrosting & beforemeasuring)bottled drinking water7 grain brewers yeast tablets

B15 lb. Mazuri® Sea Bird vitamins (=formulation forbirds eating Sibs fish per day; see Appendix C)10 grain calcium carbonate tabletsVitamin EChildren's multi-vitamin drops

5-7 in. (12.7-17.8 cm) whole herring (w /head, tail, fins& skin removed)Krill (squeeze water out after defrosting & beforemeasuring)bottled drinking waterbrewers yeast tabletsBIMazuri® Sea Bird vitamins (=half of a "5 lb" tablet;see Appendix C)10 grain calcium carbonate tabletsVitamin EChildren's multi-vitamin drops

5-7 in. (12.7-17.8 cm) whole herring (w /head, tail, fins& skin removed)Krill (squeeze water out after defrosting & beforemeasuring)bottled drinking waterbrewers yeast tabletsB1Mazuri® Sea Bird vitamins (= 2 of the "1/2 Ib" tablets,plus one of the same divided in half; see Appendix C)10 grain calciu m carbonate tabletVitamin EChildren's multi-vitamin drops

Penguin Conservation July 1998

Appendices continue on pp. 8-9.

7

Appendix B

SeaWorld California Penguin Hand-rearingVitamin Regime - Feb. 1997

Through 1000 g AM weight

3 days of age to 400 g AM weight:Just prior to feeding formula, stir in 1 pinch of ground BI per 100 cc formula prepared.

>400 g AM weight through 1000 g AM weight:25 mg Bl BID

First daily weight = 1000 g - or when chick receives formula twice a day (BID)

AM:

Y2 children's multi-vitamin125 mg oystershelJ calcium50mgBI

PM:

100 Lu. Vitamin E every other dayY2 tablet B-Complex (B-50)125 mg oystershell calcium

First daily weight = 2000 g - start of juvenile vitamins:

AM:

125 mg oystershell calcium1 children's multi-vitamin50mgBl

PM:

25 mg oystershelJ calciumB-Complex (25 mg)100 Lu. Vitamin E every other day

Juvenile vitamins(after completion of first juvenile moult until 4 months post-fledge of the youngest chick)

2 ea. Y2 lb. Mazuri®Sea Bird vitamin tabs SID (macaroni, chinstrap, Adelie)Y2 ea. 5 lb. Mazuri®Sea Bird vitamin tab SID (gentoo, Humboldt, Magellanic)1 ea. 50 mg B1 SID1 ea. 50 mg B-complex SID100 i.u. vit E on odd days

(Vitamins may be inserted into the gills of the fish before feeding, or-if no whole fish is beinggiven-fed to the chicks with a feeding response, followed by the fish fillets).

8 Penguin Conservation July 1998

AppendixC

Product List (description, manufacturer or vendor)

Ampligrip 201™Manufactured by:Emtek 1-800-356-2741

Betadine surgical scrub®Povidone-iodine, 7.5%Antiseptic Bactericidal/Virucidal

sudsing skin cleanserManufactured by:The Purdue Frederick CompanyNorwalk, CT 06850-3590

Children's Chewable VitaminTablets (various vendors and manu­facturers) Each tablet supplies:

Ori-dek matting®Interlocking PVC mattingAvailable from:Lab Safety Supply, Inc.P.O. Box 1368Janesville, WI 53547-1368

Pro-Clean 200™Iodine sanitizer (1.6% iodine)Available from: Shamrock FoodsManufactured by:ProClean of Arizona, Inc.Phoenix, Arizona 85043

Children's Multi-Vitamin Drops(various vendors and manufacturers)Each 1.0 ml supplies:

Wavicide-01®2.5% Glutaraldehyde SolutionUsed as a sterilant or disinfectantAvailable from: Cameron MedicalManufactured by:Medical Chemical Corporation1909 Centinela AvenueSanta Monica, CA 90404

Vito A, i.u.Vito C, mgVito 0, Lu.Vito E, Lu.Thiamine, mgRiboflavin, mgNiacin, mgVito B-6, mgFolate, mcgVito B-12, mcgSodium, mg

250060

40015

1.051.2

13.51.05

3004.55

Vito A, Lu.Vito C, mgVito 0, Lu.Vito E, i.u.Thiamine, mgRiboflavin, mgNiacin, mgVito B-6, mgVito B-12, mcg

150035

40050.50.680.42

Mazuri® Sea Bird Multi-Vitamin tabletsTablets are formulated for animals eating 2 V2lb (1.13 kg)

and 5 lb (2.27 kg) fish per day

Each 2 V21b. tabletsupplies:

Each 5 lb. tabletsupplies:

Vito A, Lu.Vito E, Lu.Vito C, mgThiamin, mgRiboflavin, mgPyridoxine, mgPantothenic

Acid, mgFolic Acid, mcgBiotin, mcg

1650252520

1.51.5

1.55025

16,500250250200

1515

15500250

Penguin Conservation July 1998 9

Oceans without fish

The destruction of life in theoceans has progressed fartherthan anyone had suspected,according to a recent report inScience magazine (Pauly 1998).The causes include overfishingand pollution, but the focus ofthe new report is overfishingalone. [Science is the voice of theAmerican Associa tion for theAdvancement of Science (AAAS)].

The world's catch of ocean fishpeaked in 1989 and has been declin­ing since (Broad 1995). In the early1990s, scientists reported that 13 ofthe world's 17 major fisheries weredepleted or in steep decline (Egan1994). Typical is the Grand Banksfishery off the shallow coast of New­foundland in the north Atlantic.There, after 350 years of commercialexploitation, the haddock, cod andflounder have all but disappearedand the fishery was officially closed afew years ago.

The depletion of the world's mostpopular fish species has set off threetrends, each of which is adding to theoceans' troubles: (1) fishermen areadopting new technologies that (2)allow them to fish in deeper waters,and (3) they are fishing lower on thefood chain.

New TechnologiesCommercial fishing can be very

profitable if conducted on a grandscale. In 1992, Don Tyson, the Arkan­sas chicken magnate and supporterof Bill Clinton, bought the Arctic­Alaska Fisheries Company, and threeother fishing companies. They oper­ate a fleet of industrial super-trawlersthat each cost $40 million to build andreach the length of a football field.

Peter MontagueEnvironmental Research FoundationP.O. Box 5036Annapolis, MD 21403-7036Fax (410) 263-8944email: erj@rachel.clark.net

10

These trawlers pull nylon nets thou­sands of feet long through the water,capturing everything in their path ­400 tons of fish at a single netting.Super-trawlers like these can stayoff-shore for months at a time, pro­cessing and freezing their catch asthey go, giving them a major advan­tage over smaller land-based boats.

Approximately 40 percent of whatthese super-trawlers catch is consid­ered trash and is ground up andthrown back into the ocean. They callit "bycatch" and, according to inves­tigative reporter Jeffrey St. Clair, itcan include endangered sea lions,and seals, as well as unwanted fish(St. Clair 1997). (In the northeastAtlantic alone, the bycatch in a year'stime amounts to 3.7 million tons(Pauly 1998).

Trawlers are now using technologydeveloped by the military to fishwaters as deep as a mile, catchingspecies that few would have consid­ered edible or useful a decade ago.Now that the shallow fisheries are inserious decline, trawl nets fitted withwheels and rollers are dragged acrossthe bottom of the deep oceans,removing everything of any size.

Squid, skate, rattails, hoki, blueling, black scabbard, red crabs, blackoreos, smooth oreos, deep shrimp,chimeras, slackjaw eels, blue hake,southern blue whiting, sablefish,spiny dogfish, and orange roughyare now being harvested from thedeep ocean and sold in seafoodstores, cooked into "fish sticks" atMcDonald's, or processed into fake"crab meat" for seafood salads.

PETER MONTAGUE

Part of the problem is con­sumer ignorance. For example,orange roughy began to appearin fish stores and on the menusat fancy restaurants in the U.s.just a decade ago. Yet in thatshort time the species may havebecome threatened with extinc­tion. The orange roughy lives up

to a mile deep in cold waters off NewZealand. Now scientists have learnedthat species living in deep, coldwaters grow and rep rod uce veryslowly. The orange roughy, for ex­ample, lives to be 150 years old andonly begins to reproduce at age 30.Recently, the principal stocks oforange roughy around New Zealandcollapsed. Still, today in Annapolis,Maryland, fish stores, orange roughyis available for $8.99 per pound, andthere's no sign telling consumers thatthe species is threatened. "Peoplewouldn't eat rhinoceros or any otherland creature that they knew wasthreatened with extinction. Butthey're eating fish like orange roughywithout a clue to what's happening,"says Greenpeace fisheries expertMike Hagler in Auckland, NewZealand (Broad 1995).

Radar allows ships to operate inthe fog and the dark; sonar locates thefish precisely; and GPS (geographicalpositioning system) satellites pin­point locations so that ships canretum to productive spots. Formerly­secret military maps reveal hiddendeep-sea features, such as mountains,which are associated with upwellingcurrents of nutrient-rich water,where fish thrive. Combined withlarger nets made from new, strongermaterials, modern fishing vesselsguided electronically can sweep theoceans clean-and that is preciselywhat is happening. As a result, theocean's fish are disappearing, and soare the family-scale fishing opera­tions that used to dominate theindustry.

Penguin Conservation July 1998

This article, which reports on commercial fishing pnu:tices and their implicationsfor thefuture, including Daniel Pauly's analysis ofglobal fishery statistics (Science,6 February 1998), also makes reference to political issues connected to corporatefishing. Politics are not part of this journal's scope, and Penguin Conservation doesnot endorse the author's comments about politics or about the individuals named.Nevertheless it is clear that the solutions to environmental problems caused by humanactivity (like overfishing, habitat destruction, and pollution) will usually involvepolitical decisions and action, and it would be unrealistic to exclude politics from thediscussion.-Editor

Because modern fishing equip­ment is immensely expensive, thestakes are high. With big money onthe line, the fishing industry hascurried political favor. As a result,modem fishing factories like Tyson'sare subsidized by federal and stategovernments. Tyson's company hasreceived more than $65 million inlow-interest loans from the federalgovernment, to help build 10 of thesesuper-trawlers. According to JeffreySt. Clair, the Seattle-based factory­trawler fleet has received $200million in federal subsidies.

Furthermore, because so much is atstake, deep-water factory trawlerscannot afford to let up. They mustkeep fishing until the last fish is gone.

Fishing down the food chainBut it gets worse. The new report in

Science shows that humans are nowfishing not only in deeper waters, butalso lower on the food chain (Pauly1998). This has ominous implications,because as the lower levels of thefood chain decline, the chances ofrevival at the top of the food chain arediminished even further. Scientistsare now discussing the "wholesalecollapse" of marine ecosystems(Stevens 1998)."It is likely that con­tinuation of present trends will leadto widespread fisheries collapses,"says Daniel Pauly, the author of thenew study (Pauly 1998). "If things gounchecked, we might end up with amarine junkyard dominated byplankton," he says (Williams 1998).

Pauly's new study examined thediets of 220 fish species, then gaveeach species a numerical ranking inthe food web, between 1 and 5. Thoseassigned a 1 are plankton-tinyfloating plants that photosynthesize,using the energy of sunlight toconvert wa ter and carbon dioxideinto carbohydrates, thus forming thebottom of all aquatic food chains.Level 2 is zooplankton-tiny floatinganimals that eat plankton. Top preda­tors, such as the snappers inhabitingthe continental shelf off Yucatan,Mexico, receive a ranking of 4.6.

Penguin Conservation July 1998

These data were combined withFood and Agriculture Organization(FAO) data on fish landings world­wide. The result is an estimate of theaverage place in the oceanic food web(the average "trophic level") wherehumans are harvesting fish. The newstudy reveals that the average trophiclevel has been steadily declining for45 years, meaning that humans areprogressively taking fish from loweron the food chain. The steady declinehas been about 0.1 trophic levels perdecade. "Present fishing policy isunsustainable," says Pauly. Of the220 species studied, at least 60% arebeing overfished, or fished to thelimit. (Williams 1998)

Pauly believes that the true situa­tion is somewhat worse than hisstudy indicated, principally becausemany countries under-report theirfishing harvest.

Even if a fishery does not collapsecompletely, fishing down the foodchain can have serious consequences.In the North Sea, the cod populationhas been so depleted that fishermenare now concentrating on a second­level species called pout, which thecod used to eat. The pout, in tum, eattiny organisms called copepods andkrill. Krill also eat copepods. As thepout are removed, the krill popula­tion expands and then the copepodpopulation declines drastically.Because copepods are the main foodof young cod, the cod populationcannot recover (Stevens 1998).

Fish farming might seem like a wayout of this problem, but it is not-atleast not as presently practiced­because farmed fish are fed fish mealmade from second-level fish (Stevens1998).

Dr. Pauly believes that in 3 or 4decades, many oceanic fisheries will"collapse in on themselves." Theresult will be a loss of high-qualityprotein for humans, even before thefisheries collapse completely.

Humans eat somewhere betweentrophic levels 2.5 and 4. Lower thenthat, there isn't much that people eat."There is a lower limit for what canbe caught and marketed, and zoo­plankton [at trophic level 2] is notgoing to be reaching our dinnerplates in the foreseeable future," Dr.Pauly wrote in Science.

Preserving and restoring oceanfisheries

Solutions? Government could limitthe kinds of fishing technology thatare allowedbut this would put "thepublic interest" lip against the likes ofDon Tyson. In today's politicalclimate, with private money domi­na ting our elections, Don Tysonwould win because he's wealthy andhe supports all the right politicians.

Dr. Pauly believes there is anurgent need to create protected areaswhere fishing is simply not allowed.He sees no-fishing zones as easier toimplement and enforce than fishingquotas, limiting fishing time at sea,restrictions on allowable fishing gear,and controls on pollution-thoughthese steps, too, are needed, hebelieves. No-fishing zones can becreated quickly and can be enforced.In Britain, the fishing industry hasbegun to accept no-fishing zones as

a way to save the industry in the faceof declining fish stocks [Williams1998].

continued on page 12

11

Oceans without fish

continued

The most important idea, proposedin the same issue of Science magazine,would be to shift the burden of proofonto the fishing industry (Dayton1998). Those who profit from publicresources such as the oceans shouldhave to demonstrate, before they canbegin fishing, that their activities willnot harm the public resource. Forexample, owners of super-trawlersshould have to show that their yieldwill be sustainable before their shipscan put to sea.

At present, it is assumed that fish­ing will not damage life in the oceans,and the burden is on the general pub­lic to prove otherwise. But there isabundant evidence indicating dam­age, and it is definitely time to shiftthe burden of proof onto the fishingindustry.¢

ReferencesBroad, William J. Creatures of the

Deep Find Their Way to the Table.New York Times, 26 December 1995,pp.C1,C5.

Dayton, Paul K. Reversal of theBurden of Proof in Fisheries Manage­ment. Science 279 (6 February1998):821-822.

Egan,Timothy. U.S. Fishing FleetTrawling Coastal Water WithoutFish. New York Times, 7 March 1994,pp. A1, B7.

Pauly, Daniel V. Christensen, J.Dalsgaard et al. 1998. Fishing DownMarine Food Webs. Science 279 (6February 1998): 860-863.

St. Clair, Jeffrey. Fishy Business.In These Times 26 May 1997, pp. 14-16,36.

Stevens, William K. Man MovesDown the Marine Food Chain, Creat­ing Havoc. New York Times, 10February 1998, p. C3.

Williams, Nigel. Overfishing Dis­rupts Entire Ecosystems. Science 279(6 February 1998):809.

[This article originally appeared asissue #587 of Rachel's Environment andHealth Weekly (an electronic publica­tion), 26 February 1998. It has beenslightly abridged and is reprinted withpermission. To subscribe to this freepublication, E-mail the words SUBSCRIBERACHEL-WEEKLY YOUR NAME to:listserv@rachel.org ]

Report calls for 500/0 reduction in global fishing fleet

Despite recent international agree­ments noting the problems caused byoverfishing and calling for the adop­tion of a precautionary approach tofisheries, the global commercialfishing fleet is continuing to increase,with more vessels of larger size andgreater efficiency increasing theglobal fleet's overall capacity. Thisaccording to a report (Fitzpatrick1998) commissioned by Greenpeaceand written by John Fitzpatrick andChris Newton, two recently-retiredformer chiefs from the FisheriesDepartment of the Food and Agricul­ture Organization of the UnitedNations (FAO).

Newton and Fitzpatrick concludethat the global fleet needs to bereduced by half in order to preventcontinued overfishing and thecollapse of fish stocks worldwide.

The authors note that the FAOMinisterial Conference on Fisheriesin 1995 called on governments andinternational organizations to

12

"urgently review the capacity offishing fleets and where necessaryreduce them."

Figures for 1995 and 1996 do showa sharp decrease in the numbers ofnew vessels, as well as a reduction inthe tonnage of those vessels com­pared with earlier years. However,an analysis of orders for new vesselsduring 1997 shows an increase innumbers once more and "a return tothe construction of large-tonnagefishing vessels."

In their report, Newton andFitzpatrick concentrated on suchlarge-tonnage vessels, defined asthose exceeding 24 meters (78.7 ft) inlength and more than 100 grosstonnes (GT).

By number, of the approximatelythree-and-a-half million fishingvessels estimated worldwide, onlyabout 35,000, or roughly one per centof the total, are classified as large­scale, industrialized vessels. Yet,these relatively few vessels constitute

50-60% of the world's total fishingcapacity.

An earlier FAO review recom­mended an overall reduction inglobal capaCity of at least 25%. How­ever, note Newton and Fitzpatrick,vessel refits and new additions sincethen mean that the fleet would needto have been reduced by 22% simplyfor its potential fishing capacity tohave remained constant. Combiningthe two figures produces a requiredfleet reduction of close to 50%.¢

ReferencesFitzpatrick, John and Chris

Newton. 1998. Assessment of theWorld's Fishing Fleet 1991-1997. AReport Submitted to GreenpeaceInternational.

[Source: Seaweb Ocean Update, June1998. Seaweb is a Year of the Oceanproject supported by the Pew MemorialTmst.]

Penguin Conservation July 1998

Crucial fisheries treaty goes unsigned Excluded by Chile,supertrawler moves on

As of February 1998, only four ofthe top twenty fishing nations in theworld have ratified a landmarkUnited Nations treaty on fisheries,and no country has acted to put theagreement into effect, according tothe World Wildlife Fund EndangeredSeas Campaign.

The 1995 United Nations Conven­tion on Straddling Fish Stocks andHighly Migratory Fish Stocks is, saysWWF, "the most far-reaching treatyever negotiated to promote the con­servation of marine fishes." Amongits requirements are that countriesmust: adopt the "precautionary ap­proach" to fisheries management;adopt new measures to promote theuse of selective or "clean" fishing gearto reduce fisheries bycatch; and thatfisheries management bodies mustopen their deliberations to publicscrutiny by admitting observers.

However, says WWF, of the toptwenty fishing nations, only theUnited States, Russia, Norway andIceland have ratified the agreement.By contrast, eight developing nationswhich account for 27 percent of worldfishing have not signed the agree­ment: Chile, Peru, India, North Korea,Thailand, Mexico, Malaysia and Viet­nam.

Environmental groups also look tothe UN General Assembly to push forWorld Trade Organisation (WTO)action to prod nations to reduce gov­ernment subsidies that favourcommercial fishing. Those subsidiesamount to tens of billions of dollars ayear, and are linked to the 'over-ca­pacity' of the fishing industry, saidMichael Sutton, director of WorldWide Fund for Nature (WWF) Endan­gered Seas Campaign.

"The European Union alone spendstwo-thirds of its fisheries budgetsubsidising commercial fleets" whichin turn are linked to over-fishing inthe waters off the developing world,he contended.

The UN Food and AgricultureOrganisation (FAO) estimates thatsome 70 percent of the world's mainfisheries either have been exploited to

Penguin Conservation July 1998

their maximum capacity, or over­exploited. Meanwhile, the largest­scale fishing fleets, which account formost of the over-fishing, receive animmense amount of government sub­sidies - amounting to 54 billion dollarsin 1989 alone, according to FAO.

Some groups are challenging theuse of large-scale trawlers directly.[See article at right. -Ed.]

Earlier this month, the U.s. Con­gress passed legislation whichprevents the re-entry of factory trawl­ers and other large fishing vessels intothe waters off New England, and alsoimposed a one-year moratorium onany U.s. activity by foreign-basedlarge- scale fishing vessels.

Fishing as a whole has increaseddramatically in recent years, with thefleet of middle- and large-scale vesselsdoubling from 585,000 in 1970 to 1.2million in 1990, according to the FAO.

The Fish Stocks Agreement intendsto reduce the harm from over- fishingby urging countries to adopt a 'pre­cautionary approach' in which vesselsmust err on the side of conservationrather than of increasing the volumeof fishing.

The treaty also pushes govern­ments to cooperate in managingfisheries and promotes the use of non­destructive fishing gear. Greenpeaceestimates that some 27 million tonnesof unwanted fish are caught, killedand dumped back into the sea eachyear, simply because some large-scalefishing technologies-like driftnetfishing-pick up a heavy volume ofundesirable fish.

"While governments have procras­tinated," says WWF, "fish populationshave continued to decline. Until 30countries join the ... Agreement and itenters into force, the world's fishingfleets will continue to plunder thehigh seas virtually unchecked. Unlessgovernments act quickly to imple­ment the treaty, the future of worldfisheries will remain in jeopardy." ¢

{from World Wildlife Fund docu­ments]

The American Monarch---called theworld's most efficient factory super­trawler-is headed for Russian fishinggrounds, after being barred fromfishing in Chilean waters.

Nearly 100 meters (328 ft) long, theAmerican Monarch has state-of-the-artfish finding technology, and is capableof fishing and processing up to aboutone million pounds (454 metric tons) offish per day-more than any otherfishing vessel in the world.

At a time when the UN's Food andAgriculture Organization is calling fora reduction of the world's fishing fleetsbecause 70 per cent of fish stocksworldwide are either fully exploited,over exploited or depleted, this vesselis only the first of 25 huge new fishingvessels to be built by Resources GroupInternational (RGI) shipyards inNorway. All of them, according toGreenpeace International, are beingsubsidized by the Norwegian Govern­ment in the amount of $56 million.

In November, 1997, the ChileanHigh Court of Justice refused to allowthe supertrawler to operate in thewaters of southern Chile, which arealready heavily fished, ruling that theship could cause "irreparable damage"to Chile's marine life.

Now owned by American Seafoodsof Seattle, a subsidiary of RGI, theAmerican Monarch spent most of 1997docked in Seattle. Plans announcedearly this year called for it to fish forpollack in the Bering Sea, on theRussian side of the North Pacific. (USrules exclude the ship from the twobillion dollar a year fishing industry inAmerican territorial waters off ofAlaska, because it was foreign-built.)No such rules govern Russian waters,and, in addition, fishery regulationsthere allow 40% of the pollack stocks tobe caught each year, while the US limitis 18%.

Several North Pacific pollack stocksare already showing signs of stress. TheCentral Bering Sea has been closed tofishing since 1992, due to overfishingby factory trawlers. ¢

[compiled from various news sources]

13

Preservation of Antarctic marine ecosystems: excerpts from the 1997 report

BETH CLARK

Six years of hard work came tofruition this year with the entry intoforce of the Antarctic EnvironmentalProtocol. On Wednesday, January 14,1998 the entire continent of Antarc­tica was declared off-limits to allexploitation of oil, gas and other min­erals. In the process, comprehensiveenvironmental protection was af­forded to one-tenth of the planet'ssurface.

Protecting Antarctic marine lifeThe protection of the biodiversity

of Antarctica's waters continues to bea priority. As the environmentalrepresentative on the U.s. delegationto meetings of the Convention on theConservation of Antarctic MarineLiving Resources (CCAMLR), ourDirector ensures that the environ­mental viewpoint is representedwhen adopting conservationmeasures to regulate fishing. ASOCrepresentatives also serve on theAustralian, New Zealand and UKdelegations, and ASOC attends as anobserver to the meetings.

The Convention on the Conserva­tion of Antarctic Marine LivingResources (CCAMLR) was estab­lished to sustainably manageSouthern Ocean fisheries. It is uniquein its "ecosystem" approach to themanagement of fisheries because itsaim is not only to conserve the tar­geted species, but to take into accountthe impact of fishing on thoseanimals (seals, whales, penguins andother seabirds) that depend on thetargeted species. During the pastyears, it seemed that precautionaryprinciples have gradually becomeembedded in some of CCAMLR'smanagement mechanisms. But now,conservation appears to be taking aback seat to economic priorities as

Beth Clark, DirectorThe Antarctic and Southern Ocean

CoalitionP.O. Box 76920Washington, DC 20013 USAe-mail: antarctica@igc.org

14

CCAMLR is faced with an illegal fish­ing situation that renders largelymeaningless all of these fine prin­ciples. Unless this is reversed,CCAMLR will have lost its ability tosustainably manage Southern Oceanfisheries.

Increase in both legaland illegal fishing

This change in emphasis has comeabout due to a resurgence of interestin Antarctic fisheries, primarily in thehighly valued Patagonian toothfish(Dissostichus eleginoides, often sold as"Chilean sea bass"). Ironically thisinterest has come from nations whichhave traditionally been concernedwith conservation. In addition to anincrease in the number of legal fisher­ies, illegal and unregulated fisherieson Patagonian toothfish have ex­ploded. The illegal and unregulatedfishing has destroyed the effective­ness of conservation measures, andthreatens to destroy the sustainabilityof regulated fisheries unless haltedquickly. It is believed that the illegalfisheries have taken a minimum of100,ODO tonnes [1 tonne or metric ton=1.1 traditional ton -Ed.] compared tolegal fishing of around 30,000 tonnes.

At the last CCAMLR meetingeleven proposals for new or explor­atory Patagonian toothfish fisherieswere approved-at commercialrather than precautionary levels­in various areas covering most of theremainder of the Southern Ocean (inaddition to established commercialfisheries in three other areas). ASOChad called for complete closure of thetoothfish fisheries, since the illegalfisheries are taking considerablymore fish than CCAMLR considersprecautionary. Although Membersspent considerable time discussingthese contentious issues, without amechanism to enforce compliancewith conservation measures, it willnot be possible to stem the illegal andunregulated fisheries.

Regrettably, agreement could stillnot be reached on the mandatory

placement of vessel monitoring sys­tems (VMS) on all fishing boats,despite their proven effectiveness asa means to monitor the position ofvessels. (Instead, a voluntary Resolu­tion was agreed which calls onnations to endeavor to establish VMSon its fishing vessels within the year.)

Incidental seabird mortality is oneconsequence of these longline fisher­ies. The level of seabird by-catch inthe illegal fisheries has been esti­mated to range from 5,000 to 145,000seabirds depending on assumptionsof the level of by-catch. These includeseveral IUCN-Iisted threatenedspecies of albatross and petrels andare unsustainable for the species in­volved. This problem is exacerbatedby the low level of compliance withthe conservation measure for avoid­ing incidental mortality of seabirds.

An expanded campaign to counterthe growing inability of CCAMLR toregulate itself and to protectAntarctica's marine ecosystems willfocus on building support for theimplementation of strict internationalmeasures to prevent over-fishing inthe Southern Ocean. This campaignincludes working in closer collabora­tion with organizations which areactive on fisheries issues in other re­gions, with fishers, and withgovernments. In particular, we willbe working to gain agreement ontrade measures and port controls toprevent fish from non-licensed boatsentering trade.

Krill fisheryThe increased interest in Southern

Ocean fisheries is not focussed solelyon Patagonian toothfish. There arealso alarming signs of a substantialexpansion in the krill fishery. At thispast meeting, four nations indicatedtheir intention to enter or expand theirkrill fisheries in the 1997/98season. Chinese interest was alsorumored. This fishery has been at afairly low level for the past four years,primarily because krill is not palatableto humans. However, during the past

Penguin Conservation July 1998

of the Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition (ASOC)

year, there have been significant devel­opments in krill-based pharmaceuticaland biotechnology uses which couldchange the nature of the fishery andlead to an increase in krill catchesover the next 5 years; there is also agrowing market for krill for aqua­culture (primarily for salmon).CCAMLR was originally negotiated inresponse to the concern that a rapidescalation of the krill fishery could pre­cipitate the demise of the SouthernOcean food chain (of which krill formsthe base). Unforttmately, the realitythat a greatly expanded krill fisherycould negatively impact dependentspecies was barely discussed at thismeeting.

Positive measures taken atCCAMLR meeting

In spite of these obstacles, weachieved a number of successes at L~is

year's CCAMLR meeting:

Recovery reported inmanne reserves

o The proposal for a year-rotmd sea­son for toothfish fisheries was blocked;a shortened season is the only way atpresent to protect fish stocks and mini­mize incidental seabird mortality.

o Agreement was reached to pro­hibit the import of any fish caught by aNon-Member unless an inspection hasdetermined that fishing was in compli­ance with CCAMLR's measures.

o Nations agreed to collect informa­tion on the international trade "flow"of toothfish. This is needed to deter­mine if imports of toothfish are caughtin compliance with CCAMLR's mea­sures, and could ultimately reduce thebenefits of reflagging.

o Fishing for toothfish was prohib­ited in the last three areas not yetopened for fishing.

o Members were encouraged to ex­tend the application of permits to areasadjacent to CCAMLR. This would beconsistent with the Straddling Stocksagreement which called on Membersto ensure the harmonization of mea­sures in adjacent areas.

o Nations agreed to prohibit fishingby their flag vessels in the ConventionArea except pursuant to a license orpermit that the Party has issued.

o Kept alive the discussion on theneed for a new conservation measurewhich defines the way in which fisher­ies are resumed.

In order for CCAMLR to sustainablymanage the marine ecosystem, nationsneed to continue ftmding research pro­grams that generate the data to supportconservation measures. Agreementcan only be reached on strong conser­vation measures if nations areprovided with scientific proof of afishery's status. In the US, this crucialdata has been provided by the NationalOceanic and Atmospheric Admini­stration's (NOAA) Antarctic MarineUving Resources Program (AMLR). Itswork has been essential in laying thescientific fotmdation for protecting theAntarctic marine ecosystem. ~

A beaming Hopley said the awardwas "for me the greatest privilegethat anyone could receive; I live andlove nature."

However, she pointed out that theproject would not have worked had itnot been for the efforts of SANCCOB,the public, and the air base. "I justmanaged the thing," she said.

The runner-up was Flight SergeantFrancois Coetzee of the Ellisras radarpost, who was honored for fixing ablack eagle nest to a mountainsideafter it had been knocked off its perchseveral times. ~

[article by Willem Steenkamp, © Inde­pendent Newspapers]

15

Air Force captain honored for penguin rehab workcontinued

National Foundation for the Conser­vation of Coastal Birds (SANCCOB)rehabilitation center in Table Viewwas struck by Newcastle disease.

Using an old aircraft X-ray hangarat the air base, Hopley ran an opera­tion that-without volunteers' time,and the donations of equipment andfood-would have cost the air forcemore than R188,OOO. In a three-monthproject about 7,000 penguins weresaved and returned to the sea.

At the presentation ceremony yes­terday Major-General P. R. MIler, theChief of Staff (Logistics) of the airforce, said it was "the first time wehave seen an effort that was so weIl­managed."

There is growing evidence thatprotected areas can be highly effectivein restoring and maintaining marineecosystems. Such areas on theGeorges Bank off Massachusetts werecreated only in 1994, but researchersare already finding an increase in thesize and spawning population of keyfish species, as well as a rapid increasein the bottom-dwelling scallop popu­lation, says a spokesperson for theNational Marine Fisheries Service inWoods Hole, Massachusetts.

Even tiny protected areas can bevery effective in some regions.Callum Roberts of the University ofYork in the United Kingdom saysreserves of just a few hectares ontropical coral reefs have boosted fishstocks and helped maintain long­lived large predators.~ [excerptedfrom: Williams, Nigel. 1998. Overfishingdisrupts entire ecosystem. Science (6February 1998): 279:809.1

Penguin Conservation July 1998

Little blue penguins (Eudyptula minor) at the Adelaide Zoo

Introductionand Brief Colony History

Since its founding in May 1878,Adelaide Zoo has kept several speciesof penguin. They are:

1950: King penguins (Aptenodytespatagonicus): kept for less than oneyear

1941 or 42: Jackass penguins(Spheniscus demersus): bred a fewtimes and remained in the collectionuntil 1962

1936: Little penguins (Eudyptulaminor ): not bred successfully untilthe 1980/s

various: Fiordland penguins(Eudyptes pachyrhynchus) These birdsare occasionally washed up on ourshores in poor condition. They arenursed back to health if possible, andsent to Taronga Zoo.

At present, the only species onshow at Adelaide Zoo is the Littlepenguin (Eudyptula minor ). Oursmall colony consists of a dozenadults and two chicks.

Exhibit DescriptionThe present penguin enclosure is a

smallish yard featuring beach sand­hills, eight burrows, rocks, log /sedges and grasses, all fronted by apond which runs almost the entirefront length of the exhibit. Thisexhibit was completed in September1982.

The pond is approximately 3 feet (1m) deep, cement lined, and is cleanedtwice a week. Bore water is used tofill it and we do not salinate thewater. Algae is kept to a minimumby regularly chlorinating the wallswhilst the pond is empty for cleaning.There is no reticulation or filtration ofthe water.

MJJry JohnsonSupervisor of BirdsAdelaide ZooFrome RoadAdelaide SA 5000Australia

16

Adelaide, Australia

Our pond was originally designedwith only one narrow exit point andwe found this insufficient. We evenhad a case of a recently-fledged birdswimming around unable to find theexit and eventually drowning. Sincethat incident, we have cemented insome rocks at either end of the pond,a few inches below water-level. Thisway the birds can swim onto therocks, stand up and clamber out ontothe land.

Little penguins in the wild usuallycome out of the sea onto a gentlysloping beach and seem to beincapable of the giant leaps from thewater that are seen in some otherpedes. The pool edge should not be

sharply sloped (Figure 1) or the birdsmay not be able to exit the water. Aramp is probably the best ption.

The original nestboxes in ourexhibit were wooden boxes with asmall entrance tunnel and removablelid but they weathered quickly, weredifficult to access and hard to camou­flage from the public.

The burrows we currently use areillustrated in Figure 2. Design 1 is thepattern of the half dozen burrowsspread along the rear of the exhibit.These were built first (in the early90's) and have been very successful,with up to four of them used forbreeding in one year. The burrowswhich are furthest apart are favoredfor nesting so I would recommend atleast three feet (1 m) between bu rrowentrances. If space doesn't permitthis, logs, rocks, vegetation, etc.should be used as visual screensbetween the burrows.

Design 2 is much shorter and morerecent (late 90/s) but already a newpair of birds is sitting on an egg inone of them and the other burrow is

MARY JOHNSON

favored as an "escape/hiding den' orsleeping area.

Nesting burrows can build up sucha stink of ammonia from droppingsthat it burns your eyes and nosewhen you open the back door for nestinspections. This smell, however,seems to have no ill effect on the birdsand we don/t clean burrows at all(except to prize out leaves andbranches and droppings which buildup against the do r). If there are twochicks being raised, both parents willsleep with them at first (and they'llboth incubate and feed the chicks too)but as the chicks grow, the male willoften be booted out to anotherburrow at night and the crampedquarters shared by the female andboth chicks.

Adelaide/s climate: Average win­ter temperatures are in the mid- tohigh teens Celsius (59-66° F) andaverage summer temperatures are inthe high 20's-low 30/s C. (80-90° F).Rainfall of about 23 inches (580mm)occurs mainly in the winter; we getno snow, and frost is rare. Summerscan occa ionaUy get very hot, high30/s to low 40's C (95-105° Ft bu t wi thour coastal location cool changesusually blow in after a few days ofheat.

HusbandryFeeding

Average feed per bird is 5 pilchards(Sardinops neopilchardus; totallingabout 250 gm) per day. Our colony isroutinely fed, with accompanyingkeeper talk, at 2:45 pm each day. Themorning feed is around 8 am, before

Fig. 1. Sharply sloping pool sides likethis make it difficult for Little bluepenguins to get out of the water.

Penguin Conservation July 1998

the public has access to the Zoo andwhile seagulls are absent.

The local seagulls (silver gulls,Larus novaehollandiae) can be a deci­ded nuisance during public feeds asthey squawk and squabble amongstthemselves vying for fish and scraps.Even one or two gulis can upset mostof our birds enough to put them offtheir food and head for the wa ter.

The gulls will take fish out of apenguin's mouth if he is slow inswallowing, and they will chasepenguins on land to do this. Keepersoften throw sand at the gulls to scarethem off, but a small flock can be verydifficult to budge. Even though thegull problem varies constantly, it canget so bad at times that we haveseriously considered netting in theenclosure to ensure some peace forour birds. Usually after the feeding iscompleted, the gulls hang around fora bit and then head off to annoysomething, or someone else.

The pilchards we feed are caughtand frozen in Western Australianwaters and shipped to us in bulk. Ourbirds can be quite finicky about theirfish. If the pilchard guts are mushy orthe girth too large, the birds mayattempt to eat them but if the fishonly gets halfway down and getsstuck it will be regurgitated. If a 'badbatch' of pilchards comes our way wehave contacts with local fishermento supply very small tommy ruffs(Arripis georgiana, also known asAustralian herring) and the penguinsusually take to these quite well.

We hand-feed our penguins for anumber of reasons.

1) it helps us keep an eye on theappetite of individual birds

2) it helps keep the birds fairlytame and approachable

3) we can regulate the fish to indiv­idual birds, Le. both the big bossy oneand the shy little one will get their fill

4) we haven't seriously tried orsucceeded in teaching little penguinsto eat dead fish by themselves; theybarely look at the live fish in thewater, let alone dead ones!

5) hand feeding helps stop silvergulls stealing the pilchards meant forpenguins.

Penguin Conservation July 1998

Feed times are a small frenzy ofeager birds with their heads on ornear the bucket, and the odd birdhanging around in the backgroundwaiting for the others to finish. Somebirds can get so 'grab by' and'snatchy' toward the fish that theirfood ends up a pulpy mass on thesand, but this is generally only ifwe've missed the morning feed andthe birds are very hungry.

Frozen pilchards are removedfrom the freezer about 3 pm daily inpreparation for the next day. Weused to soak the fish in water some­times to assist thawing but this is notdone any more as the leaching ofvitamins, especially B vitamins,was contributing to young chickmortality. For supplementation, weare presently using "KeylominOrganic", 1/8 tablet per bird once aweek (see Table 1).

PersonalityOur penguins are quite shy of

people and don't like being handled.Among themselves they can becontentious, and during breedingseason there are occasionally fights inwhich two birds, locked togetherbeak to beak, roll down the sand intothe pool and continue fighting in thewater. Ailing penguins are oftenpecked and ostracized by other birdsin the colony.

They show a keen interest in flyinginsects, such as flies, bees, or cabbagemoths, that come within range, and Iwas present on one occasion when amoth fluttered over the sand dunesand all the penguins chased after it,following one another in a line.

Individual 10 and weighingOur birds are leg-banded with

single spiral plastic leg bands (doublespiral bands are preferable but notavailable here) and numbered wingbands. Each bird is also micro­chipped as the leg bands can snap off,and we have removed the odd wingband in the past which has becometoo tight during the mol t. Microchipsare placed at the back of the neck.

All our birds are weighed monthly,except for incubating or breeding

pairs, and it is best to use gloveswhen handling as they can give anasty bite. As birds are weighed weput them in a small temporary pen atthe rear of the exhibit until they areall done, then we lift the gate andthey march themselves back into theexhibit. Once the equipment is putaway, we return to the exhibit andfeed the birds to help them 'forget'their handling. Average weights forthe adults in our colony range from950-1750 gros.

BreedingOf the dozen ad ult birds we have

currently, three pairs are known andthe others are being watched forsexual behaviors to enable sexing.Surgical sexing has been tried in thepast but was unsuccessful. On average,males tend to be larger in the bodythan females and have a longer bill,but this is not 100% accurate.

Breeding can occur as early as twoyears of age. Our birds are predom­inantly monogamous. Usually one pairwill choose a burrow and stick to thatburrow exclusively for breeding. Theywill use their burrow for sleeping andhiding, as well, and defend it year­round from other birds.

Breeding birds will collect sticksand grasses to line their burrows. Wecut Melaleuca branches into pieces afew inches long and spread themaround the exhibit for the birds tocollect. Some birds have also beenobserved eating small sticks.

Incubation of (normally) two eggs,laid two days apart, is a month longand it takes about 60 days for thechicks to be able to fend for them­selves. Our colony has no set breedingseason.

Hand-rearing chicks has not beenattempted at Adelaide Zoo for over10 years and was never successful.We believe it is much better to let theparent birds do it: just keep suppyingthe fish to them and they'll do therest. Young parents, however, as withmany species, may need a practicerun or two to perfect their techniques

continued on page 18

17

Little blue penguins (Eudyptula minor) at the Adelaide Zoocontinued from page 17

0.7mg0.4 mg0.25 mg0.15 mg0.15 mg0.14 mg0.14 mg0.10 mg2.5 Ilg1.25 1lg

55.0 mg4.9mg4.4mg3.0mg

of our adult mortalities show noobservable cause of death.

Offspring of our colony have neverbeen released to the wild as it isagainst our Wildlife Authoritypolicies at present. Little blues are socommon in the wild that there is noneed at the moment and I believe itwould be a rather difficult thing toachieve in practice. Some privateindividuals have raised rescuedpenguins for a time and attempted torelease the birds back where theyfound them, only to have the birdwandering around on the beachaimlessly for days looking very lost.I think if the need ever arose, an insitu scenario for breeding and releasewould be the best option.

There is no studbook on little bluesin the Australasian region but anumber of zoos and wildlife parkskeep this smallest species of penguin.

Keylomin Organic(Vitamin and Mineral Tablets)Each tablet contains:Magnesiumas Magnesium Proteinate)

Zinc (as Zinc Proteinate)Iron (as Iron Proteinate)Tocopherol (Vitamin E)Manganese(as Manganese Proteinate)

Copper (as Copper Proteinate)Riboflavin (Vitamin B2)Retinol (Vitamin A)PyridOXine (Vitamin 86)Cobalt (as Cobalt Proteinate)Thiamine (Vitamin B1)Iodine (as Calcium Iodate)Cyanocobalamin (Vitamin B12)Cholecalciferol ( Vitamin 03)Dose rate for penguins:1/8 tablet per bird per week

Table 1. Supplementation regime.

- ....r f"'i' ~ .....)-.... I' ..,..,,

~

,..,.-.I-....,..~.--""' - ,-~

About half of the individuals in ourcolony are wild birds which werefound ill or injured and brought to thezoo. Aspergillosis is a common killer ofstressed birds and many of the injuredbirds we receive have either asper­gillosis or worms, or both. Quite a few

individuals molt twice in one year. Thebirds will gorge themselves for a weekor two to more than double theirweight (average weight is 800-1700 g,in non-molting condition) and willthen wander around in or near theburrows for a couple of weeks whilelosing the old feathers.

Wild birds don't feed during themolt, as they don't swim, but all ourbirds do take about a fish a day evenat the height of the mol t.

One of our females molted whilststill feeding her chick and anothercontinued feeding her chick for 6months, instead of the normal 2months or so. We also have the oddbird, mainly young, which does notmolt properly: it does not put onenough weight and the feathers don'tdrop off as they should. The endresult is a very pale-looking bird thathas a rather scruffy appearance. Weare not sure why this happens andwe have a young unpaired bird in thecolony at present that we have photo­graphed and are monitoring becauseof this condition.

Plastic bucket

Brick/concrete wa IPVC pipe

....

Exhibit wal

MoltingOur birds have two molt periods, in

about March and October, with most ofthe colony molting in March (earlyautumn here). The remaining indi­viduals molt in October. Sometimesbirds molting in October go throughonly a partial molt and occasionally

..-_-_..-IIIIIl~01I----Keeper door ----I P'"----.........--

and chick mortality is possible at thisstage.

At the height of breeding seasonwe may feed three or four times a dayand we check burrows every 7-10days. Older and more experiencedparents tolerate nest inspection betterthan young inexperienced pairs. Wedon't handle chicks if we can possiblyhelp it but if we have to, the chickmust be shielded by a gloved handwhen it is replaced or the parent mayinadvertently strike and injure or killthe chick.

Once the chicks are fledged, wecatch them in the exhibit, by thebucket at each feeding time, and givethem each 2 0 r 3 fish. It can ta keanything from a few days to a fewweeks for the youngsters to feedthemselves properly, and we keep aclose eye on their weight at this time.We used to pull all youngsters andget them 'on the bucket' in an off­exhibit area, but it seems to workbetter, though it is a little more effort,to do the food training on exhibit.

Fig. 2-1. Burrow constructed of PVCpipe abutting tunnel in exhibit wall, withkeeper access door. The surrounding sub­strate is sand and rocks. Dimensions:overall length, 5 ft 9 in. (1.52 m); tubelength,2 ft 8 in. (.81 m), tube diameter,1 ft 3 in. (.38 m).

Fig. 2-2. Burrow constructed of a plasticbucket set into a wall added outside theexhibit wall. Dimensions: overall length,3 ft 6 in. (1.07 m); bucket length, 1 ft 9 in.(.53 m), bucket diameter, 1 ft 2 in. (.36 m).[DraWings by editor, after originals byRichard Smith; not to scale]

Thanks to Fiona Camilleri (ourpresent penguin keeper) for herinsights into the birds, Richard Smithfor the penguin burrow illustrationsupon which Figure 2 is based, andMark Craig (General Curator) forperusing this article.<>

18 Penguin Conservation July 1998

Testing a new vitamin supplement paste on penguins

IntroductionPiscivorous species fed frozen fish

in captivity require dietarysupplementation with vitamin E(Engelhardt and Geraci, 1978) andthiamin (Geraci, 1974). Whole rawfish that have been properly storedand prepared have been shown tocontain high levels of vitamin A(Dierenfeld et aL, 1991), and the needfor supplemental dietary vitamin Aappears unwarranted in animals fedwhole fish. Furthermore, high levelsof supplemental vitamin A have beenreported to reduce vitamin E status inseals (Mazzaro et aI., 1995), chicks(Frigg and Broz, 1984), and swine(Ching and Mahan, 1995).

This study was designed to test theeffects of two supplementationprotocols on circulating plasmalevels of vitamin A and E in a short­term (6 month) trial with captivepenguins. One was a liquid vitaminsupplement containing Rovomixvitamin E - 50% SO, HoffmanLaRoche Inc., Nutley NJ, and thiaminmononitrate. The other supplement,ThiaminE, manufactured by StuartProd ucts, Inc., Bedford, TX, isguaranteed to provide 100 IU d­alpha-tocopherol acetate (naturalsource of vitamin E) and 50 mgthiamin per ml, in a paste formu­lation. Neither vitamin supplementcontains vitamin A.

Animals and MethodsEight adult rockhopper penguins

(Eudyptes chrysocome) at Lincoln ParkZoo were used in this trial. Thesebirds had been on a regime of daily

Susan Maherl

Ellen Dierenjelcf1Lincoln Park ZooChicago Illinoiscurrent address:Disney's Animal KingdomLake Buena Vista, Florida2Wildlife Conservation SocietyBronx, NY

Penguin Conservation July 1998

Chicago, USA

liquid vitamin supplementation forseveral years. All birds consumed anaverage daily diet comprising 265 gcapelin (Mallotus villosus, 6 to 10 fish;mean weight 33 g), 100 g herring(Clupea harengus, 2 to 4 fish, meanweight 33 g), 45 g trout (Salmo spp., 1to 3 fish; mean weight 23 g), 130 gsurf smelt (Osmerus spp., 2 to 4 fish,mean weight 43 g), and 65 g whitebait(Allosmerus elongatus, 1 to 3 fish, meanweight 32 g), for a total of 605 g offish.

Half of the birds were maintainedon the liquid vitamin supple­mentation, which consisted ofinjecting 1.25 ml of a solutioncontaining vitamin E and thiaminmononitrate into one fish (unless fishwere exceptionally small, when twovitamin-supplemented fish werefed). The other penguins were dosedwith 1 ml ThiaminE paste per kg fishfed. Liquid-supplemented penguinswere dosed daily, while the pastesupplement was offered three daysper week providing calculated dailydoses of 25 or 43 IU of vitamin E, and15 or 22 mg thiamin for liquid andpaste, respectively.

AlI species of fish were alsoanalyzed for vitamin A and E contentat the beginning and end of the study,following the methodology describedin Dierenfeld et aL, 1991.

Blood samples were obtained fromeach bird at 0, and approximately 30,90, and 180 days following thesupplementation change, separated,and the plasma frozen for analysis ofretinol and tocopherols by methodsthat have been previously describedfor birds (Dierenfeld et aI., 1993).Several birds came into molt during

SUSAN MAHER

ELLEN DIERENFELD

the study, and the 90-day bleedingwas delayed 3 to 4 weeks for fivebirds to minimize handling (twobirds each on the paste and liquidsupplements completely molted, Ionthe paste supplement partiallymolted).

Data were analyzed by analysis ofvariance, blocked by treatment(supplementation) and season.

ResultsPlasma retinol and tocopherol

values, as measures of vitamin A andE activity, respectively, are found inTable 1. No significant differenceswere detected due to supplemen­tation, but seasonal effects on vitaminE concentration were apparent.Circulating levels of tocopheroldecreased between winter andspring, then remained stable. Retinolconcentrations did not vary through­out the study.

DiscussionCaptive animals that consume

frozen or raw unprocessed fish haveunique vitamin requirements com­pared to animals that consume livefish. Due to the nature of the diet, thetwo vitamins of most critical impor­tance for captive piscivores are vitaminEand thiamin. Vitamin Eis recognizedas an essential nutrient for all species ofanimals, due primarily to its role as afat-soluble, non-enzyrnatic antioxidant.Deficiency symptoms are many anddiffer among species (Dierenfeld 1994).One primary factor that increasesvitamin E requirements is dietarylevels of polyunsaturated fatty acids(PUFAs) (NRC 1985). The levels ofPUFAs found in unsaturated fish oilscan dramatically increase the needfor supplemental vitamin E,especially those fish oils that haveundergone rancidity or those in theprocess of oxidative rancidity prior tobeing consumed. Oils from raw fish

continued on page 20

19

Testing a new vitamin supplement paste on penguinscontinued from page 19

Table 1. Plasma vitamin E (a-tocopherol) and vitamin A (retintol) concentra­tions (mean ± s.d.) in Rockhopper penguins (Eudyptes chrysocome) fed eithera liquid or paste vitamin supplement (n=4 per treatment). Seasonal, but nottreatment, effects were significant (P<O.05).

DateSample Vitamin E Vitamin ACollected Ilg/ml Ilg/ml

Dec -96 42.23a 0.98±5.67 ±O.21

Jan -97 24.25b 1.06±4.56 ±0.17

Apr -97 20.22c 0.87±2.12 ±O.13

Jun -97 20.75c 1.00±3.83 ±0.22

are likely to exhibit some degree ofrancidity prior to being consumed. Inmost pet foods, for every gram ofPVFA, vitamin E supplementation isincreased by 1 IV (McDowell, 1989).

ThiaminE paste is formulated toprovide 100 IV vitamin E per kgfresh raw fish (approximately 400 IVper kg dry matter) which should beadequate for piscivorous species(Engelhardt and Geraci, 1978). Plasmaconcentrations of this nutrient (anindicator of dietary availability) didnot differ between the two supple­mentation treatments, and levelswere within ranges reported asnormal for free-ranging rockhopperpenguins (21.7 to 50.8 Ilg/ml;Williams et al., 1989). Circulatingtocopherol levels in apparentlyhealthy penguins (n=428 samplesfrom 7 spp., both free-ranging andzoo animals) average about 241lg/ml(Wildlife Conservation Society,unpublished data), similar to thelevel reported here.

Retinol levels were somewhat lowerin these birds than reported in 12free-ranging rockhopper penguins(0.99 to 1.57 Ilg/ml, Ghebremeskeland Williams, 1989), but were con-

sidered normal by comparison withother penguin species monitoredextensively in this laboratory(unpublished data), and no healthproblems associated with low vita­min A status have been detected inthese penguins. Furthermore, the fisheaten by these birds contained from12,200 (trout) to 468,600 (surf smelt)IV vitamin A per kg OM, and likelyprovide adequate levels of thisnutrient without the need for addi­tional supplementation of vitamin A(Dierenfeld et aI., 1991).

Thiamin deficiencies can also occurin animals consuming unprocessedraw or frozen fish due to highthiaminase activity (Halver, 1989).Deficiency symptoms include neuro­logical disorders, edema, and anorexia.Although thiamin status was notmeasured by laboratory assay, noclinical signs associated with deficiencyhave been noted in these penguins. Thepaste supplement is formulated toprovide 50 mg thiamin per kilogram ofwhole fish, which should be adequatebased on estimates from determin­ationsoftlUaminrequllemen~inseals

(Geraci, 1974). The liquid injectablevitamin provided a similar concen-

tration of thiamin. No other water­soluble vitamins were administeredduring tlUs trial.

Through observations and use,keeper reaction to the use of thevitamin paste was mixed. Several feltthat since the paste only had to begiven three times a week, as opposedto the liquid which was administereddaily, the product saved time. Theyalso felt that there was less wastagewith the paste product, since theliquid would seep out of the fish. Lessseepage resulted in more confidencein actual dosing quantity with thepaste. Others felt the paste was moretime consuming than the liquid, sinceit had to be administered into thegills, mouth, or a cut in the fish, whilethe liquid is a rapid injection into thebody of the fish. Twice, it was noted,the penguins squeezed the paste outof the fish when eating, and thenseemed to dislike the taste or textureof the paste, rapidly shaking theirheads back and forth. Feed refusal,when paste was on the exterior of thefish, and / or ac tua I rejection ofpartially-eaten paste-supped fish wasreported occasionally. This could bea result of having been on the liquidsupplement for a more extended aperiod of time.

Keepers also expressed interestand suggested obtaining a productfor use with other species, such asseabirds which consume muchsmaller fish than penguins do. Again,feeding behavioral questions wereraised as to the palatability of thepaste, particularly if smeared on theoutside of fish. The possibility to alterconcentration of vitamins and othersupplements fed to piscivorousspecies, in a paste matrix, allowsknown do ages to be administeredrapidly for future experimentalstudies. These preliminary datasuggest ThiaminE is a suitableproduct for vitamin supplementationto rockhopper penguins. ~

a,b,C: different superscripts are significantly different (p<0.05)

20 Penguin Conservation July 1998

Galapagos Conservation Lawcontinued from page 1

ReferencesChing, S. and D.C. Mahan. 1995.

Interrelationships of recommendedand high dietary vitamin E andvitamin A levels in the postweaningdiets of pigs. J. Anim. Sci., suppl. 1:71.(abstract)

Dierenfeld, E.S., N. Katz, J.Pearson, F. Murru and E.D. Asper.1991. Retinol and a-tocopherolconcentrations in whole fishcommonly fed in zoos andaquariums. Zoo BioI. 10:119-125.

Dierenfeld, E.5., C.D. Sheppard, J.Langenberg, C. Mirande, J. Sprattand F.J. Dein. 1993. Vitamin E incranes: reference ranges and nutrientinteractions. J. Wildi. Dis. 29:98-102.

Dierenfeld, E.S. 1994. Vitamin E inexotics: ecology, evaluation andecology. J. Nutr. 124:2579S-2581S.

Engelhardt, F.R. and Geraci, J. R1978. Effects of experimental vitaminE deprivation in the harp seal, Phoca

for the quarantine system, Marine Re­serve, and the Navy; and 40%to theTown Councils and other local authori­ties will receive 40%, to be used forprojects and services related to the en­vironment and tourism.)

The law recognizes the importanceof science in guiding the conservationof Galapagos and makes the CharlesDarwin Foundation a non-votingmember of the Council of INGALA(Instituto Nacional de Galapagos ),though it does not provide any fund ingfor the Charles Darwin Research Sta­tion.

Within the protected Marine Reservearea, now encompassing all the waterswithin 40 miles of the archipelago, onlytourism and local "artisanaI" fishingwill be permitted. This provision wasopposed by commercial fishing inter­ests, and there will be disagreementover what constitutes "artisanal" fish­ing. Nonetheless, the new law providesgreatly improved protection to whatwill be the world's second-largest

Penguin Conservation July 1998

groenlandica. Can. J. Zoo1. 56:2186­2193.

Frigg, M. and Broz, J. 1984.Relationships between vitamin A andvitamin E in the chick. Int. J. Vitam.Nutr. Res. 564:125-134.

Geraci, J.R. 1974. Thiaminedeficiency in seals andrecommendations for its prevention.JAVMA 165:801-803.

Ghebremeskel, K. and G. Williams.1989. Liver and plasma retinol(vitamin A) in wild, and liver retinolin captive, penguins (Spheniscidae).J. Zooi. Lond. 219:245-250.

Halver, J.E. 1989. The Vitamins, inFish Nutrition (J.E. Halver, ed.)Academic Press, New York, N.Y. pp.32-109.

Mazzaro, L.M., J.L. Dunn, H.C.Furr, and RM. Clark. 1995. Study ofvitamin A supplementation incaptive northern fur seals (Callorhinusursin us) and its effect on serum

marine reserve (140,000 sq km; 54,000sq miles).

The Marine Reserve section wasbased upon principles worked out by ajoint planning effort of the CharlesDarwin Research Station and theGalapagos National Park Service.

Residents will benefit from the law,and be encouraged to participate inenvironmental protection, by provi­sions that reserve for them futuretourism and fishing opportunities,provide better social benefits, and givetax incentives to businesses which trainresidents for jobs. These provisions willalso aid in limiting population growth,which degrades habitat, uses up re­sources such as fresh water, andincreases the risk of introducing alienspecies and diseases.

Conservation organizations, includ­ing Fundaci6n Natura, World WildlifeFund and the Charles Darwin Founda­tion, have been pressing for tougherlaws to protect the Galapagos.

vitamin E. Marine Mam. Sci. 11:545­553.

McDowell, L.R 1989. Vitamins inAnimal Nutrition. Academic Press,San Diego, California. 486pp.

National Research Council. 1985.Nutrient Requirements of Dogs.National Academy Press,Washington, D.C. 79pp.

Williams, G., K. Ghebremeskel,L.F. Keymer and D.T. Horsley. 1989.Plasma a-tocopherol, total lipids andtotal cholesterol in wild Rockhopper,Magellanic and Gentoo penguinsbefore and after moulting. Vet. Rec..124:585-586.

AcknowledgmentsWe would like to thank Dr. Ann

Manharth, Karen Buckley, and LarryO'Conner at the Lincoln Park Zoo forassisting with animal sampling andcare, Marianne Fitzpatrick forperforming laboratory analyses, andDr. Wendy Graffam for assistingwith statistics. Funding for thisproject was provided by StuartProducts, Inc., Bedford, TX.

The marine resources of the islandshave been increasingly over-exploitedby international fishing companies, thepopulation of the islands more thandoubled in the last 10 years due to mi­gration from the Ecuadorian mainland,and this migration brought many for­eign plant and animal species that havethreatened native flora and fauna.

No doubt there are many details yetto be defined, and some areas notaddressed-for example, the CharlesDarwin Foundation points out that thelaw says little on the subject of tourism,and some of the provisions about resi­dency may need revision-but the lawprovides significant protection for theenvironment of the Galapagos, in away that also brings both increasedparticipation and increased benefits tothe human inhabitants.~

[source: drawn from WWF documentsand "The Speciall..JJ.wfor Galapagos: sum­mary of comments" by The CharlesDarwin Foundation. .J

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